Precision seed placement to advanced seed delivery: evolution, innovations, and future perspectives of seed tape systems for climate-smart agriculture

1 Introduction

Agriculture around the world is facing new challenges due to the growing population, climate change, falling resources, and higher labor shortages. Agricultural production systems can be more productive in the future to supply food and meet food demand, but also to minimize environmental impacts over the coming decades (Zhang et al., 2021a; Çakmakçı et al., 2023). Meanwhile, climate variability such as erratic rainfall, drought, salinity, and temperature extremes is posing a risk to establishment and production stability. These problems have created an increasing demand for technologies that enable higher precision in crop establishment, greater efficiency in input use, and reduced production costs while addressing environmental variability (Kopeć, 2024). The most important factor in successful crop establishment is placement of the seed. Despite their labor-intensive nature and skilled use, traditional sowing methods (broadcasting, drilling, dibbling, and transplanting) are still widely adopted (Khan et al., 2025). These methods tend to produce irregular seeding patterns, depth of sowing, overseeding, poor establishment, and high labor costs for thinning and gap filling. These constraints limit the productivity of water, fertilizer, and other inputs used in agricultural production and result in higher production costs and environmental impacts (Sissoko et al., 2025; Zalai et al., 2025). Precision sowing technologies are thus key elements of climate-smart agriculture as they allow for uniform plant populations, efficient use of resources, and sustainable crop production.

One precision sowing technology that has been successful in ensuring precise seed placement is seed tape. Seed tapes are composed of seeds placed in a material that breaks down into water and biodegradable components after planting to keep seeds. This technology is primarily intended to improve seed spacing and sowing precision, reduce seed wastage, and simplify crop establishment operations (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024; Chaplygin et al., 2025). The introduction of seed tape technology into small-seeded vegetable crops has been expanded and spread to field crops, medicinal plants, protected crop production and mechanized production systems (Zhang et al., 2021a). Seed tapes are now viewed as more than mere seed carriers but are new technologies that can be used to deliver multiple functions. Recent seed tape research has expanded beyond simple seed placement toward carrier materials and systems designed to modify the physical environment surrounding the seed. On the other hand, seed delivery systems are used in a broader functional sense to describe an integrated platform that delivers seeds and may additionally provide localized delivery of water, nutrients, microbial inoculants, biostimulants, or other bioactive components (Afzal et al., 2020). The incorporation of hydrogels, microbial inoculants, controlled release compounds and nanomaterials into seed tape systems remains an emerging area requiring further experimental validation (Podzorov et al., 2024; Gigendhiran et al., 2025). Continuous innovations and developments further integrate digital agriculture technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT)-based monitoring, autonomous sowing systems and machine vision, allowing for the support of decision-making in real time and site-specific crop management. These innovations have the potential to further the goals of “seed tape technology” to enable sustainable agricultural production in the face of climate change, while at the same time boosting productivity, lowering external inputs, and minimizing environmental impacts (Zhang et al., 2021a; Liu et al., 2026b). The main challenges in commercialization include the current large-scale production of biodegradable carriers, the stability of bioactive formulations, integration of smart sensing technology, manufacturing cost, regulatory approval, and farmer acceptance (Machado et al., 2022). To address these challenges, an interdisciplinary collaboration among plant science, materials engineering, microbiology, nanotechnology, agricultural engineering, and digital agriculture is needed.

The research on seed tape technology has been mostly limited to specific aspects such as the development of carrier materials, precision sowing machinery, and agronomic applications (Figure 1) (Zhang et al., 2021a). Although these studies have made significant contributions to the knowledge of traditional seed-tape systems, they have not often combined recent developments in functional biomaterials, microbial seed enhancement, nanotechnology, intelligent sensing, and digital agriculture into a single system. Furthermore, there is no good synthesis between technology readiness, commercialization strategy, sustainability assessment, and future intelligent seed delivery systems (Zhang et al., 2021b; Gigendhiran et al., 2025). These limitations highlight the need for a comprehensive review integrating recent multidisciplinary advances. This holistic view is crucial for grasping how seed tape technology evolved from a simple tool for planting to a smart platform for delivering seeds in climate-smart and sustainable agriculture (Chaplygin et al., 2025). The goal of this review is to give a thorough summary of the latest developments in seed tape technology, covering advancements in biological sciences, engineering, and digital agriculture. In particular:

• Review the evolution of seed tape technology from conventional precision sowing systems to next-generation advanced seed delivery platforms.
• Describe the latest developments in nanotechnology, microbial inoculants, biodegradable carrier materials, functional additives, and smart sensing technologies used in seed tape systems.
• Evaluate the agronomic performance, sustainability benefits, technology readiness, commercialization status, and global adoption of seed tape innovations.
• Determine the regulatory obstacles, research gaps, and present technical limits that affect large-scale implementation.
• Propose future research directions and a conceptual roadmap for developing advanced seed delivery systems that contribute to climate-smart and sustainable agriculture.

