This review provides the first comprehensive and integrative evaluation of potentially toxic trace elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Rb, Se, Sr, V, and Zn) in the muscle of commercially important marine coastal fish species from the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean (SWAO). The analysis is based on studies published over the last 30 years, encompassing coastal regions of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, which are subject to increasing anthropogenic pressures. Several of the species considered (e.g., Mugil liza, Micropogonias furnieri, Urophycis brasiliensis, Odontesthes argentinensis, Cynoscion guatucupa) are transboundary resources of high ecological and economic relevance. Despite numerous studies reporting trace element concentrations in marine fish from the SWAO, no previous synthesis has systematically re-evaluated human health risks using updated toxicological reference values and harmonized risk assessment approaches. Human health risk associated with fish consumption was assessed for the general population—and, when available, for fishing communities (fishermen)—using Target Hazard Quotients (THQ), Hazard Index (HI), and Carcinogenic Risk (CR). To improve the reliability of risk estimates, inorganic arsenic (i As) levels were critically re-evaluated, and associated risks were recalculated using the updated Oral Reference Dose (Rfd) and Cancer Slope Factors (Csf) established in 2025 by the USEPA Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Over the past three decades, PTE research in SWAO marine fishes has expanded substantially but unevenly. Among the 97 studies reviewed, research was strongly concentrated in Brazil, whereas Uruguay and large areas of the Argentine coast remained poorly represented. Methodological advances included the increasing use of multi-element ICP-based techniques, direct arsenic speciation, and quantitative human health risk assessment. Importantly, re-evaluation of studies with measured i As using the updated USEPA-IRIS Csf increased the proportion of cases with CR >10 −4 from 2% to 46%, highlighting the sensitivity of risk classification to updated toxicological criteria. Major gaps remain in geographic and taxonomic coverage, transboundary resources, updated and population-specific fish-consumption data, vulnerable and high-consumption groups, analytical harmonization, and direct i As determination. Overall, these findings provide a regional framework for improving seafood-safety assessment, monitoring strategies, and evidence-based fisheries and public-health policies.
Isabella M. Jackson, Clayton R. Magill, Frances Orton, Mark A. Taggart, Mark G. J. Hartl
Recent, substantial declines in blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) beds in northern European estuaries signal an urgent need to unravel how chronic contaminant exposure, climate-driven warming and salinity shifts jointly affect the development and survival of vulnerable early life stages. Here, we investigated the interactive effects of a representative, environmentally relevant pollutant mixture, water temperature and salinity on mussel embryo-larval development. We used a full factorial design with a pollutant mixture concentration range of 0.015–15 μg/L (organic compounds) and 20–20,000 μg/L (dissolved metals) and in the presence of two different temperatures (15 or 18 °C) and two different salinities (25 or 35 ppt) over a 48-h exposure duration. Under control conditions (15 °C, 35 ppt, no pollution), larvae exhibited high normal development with few malformations. Increasing temperature alone enhanced normal development by 15.9% (p ≤ 0.01), whereas reduced salinity alone decreased normal development by 28.7% (p ≤ 0.01). Combined elevated temperature and reduced salinity, did not significantly alter normal development from the control but induced shell malformations in the D-stage (p ≤ 0.05). At 15 °C and 35 ppt, pollutant mixtures produced a strong concentration–dependent decline in normal development and an increase in malformations, with high concentrations arresting most larvae in the trochophore stage. Detrimental pollutant effects were intensified under reduced salinity but were modestly alleviated by elevated temperature. These findings demonstrate that climate change has the potential to alter environmental contaminant effects on mussel larval development in dynamic, contaminated estuaries, which if replicated in wild mussels, could severely compromise recruitment.
Cold plasma has recently emerged as a promising advanced oxidation approach for the treatment of microplastics, with reported effects ranging from surface oxidation and aggregation to fragmentation, mass loss and, in selected reactor configurations, near-complete mineralization. However, the current evidence base remains fragmented across water, soil, aging, co-contaminant and plastic-conversion studies, and reported performance metrics are not directly comparable. This perspective argues that cold plasma should be assessed not only as a remediation technology, but also as a process capable of transforming microplastic-associated risk. We propose a four-axis framework for future studies, covering: abatement, degradation products, mobility, and ecotoxicological effects. Applying this framework reveals that most existing studies report only partial physicochemical evidence, while energy-normalized abatement, multiphase transformation products, transport behavior and biological endpoints remain poorly integrated. We conclude that cold plasma could become relevant for targeted microplastic treatment scenarios, particularly as part of engineered treatment trains, but only if future research demonstrates net risk reduction under environmentally and operationally realistic conditions.
