G. Loganathan, M. Senthil Pandian, S. Deepa Nivethika
Steel mill scale is an iron-oxide-rich by-product of hot rolling that is generated at roughly 1%–3% of the mass of steel processed and is still largely landfilled or downcycled. Its high iron content, high specific gravity and fine flake morphology have prompted a growing number of laboratory investigations into its use in concrete and mortar, principally as a partial replacement for fine aggregate and, far more rarely, for cement. This article critically reviews that literature. Rather than presenting a pooled quantitative synthesis, it establishes why such a synthesis is not yet defensible and specifies the conditions under which it would become so. We first characterise mill scale as a material, drawing a distinction—routinely blurred in the construction-materials literature—between X-ray fluorescence compositions, in which all iron is reported arithmetically as Fe 2 O 3, and X-ray diffraction phase quantifications, which resolve the wüstite (FeO), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4) and hematite (Fe 2 O 3) actually present. We then map the reported effects of mill scale on workability, compressive and tensile strength, transport-related durability and environmental behaviour, and show that the reported optimum replacement level is not consistent across the corpus, clustering near 15% by volume in mortar and self-compacting concrete but near 50%–60% by mass in several conventional concrete studies. Quantitative pooling is currently obstructed by six specific and documentable deficiencies: heterogeneous replacement bases (mass versus volume; aggregate versus binder), inconsistent curing ages and outcome definitions, uncharacterised variation in mill-scale provenance, near-universal absence of dispersion statistics and replicate counts, confounding of mill scale with co-additives, and probable non-independence among studies from single research groups. We therefore present a pre-specified meta-analytic protocol—effect-size definition, random-effects estimation, heterogeneity quantification, subgroup and meta-regression structure, sensitivity analysis and small-study-effect assessment—to be executed once the reporting deficiencies identified here are remedied, together with a minimum reporting checklist for primary studies. The evidence currently supports cautious use of mill scale in non-structural and specialty applications; it does not yet support quantitative performance benchmarks for structural concrete.
Tornadoes are the most violent of all atmospheric windstorms. Although they occur throughout the world, the highest frequency is observed in the US, where over 1,700 tornadoes were recorded in 2024 alone. Intensity measures that characterize tornado damage, such as the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale, are derived from post-event assessment on the ground. This somewhat circular aspect of damage characterization and EF scale determination remains a major limitation for long-term prediction of damage. Recognizing the inherent limitations of the standard EF scale, an engineering-relevant hazard characterization is proposed based on a data-driven machine learning (ML) framework to predict the probability that a tornado’s maximum damage wind speed (DWS) will exceed specific thresholds within the EF3 range (136–165 mph). It quality controls and cross-validates records from three primary federal datasets: the Storm Events Database (SED), the Damage Assessment Toolkit (DAT), and the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) database, yielding a curated historical dataset of over 630 authenticated EF3–EF5 tornado events in the United States from 2007 to 2025. Using a Random Forest (RF) classification framework, this study predicts tornado DWS exceedance from four geometric features of the tornado path—track length, maximum width, and the sine and cosine components of path bearing—and evaluates model generalization using State-specific tornadoes held out from model development. The predictive methodology is centered heavily on the data from the State of Iowa (IA) and subsequently tested across various geographical States and regions to examine spatial transferability. The results identify path width as the most influential predictor of severe tornado intensity among the predictors examined, while differences in predictive performance among States indicate that State-specific models may better capture States variability than a universal cross-State model.
Axel Prestes Dürrnagel, Nell Dana Richter, Lissy Flörchinger, Vanessa Libanio Alemão, Janpeter Schilling
Brazilian extractive reserves constitute a model for the territorial governance of protected areas. With a focus on the territorial rights of traditional populations, they can serve as a catalyst for transformative change that reconciles the conservation of nature with the sustainable use of natural resources. However, the sustainability of land use in the Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve (CMER) is increasingly under pressure. Located in the western Amazon, sustainable forest extractivism has traditionally constituted the main livelihood of inhabitants. Yet, over the last 20 years, deforestation rates have increased significantly. This increase has been driven by the expansion of cattle ranching, illegal land sales, and population growth. While the causes of deforestation in the CMER have been widely documented, this study aims to understand how different actors and institutions interact to shape territorial governance and land use in the CMER, and how these governance arrangements can serve as a catalyst for transformative change. The research is based on a qualitative case study design, involving qualitative interviews, participant observation, and a photo-based approach, applied during three fieldwork visits to the research region between March 2024 and April 2025. The findings indicate that governance interactions are not only influenced by state institutions. They are shaped by economic incentives provided by the market and are contingent upon the social organization of civil society. To realize its potential for transformative change, territorial governance should adopt a multilevel governance approach, consider the local context, be based on cooperation between actors, and facilitate social learning.