2 Literature search strategy

A comprehensive literature search was conducted to identify relevant literature on the development of seed tape technology over the last 16 years. The literature search was carried out on the platforms (Scopus and Web of Science) for publications. The main keywords and combinations included were “seed tape” OR “seed tape technology” OR “seed tape system” OR “seed rope” OR “seed carrier” OR “seed mat” OR “seed sheet” AND “precision sowing” OR “precision seed placement” OR “seed delivery”. Reference lists of published articles were checked to find additional articles not found by the main database searches to supplement the search. Publications were selected if they covered seed tape, seed-carrier/delivery systems that were closely related to seed tape, seed tape materials, seed tape manufacturing, seed tape agronomic performance, biological or functional components of seed tape, sustainability and mechanization of seed tape, sensing of seed tape, or emerging applications of intelligent seed delivery. Studies were discarded if they were not related to seed placement or delivery, if they were duplicate records, if they were non-relevant technical applications, or if there was insufficient information to interpret. The retrieved literature was screened by reviewing titles, abstracts, keywords, and full texts. The screening and selection process is described in a PRISMA-style flow diagram (Figure 2), in which the process of identifying and screening the relevant records and the process of screening and determining if they are eligible are described. The literature was synthesized qualitatively based on technological development, agronomic applications, sustainability, technological maturity, commercialization status, and future directions.

3 Evolution of seed tape technology

From the simple precision-seeding machine to the smart seed delivery platform, seed tape technology has come a long way in the past 50 years. To address the challenge of irregular seed placement and manual thinning in small-seeded vegetable crops, seed tapes use a variety of biodegradable materials, controlled-release systems, biological seed enhancement, nanotechnology, and digital agriculture to tackle these issues (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024). This shift is attributed to the changing nature of agriculture, where precision is being replaced by a combination of biological and digital technologies that offer more holistic solutions to support sustainable resource usage and strengthen crop establishment (Liu et al., 2026b). Based on the technological transitions identified across the reviewed literature, we propose a conceptual framework comprising five developmental stages of seed tape technology. This framework is intended as a synthesis of major innovations rather than a formally established historical classification. The developmental periods shown in Table 1 are approximate and are used primarily to indicate the sequence of technological change rather than to define chronological boundaries. The developmental stages are distinguished primarily according to the dominant technological function and degree of system integration, including the transition from passive precision seed placement to improved carrier materials and mechanization, functional input delivery, nano-enabled systems, and ultimately intelligent and autonomous seed delivery technologies.

Table 1. Conceptual framework for the technological evolution of seed tape systems and their agricultural applications.

3.1 Stage 1: paper-based precision seed tapes

Early seed tape systems were developed primarily to facilitate precision sowing of small-seeded vegetable and horticultural crops, with the technology being adapted to other crops and sowing systems (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024). The first systems consisted of biodegradable paper strips with seeds fixed at predetermined intervals using starch-based or water-soluble adhesives. Paper seed tapes reduced seed wastage and manual thinning, and helped to produce crops that were more uniform than those sown by conventional broadcasting methods or hand sowing (Liu et al., 2026b). They were simple and inexpensive to manufacture and were readily used in vegetable production and home gardening. Despite these advantages, seed tapes were only used to carry seed passively. They have relatively low mechanical strength, moisture sensitivity during storage, and are only compatible with small-scale production systems in cases where mechanized sowing is not used (Chaplygin et al., 2025; He et al., 2026). However, they established the principle of precise seed placement, which has underpinned crop development.

3.2 Stage 2: biodegradable polymer-based seed tapes

In the 1990s and early 2010s, mechanical durability, environmental sustainability, and compatibility with mechanized agriculture became major considerations, motivating the development of biodegradable polymer-based seed tapes (Gigendhiran et al., 2025). This system has incorporated paper cellulose-based materials, natural fibers, nonwoven fabrics, and biodegradable polymers to improve mechanical performance and compatibility with mechanized sowing (Cui and Ren, 2011; Zhang et al., 2021a; Liu et al., 2026a). After field application, these advanced carrier materials demonstrated better tensile strength, dimensional stability, moisture resistance, and controlled biodegradability, while remaining environmentally friendly. Their improved physical characteristics enabled mechanized sowing and automated manufacture, and the seed tape method expanded beyond horticultural crops to field crops, such as cereals (Podzorov et al., 2024; He et al., 2026). These carriers improved manufacturing quality and field performance, but primarily served as platforms for precision seed placement, with minimal biological and physiological interactions during crop establishment.

3.3 Stage 3: functionalized seed delivery systems

Functionalized seed delivery systems were a significant change from passive seed carriers to multifunctional seed delivery systems. In addition to serving as positioning devices, seed tapes also functioned as platforms from which to place compounds beneficial to plant growth and crop establishment (Gigendhiran et al., 2025). Functional seed delivery approaches have incorporated hydrogels, nutrients, and biological inputs into seed treatment and carrier systems. Therefore, these approaches should be regarded as emerging rather than established seed tape technologies (Pathak and Ambrose, 2020; Cardarelli et al., 2022; Podzorov et al., 2024). Seed tapes enabled localized delivery of biological and chemical inputs, thereby reducing nutrient losses and agrochemical use while promoting sustainable crop production. Therefore, it was an epochal shift from mechanical precision to biologically enhanced seed establishment in this system (Chaplygin et al., 2025).

3.4 Stage 4: nano-enabled seed tapes

With the advent of nanotechnology, the development of nano-enabled seed tapes with enhanced physical, chemical, and biological functionalities has improved. Nanomaterials such as nanocellulose, nanochitosan, and nano-enabled hydrogels have been investigated for seed treatment and agricultural delivery applications. Their incorporation into seed tape systems is an emerging research direction rather than an established technology (Shelar et al., 2023; Zaim et al., 2023; Ahmed et al., 2025b). Nanostructured matrices have better mechanical strength, surface area, water-holding capacity, and interaction with the seed microenvironment than conventional carrier materials. Controlled release of nutrients and bioactive compounds ensures that they are released according to crop demand, in line with crop requirements, thus enhancing nutrient-use efficiency and minimizing losses to the environment (Rosa et al., 2025; He et al., 2026). There is also a high potential for improving drought tolerance, salinity tolerance, and seedling resilience with nano-enabled formulations in the context of future climate conditions. While encouraging lab and greenhouse results are often published, high production costs, regulatory concerns, long-term environmental safety testing, and standardized manufacturing processes are some of the barriers to commercialization (Hofmann et al., 2020; Shelar et al., 2023). To achieve widespread adoption of nano-enabled seed tapes in agriculture, their ability to meet these challenges must be addressed first.

3.5 Stage 5: prospective intelligent seed delivery systems

Intelligent seed delivery systems are the future phase of seed tape technology, bringing together biodegradable functional materials, AI, robotics, IoT, and cutting-edge sensing systems for autonomous precision farming (Miller et al., 2025). The seed tapes are conceived as intelligent delivery platforms that could simultaneously transmit seeds, nutrients, microbial inoculants, and bioactive compounds, and also continuously monitor soil environmental parameters (Podzorov et al., 2024). Future systems could include flexible microsensors, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags, Quick Response (QR) codes, Global Positioning System (GPS)-guided deployment, machine vision, and cloud-based decision support to enable real-time monitoring of soil moisture, nutrient availability, precision placement, germination, and early crop establishment (Alahmad et al., 2023; Mansoor et al., 2025). With continuous data acquisition and AI analysis, irrigation and fertilization strategies could be optimized to improve crop establishment (Adamo et al., 2025). Advancements in AI-driven seed tapes for autonomous planting equipment, digital twins, and precision farming software have the potential to transform crop establishment from a one-time sowing process into a dynamic, data-driven management system (Mohyuddin et al., 2024). While most of these technologies are still at low Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs), current progress in the development of biodegradable electronics, AI, and digital agriculture suggests that intelligent seed delivery systems could become an important part of climate-smart agriculture in the coming decades (Narean et al., 2025; Telrandhe, 2025). The progressive transformation of seed tapes from paper to smart seed delivery systems is an example of the growing convergence of material science, seed biology and microbiology, nanotechnology, agricultural engineering, and digital agriculture (Zhang et al., 2021b; Balyan et al., 2024). Each successive stage has expanded the functional capabilities of seed tapes, including precision seed placement, crop establishment, resource-use efficiency, and environmental sustainability (Podzorov et al., 2024). Future research should focus on integrating biodegradable multifunctional materials with intelligent sensing technologies, biological delivery systems, and autonomous crop management to support the development of resilient and climate-smart agricultural production systems (Gigendhiran et al., 2025; Kabato et al., 2025).