Omoniyi Ogheneruemu Olagunju, Ayomide Teslim Ogundele
Neuroinclusive school‐design research identifies environmental qualities such as acoustic control, sensory zoning, transition spaces, retreat provision, and spatial predictability, yet how these features interact across campus, building, and room scales remains underdeveloped, particularly in sub-Saharan African contexts. This integrative review tested and refined a pre‐existing Sensory Gradient proposition for secondary‐school design and contextualised it for Ota, Nigeria. Following Whittemore and Knafl's methodology, a systematic database search was combined with supplementary other‐methods identification, and study selection was reported using PRISMA 2020 principles. Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, ERIC, PsycINFO, MEDLINE/PubMed, and the Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals were searched to 15 July 2026. Across the two identification streams, 73 reports were assessed and 26 evidence sources were included. Primary studies and reviews were critically appraised, and a hybrid deductive-inductive narrative synthesis and abductive audit tested whether elements of the original framework should be retained, modified, rejected, or added. The evidence did not support a single high‐to‐low stimulus axis. Environmental demands varied across acoustic, visual, movement, social, thermal, and other sensory dimensions, while predictability/legibility operated as a cross‐cutting characteristic and preferred stimulation differed among learners. The framework was therefore reformulated as a multidimensional demand‐profile network in which learner‐environment fit, transition magnitude, predictability/legibility, and perceived control shape regulatory experience and participation. Evidence was strongest for autistic learners, with comparatively limited direct evidence for ADHD, dyslexia, and dyspraxia. The resulting Sensory‐Gradient Framework is evidence‐informed and testable rather than empirically validated. Its initial contextual application to Ota highlights trade‐offs among passive ventilation, daylight, acoustic control, resource constraints, and institutional practice, and provides a basis for participatory design and post‐occupancy evaluation in Nigerian secondary schools.
Hebah Mohammad Al-Jabali, Walid Fouad Edris, Amr Abdelkhalik, Abd Al-Kader A. Al Sayed, Shady Khairy
Clay bricks are widely used in construction because they are strong, durable and fire-resistant, but their thermal insulation is still not good enough, which leads to a big loss of energy. The combined effect of alkali activation or addition of metal oxides on residual mechanical properties of clay bricks at elevated temperature has not been systematically addressed although these treatments have been studied separately. This paper presents the enhancing effects of metal oxides (Fe 2 O 3, Al 2 O 3 and Carbon Black N550) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) activation on residual strength of clay bricks exposed to elevated temperatures up to 800°C. Clay bricks were prepared using 82% clay, 13% fine sand, 5% fly ash and different replacement/additive dosages of Fe 2 O 3 (2–6 wt.%), Al 2 O 3 (3–7 wt.%), and Carbon Black N550 (0.25–1 wt.%) activated with 8 M NaOH. Compressive strength, bulk density, water absorption, TGA and accelerated aging tests were conducted following the international standards. The Al-7A mixture exhibited the highest compressive strength of 19.5 MPa at ambient temperature (57.3% increase over control) and retained 14.8 MPa (75.9%) after exposure to 800°C. Fe-4A and CB-0.5A achieved 16.8 MPa and 16.0 MPa at ambient with residual strengths of 11.5 MPa and 10.5 MPa at 800°C. The water absorption of Al-7A was 38.0% lower (8.8%) than that of the control (14.2%). The bulk density was increased to 1980 kg/m 3. TGA revealed Al-7A exhibited the lowest weight loss (4.8%) and highest residual mass (95.2%). After seven accelerated aging cycles, Al-7A retained 82.1% of initial strength, outperforming Fe-4A (75.0%) and CB-0.5A (70.6%). The research demonstrates that combining alumina addition with NaOH activation offers a viable pathway for producing high-performance clay bricks with enhanced thermal stability and durability for fire-prone construction applications.