4 Conventional seed tape systems

4.1 Manufacturing principles

The main aim of the conventional seed tape system should be to ensure precise seed placement, uniform crop establishment and improved sowing efficiency through the use of the biodegradable seed carrier, seed precision metering and controlled seed tape production (Liu et al., 2026b). The manufacturing process usually consists of five sequential steps such as carrier feeding, seed metering, seed placement, adhesive application, seed embedding, and tape winding (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024). Seeds are discharged onto a moving biodegradable carrier at separate time intervals during production, mechanically, pneumatically or by vacuum metering (Ding et al., 2024). Another layer of carrier is applied and the seeds are inserted into the twisted natural-fiber structures and the last tape is then wound into rolls for storage and field use. The modern advancements in manufacturing have resulted in a high level of precision in production by the use of programmable logic controllers (PLCs), CNC systems, optical sensors and automation in winding (Cui et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024; Chaplygin et al., 2025). These innovations have resulted in greater precision in seed placement, reduced damage to seeds, and the mass production of uniform tape. While these developments have occurred, the primary aim of conventional seed tape making is to produce biodegradable tapes that ensure seed placement and uniform emergence in the field under both manual and mechanized sowing (Venkatesh et al., 2014; Podzorov et al., 2024). Conventional sowing methods such as manual sowing and broadcasting generally provide less control over seed placement and spacing, whereas mechanized seed drills and precision planters improve placement accuracy and reduce seed-rate variability. Seed-tape systems further allow predetermined seed spacing through seed incorporation during tape manufacture. A comparative assessment of these sowing approaches is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparative evaluation of conventional, precision, and seed-tape sowing systems based on seed placement, metering, resource requirements, field capacity, and crop suitability.

4.2 Carrier materials

The effectiveness of traditional seed tape systems is related to the physical and biological properties of the carrier material produced, handled, and sown and its requirement to break down rapidly after sowing without causing any damage to seed germination and root emergence (Liu et al., 2026b). The paper-based carriers are still used more than others due to their low costs in manufacture, biodegradability, water permeability, and availability. Tissue paper, crepe paper, kraft paper and cellulose-based sheets are made to dissolve easily and let water in and they’re commonly used for vegetable crops and home gardening (Emperador et al., 2024; Sheeri and H, 2025). Seed tapes have been used for mechanized production of seeds, including the use of biodegradable polymer carriers. Biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) have been explored as carrier or adhesive materials for seed-tape systems. However, their biodegradation behavior varies considerably with polymer structure, formulation, temperature, moisture, microbial activity, and environmental conditions (Podzorov et al., 2024). PLA-based nonwoven materials have been observed as seed rope carriers because of their mechanical strength, permeability, and biodegradability, with material and twisting parameters influencing seedling emergence and early growth (Liu et al., 2026a). PVA can be susceptible to microbial degradation, but its degradation rate also varies substantially with molecular weight, degree of hydrolysis, formulation, and the presence and activity of microorganisms capable of utilizing the polymer. Thus, other water-compatible polymers have been analyzed as biodegradable components of seed treatment and delivery materials because of their film-forming and water-responsive properties, their performance in seed tape systems requires crop validation (Sonjan et al., 2021; Malka and Margel, 2023). Consequently, PVA- and PLA-based tapes require crop- and site-specific validation before their biodegradation and environmental benefits can be generalized. The natural fibers, which have good biodegradability and mechanical properties, are renewable natural fiber carriers such as straw, jute, cotton, coir, and wood-pulp fibers. In rice seed rope systems, wrapping materials influence tensile properties and moisture conditions around early seedling growth (Cui and Ren, 2011; Liu et al., 2026a). Recent advances with nonwoven cellulose and composite fiber materials have enhanced moisture retention and seed orientation, as well as compatibility with mechanized sowing systems (Marasovic et al., 2024). In conclusion, the shift from paper carriers to biodegradable polymers and natural-fiber composites demonstrates the ongoing evolution of traditional seed tape technology to more robust and eco-friendly materials.

4.3 Adhesives

Seed tape adhesives are extremely important for positioning seeds during the manufacture, storage, transportation, and field use of tape. The characteristics of an ideal adhesive are that it is biodegradable, non-toxic, water-soluble, compatible with seed germination, and strong enough to maintain seed attachment during handling (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024). Traditional seed tapes are mostly made by using low-cost and environmentally friendly starch-based adhesives, flour pastes, dextrin, cellulose derivatives, and natural gums (Liu et al., 2026b). For industrial production, modified PVA formulations and biodegradable polymer gels are increasingly used to ensure higher consistency in bonding and better system suitability with automated manufacturing processes (Sonjan et al., 2021). More recently, hydrogel-based formulations have been developed that provide the added benefit of retaining moisture around germinating seeds without compromising adhesion. While adhesive technology has advanced, there is still a design challenge of achieving bond strength along with quick biodegradation and unrestricted radicle emergence in conventional seed tape systems (Venkatesh et al., 2014; Chaplygin et al., 2025).

4.4 Seed tape architecture

There are a number of different structural types of conventional seed tapes that have been developed to suit the differences in crop species, seed size, sowing method, and field conditions (Chaplygin et al., 2025). Single-layer tapes are made with a single biodegradable tape and attached to the carrier using a water-soluble adhesive. They are simple to design and manufacture, and are easy to handle, making them especially appropriate for small-seeded vegetables and home gardening (Dong et al., 2026). Double-layer tapes are tapes made from two layers of biodegradable material, separated by an adhesive or thermally sealed together, that are used to enclose seeds. Their mechanical and field performance depends on carrier material, bonding method, and tape architecture (Chaplygin et al., 2025). Braided or twisted seed rope uses natural fiber carrier structures to position seeds at predetermined intervals and is relevant to cereal and field crop applications (Podzorov et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2026b). These systems have greater mechanical strength and durability and are especially suitable for direct-seeded cereals like rice and other large-scale field applications. The choice of tape architecture depends on the crop requirement, the carrier material, the manufacturing method, and the sowing system (Chaplygin et al., 2022, Chaplygin et al., 2025). Regardless of design, the objective of all traditional planting is to obtain uniform seed spacing, seed-to-soil contact, and controlled tape degradation after planting. Table 3 compares the major systems, characteristics, and agricultural applications.

Table 3. Classification of pre-position seed carrier and transplanting systems according to agricultural applications.

4.5 Distinction between seed tape, seed coating, seed priming, seed pelleting, and seed encapsulation

Seed tape, seed coating, seed priming, seed pelleting, and seed encapsulation are related but different methods of seed enhancement and delivery, primarily differing in their degree of modification, application, and delivery. The main difference between seed tape and coating, priming, pelleting, and encapsulation is that the former is basically a seed placement technology, while the latter are basically seed-treatment or formulation technologies (Afzal et al., 2020; Rhaman, 2026). Seed tape is a method of placing the seeds at specific intervals on or in a biodegradable carrier like paper, cellulose, natural fibers, or polymers, which enhances seed spacing and sowing accuracy without significantly modifying seed characteristics (Zhang et al., 2021a). Seed coating is done to apply a relatively thin functional layer directly to the seed surface to provide nutrients, protectants, polymers, hydrogels, and/or microorganisms (Paravar et al., 2023). Seed priming is a physiological process of controlled hydration, which may include chemicals or biological materials, and then dehydration, which increases germination, vigor, and stress tolerance (Jatana et al., 2024). Seed pelleting forms a relatively deep coating of seeds and is used to produce uniformly sized and shaped pellets that offer improved handling and metering, as well as improved precision sowing of seeds (Bozdar et al., 2026). Seed encapsulation involves enclosing the seeds or active ingredients in a protective matrix, such as alginate or other biopolymers, to provide protection and controlled release (Lieurance et al., 2024). Such technologies are not mutually exclusive and can be combined e.g., primed, coated, pelleted, and encapsulated seeds may be used in combination with seed tape. The effect of seed tape is mainly a control of seed placement, priming, a modification of the physiological status, coating, a modification of the seed surface that of pelleting, the physical form and encapsulation, a protective and controlled-release matrix (Afzal et al., 2020). These differences matter because performance achieved with conventional seed treatments can’t necessarily be carried over to seed-tape treatments; those treatments need to be validated crop-, environment-, and scale-specifically.

4.6 Limitations of conventional systems

Although conventional seed tape systems have proven effective methods to increase planting precision and to minimize seed wastage, they are still passive delivery systems (Gigendhiran et al., 2025). Their main role is to place seeds in the right place in the soil and has limited ability to control the microenvironment of the seeds and to adapt to field conditions (Table 4) (Zvinavashe et al., 2019). Despite that, the use of these technologies is still hampered by some technical hurdles. Paper-based seed carriers can be sensitive to moisture, while the degradation behavior and mechanical stability of polymeric and nonwoven seed rope materials depend on field conditions (Podzorov et al., 2024; Duan et al., 2025). Still, one of the great challenges of materials engineering is to maintain tensile strength while achieving fast soil degradation. This depends on maintaining seed fixation during handling while allowing water penetration, degradation of the carrier, and unrestricted seedling emergence in field conditions (Duan et al., 2025; Liu et al., 2026a). Other barriers to commercialization include variability in biodegradable materials in the field due to soil and climatic conditions, lack of uniform standards for biodegradable materials, and manufacturing costs (Chaplygin et al., 2025). Traditional systems also do not allow them to be used to supply nutrients, beneficial microorganisms, or bioactive compounds offer real-time environmental information, thus limiting their contribution to modern precision agriculture. These limitations have contributed to the innovation of ‘next-generation’ seed tape technology, integrating functional biomaterials, microbial inoculants, nanotechnology, and digital agriculture technologies (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024; Chaplygin et al., 2025; Liu et al., 2026b). The new systems offer the promise of transforming seed tapes from passive carriers to smart seed delivery platforms that could facilitate better crop establishment, more efficient use of resources, and more climate-smart agricultural production.

Table 4. Functional components and constraints of conventional seed tape systems.

5 Next-generation seed tape systems

The seed tapes, which are now under the influence of recent advances in materials science, biotechnology, nanotechnology, and digital agriculture, have changed from a passive seed carrier to a smart delivery platform that can actively manage the seed microenvironment and contribute to the development of climate-friendly crops (Xu et al., 2026). Next-generation seed tapes feature new functional additives, beneficial microorganisms, engineered nanomaterials, sensing and AI technology that enrich seed germination, optimize resource-use efficiency, boost stress tolerance, and enable precise seed placement while delivering data-driven crop management (Zaman et al., 2025). Together, these advances create seed systems that are not just for precision sowing, but also intelligent seed delivery systems enabling optimization of biological, chemical, and digital processes in early crop establishment.

5.1 Functional seed tapes

Functional seed tapes are the first significant progress beyond traditional precision sowing technology, with the addition of agronomically active ingredients to biodegradable materials. These systems not only act as physical carriers of seeds but also as an optimum microenvironment for germinating seeds by offering the right amount of water, nutrients, and growth stimulants at the right time and site (Chaplygin et al., 2025; He et al., 2026). Since they are highly absorptive and water-retaining, hydrogels have been studied more than any other functional additive. By absorbing multiple hundred times their weight in water, superabsorbent polymers can be released over time to germinating seeds to lessen water stress at emergence time (Bora and Karak, 2022; Rakhmetullayeva et al., 2026). Hydrogel-based seed treatments can improve water availability around germinating seeds and have been observed for establishment under water-limited conditions. Whether compatible benefits can be achieved through hydrogel-functionalized seed tapes requires direct seed tape experiments (Pathak and Ambrose, 2020; Bora and Karak, 2022; Agbna and Zaidi, 2025). However, their effectiveness is related to the properties of the polymer, the swelling capacity of the water, the biodegradation time, and the soil texture, so biodegradable hydrogels with programmable water release properties are required.

Another major benefit that functional seed tapes provide is targeted delivery of nutrients. Slow-release fertilizers incorporated into biodegradable carriers allow a gradual release of nutrients in synchrony with plant nutrient demand, while preventing losses of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc., by leaching, volatilization, and runoff (Podzorov et al., 2024; Gigendhiran et al., 2025). Micronutrient seed treatment can improve early seedling growth under nutrient-deficient conditions, and adapting such nutrient delivery approaches to seed tape matrices shows potential for localized nutrient supply (Podzorov et al., 2024). This approach improves nutrient-use efficiency while reducing fertilizer inputs and environmental pollution. Possible ingredients in functional seed tapes include plant growth regulators, humic substances, amino acids, seaweed extracts, and biostimulants, which promote root growth, seedling establishment, and tolerance to drought, salinity, and temperature (Chaplygin et al., 2025; He et al., 2026). These innovations are grouped to enable the seed tape to carry multiple agronomic inputs and seeds to target specific locations. While all these developments have been made, there are still some issues to be addressed in terms of mechanical stability, long-term storage, controlled release kinetics, and large-scale production (Zhang et al., 2021a; Liu et al., 2026b). Future research should be directed toward the development of biodegradable composite matrices that can provide sequential and controlled release of multiple functional components.

5.2 Bioactive seed tapes

Microbial seed treatments provide a biological component for future functional seed tape systems. Beneficial microorganisms can influence germination and seedling growth, but their incorporation into seed tape requires additional validation regarding viability and field efficiency (Rocha et al., 2019; Cardarelli et al., 2022; Szopa et al., 2022). They are useful in sustainable agriculture because they reduce the number of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides used and enhance beneficial plant-microbe interactions. Some of the most well-studied microbial inoculants are plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Azospirillum, and Rhizobium. The microorganisms promote biological nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, production of phytohormones, production of siderophores, and tolerance to stress conditions, which results in better germination and establishment of seedlings (Sun et al., 2024; Kloepper et al., 2025). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are another bioactive component of seed tapes that is a promising agent. AMFs have a symbiotic relationship with plant roots and increase their ability to take up phosphorus and water, as well as their tolerance of drought and nutrient deficiency in soils (Wahab et al., 2023; Ahmed et al., 2025a). AMF inoculation can enhance root colonization and plant performance under field conditions. Seed tape placement can also improve AMF delivery (Ahmed et al., 2025b). Also, biological control agents (Bacillus subtilis, fluorescent Pseudomonas species, and Trichoderma) may be formulated in biodegradable carriers to lower soil pathogens and activate plant defense responses (Riseh et al., 2021). Carrier matrices can provide physical protection to microbial inoculants in storage and provide a slow release into the rhizosphere. But storing and transporting bioactive seed tapes is a huge challenge, as maintaining the viability of microbial life during storage (Rocha et al., 2019; Paravar et al., 2023). Moisture, carrier composition, and environmental changes have a strong influence on the survival of microorganisms. Additional research is required to improve the efficacy of encapsulating the microorganisms, develop standard and homogeneous biopolymer matrices, and define consistent quality control protocols to ensure uniform microbial performance in the field (Szopa et al., 2022).

5.3 Nano-enabled seed tapes

Nanotechnology has enabled the development of multifunctional seed tapes with enhanced physical, chemical, and biological properties. The development of nano-enabled systems can make better use of resources, release them in a controlled manner, and enhance the structural strength of biodegradable delivery systems (Zaim et al., 2023; He et al., 2026). The properties of nanocellulose, such as its high tensile strength, biodegradability, large surface area, and excellent water-retention capacity, have made it one of the most promising carrier materials (Ahmed et al., 2025b). Nanocellulose-based composites not only offer improved mechanical properties but are also environmentally friendly and appropriate for precision sowing systems. Due to its antimicrobial activity, biocompatibility, and ability to stimulate plant defense responses, nanochitosan has attracted considerable attention (Hartoyo et al., 2022; Iqbal et al., 2024). Nanochitosan-based seed treatments have shown potential for improving seed protection and germination, providing possible material platform for nano-enabled seed delivery systems (Zaim et al., 2023; Chouhan et al., 2024). Likewise, bioactive molecules like phytohormones, micronutrients, and microbial metabolites can be protected by nanoencapsulation methods, ensuring a slow release upon germination and initial crop growth. The commercialization of nano-enabled seed tapes is limited by a lack of understanding of nanotechnology works in agricultural systems, ecotoxicological concerns, regulatory issues, and high production costs (Kumari et al., 2023; Mahra et al., 2025). In the absence of detailed life-cycle assessments and long-term environmental studies, deployment is therefore not advisable for large-scale use.

5.4 Smart seed tapes

Smart seed tape is defined as a seed tape that incorporates or interfaces with sensing, communication, and digital monitoring technologies within a biodegradable seed-carrier platform to acquire and transmit information related to the seed-zone environment and/or crop establishment (Zhang et al., 2021a). Depending on the system design, these technologies may include flexible microsensors, RFID, wireless communication, cloud-based monitoring, and digital-twin approaches (Karunathilake et al., 2023). Innovations in seed tape technology include the ability to track crop establishment in real time, as well as delivering seeds. Flexible and biodegradable sensing technologies are being developed for agricultural monitoring, creating a pathway for future integration with seed delivery platforms to monitor seed zone environment (Palmieri et al., 2023; Teixeira et al., 2023). The platforms enable real-time reporting of sensor information to cloud-based systems, which provide decision support for the field, allowing for remote monitoring and precise management of irrigation and nutrient programs (Adamo et al., 2025). A new idea is the incorporation of digital twins, in which real-time data from the sensors is connected with predictive simulation models to predict germination, emergence, and initial crop growth. These systems can facilitate adaptive management strategies through a continuous process of comparing field performance with predictions (Cesco et al., 2023; Peladarinos et al., 2023). Although the use of smart seed tapes is promising, miniaturization of the sensors, biodegradable electronics, power supply, wireless communication, and production costs are still challenges, and the use of smart seed tapes is still at a proof-of-concept stage.

5.5 Intelligent seed delivery systems

Adaptive seed-delivery platform that integrates seed placement and delivery with sensing, data acquisition, AI or machine learning, communication, and potentially robotic or autonomous control to continuously perceive environmental conditions, analyze the acquired information, and respond by adjusting seed placement, planting depth, irrigation, nutrient delivery, or other crop-establishment operations (Vakiti and Subhadra, 2024; Gigendhiran et al., 2025). Such systems may additionally deliver nutrients, microbial inoculants, growth regulators, and protective compounds. Thus, while smart seed tapes primarily provide sensing, communication, and monitoring functions, intelligent seed delivery systems are characterized by an integrated sense analyze decide act capability (Debnath et al., 2024). In previous generations, these systems were expected to continuously perceive, analyze, and react to changes in the environment throughout the process of germination. Data from soil probes, weather predictions, remote sensing, and previous growing histories can be incorporated into AI and machine learning models, which can then be used to fine-tune seed placement, planting depth, irrigation schedule, and nutrient application (Genze et al., 2020; Ramesh Reddy et al., 2023). Computer vision, GPS and variable-rate control systems could be used to enable autonomous robotic planters to deliver centimeter-level precision of the seed tapes while also having the capability of adjusting seed tape parameters dynamically as a result of real-time environmental variations (Owoeye et al., 2024; Senthilkumar et al., 2025). A future advanced seed tape could serve as a living delivery system that can transport seeds, nutrients, beneficial microorganisms, growth regulators and protective compounds from the seed to the soil and can communicate with the cloud-based farm management platforms, while continuously monitoring the environment (Zhang et al., 2021a). These technologies are still in a conceptual phase but are anticipated to develop much faster in the next ten years due to the fast-developing technologies of biodegradable electronics, flexible sensors, AI, autonomous agricultural machinery and digital agriculture (Palmieri et al., 2023; Yen and Kapetanovic, 2024). These multi-disciplinary technologies revolutionize seed tapes from passive seed placement to intelligent platforms for autonomous data-driven and climate-resilient crop establishment.

6 Agronomic performance and crop applications

Seed tape technology has shown great potential in crop establishment, resource use efficiency, and planting precision in various cropping systems (Figure 3; Table 5). It was originally developed for small-seeded vegetable crops, but the use of biodegradable material, precision manufacturing, and precision delivery of seeds has enabled it to be used in cereals, medicinal crops, protected cultivation, and precision horticulture (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024; Chaplygin et al., 2025). Depending on crop type, seed size, the geometry of planting, and the production objectives, the agronomic benefits of using seed tape technology vary. Apart from helping with precision sowing, modern seed tape systems can also help to produce more uniform crop establishment, increase germination, reduce labor and improve input use efficiency in diverse crop production systems (Bagautdinov et al., 2018; Duan et al., 2025).

Table 5. Agronomic performance and applications of seed tape technology across major crop production systems.

6.1 Vegetable crops

The main commercial use of seed tape technology is in vegetable production because these crops require precise seed spacing, and conventional sowing is often inefficient due to their small seed size (Chaplygin et al., 2025). Crops such as carrots, onions, lettuce, radish, spinach, leek, beetroot, and Brassica species benefit from predetermined seed spacing, resulting in uniform emergence and reduced intra-specific competition. Proper seed placement reduces the need for thinning and seed wastage while increasing marketable yield in root and leafy vegetables through improved stand uniformity. Seed tape systems are relevant to small-seeded vegetable crops because predetermined seed spacing can reduce the need for thinning and improve stand uniformity. Earlier studies have also evaluated seed tape effects in crop beyond vegetables (Venkatesh et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2021a). The same advantages have been described for onions and leeks, where uniform spacing promotes better weed management and allows mechanical cultivation. Recently, biodegradable paper-based and polymer-based seed tapes have been developed to enhance sowing precision while ensuring rapid degradation after sowing, making them well-suited for commercial vegetable farming and home gardening (Podzorov et al., 2024). However, these benefits should be considered in terms of contemporary precision planters. Accurate seed spacing and reduced seed rates can also be achieved with vacuum, belt, or pneumatic precision metering systems, depending on the seed characteristics and setup in the planter. The benefit of the seed tape is thus not solely precision placement but the predispositions of seeds to be spaced within the seed tape and the ability to add carrier-based functionalities to seed placement (Zhang et al., 2021a). This is significant when considering small-seeded and high-value vegetable crops, while conventional precision planters may offer more flexibility when operating in the field with respect to seed spacing, planting depth, and seed rate.

6.2 Cereals and field crops

Seed tape technology is mainly known for vegetable seed production, but it has also been applied in cereal crops, particularly rice production. The mechanized seed tape systems developed in East Asia are designed to integrate furrow creation, tape placement, and furrow covering, thereby providing uniform plant stands and reducing seed use (Venkatesh et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2026b). Recent studies indicate that seed-rope material and fabrication parameters can influence emergence and early seedling development (Liu et al., 2026a). Seed-tape and seed-rope systems have also been investigated for cereal and other field-crop applications, although their adoption remains more limited than in small-seeded horticultural crops (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024). Adoption remains limited in large-seeded crops like maize because of the need for wider spacing and greater mechanical strength of the tape during field operations. Advances in reinforced biodegradable carriers may further expand the use of seed tape systems in other field crops. This is especially significant in comparison with existing precision-seeding equipment for broad-acre crops. Precision planters and modern seed drills can provide a controlled seed rate, row spacing, planting depth, and within-row planting without the need for a biodegradable carrier. Therefore, in the case of field crops, seed tape application needs to make more than just a placement precision claim, such as lower seed loss under particular establishment conditions, better performance with difficult-to-meter seed, or offer multiple biological or chemical delivery (Venkatesh et al., 2014). Seed tapes need to be evaluated agronomically and economically, as well as taking into consideration the added manufacturing, transportation, storage, handling, and machine compatibility requirements.

6.3 Medicinal and specialty crops

Managing the plant population of high-value medicinal and specialty crops is critical for obtaining the best biomass production, root quality, and efficient harvest. Therefore, seed tape technology is being used in crops like saposhnikovia, ashwagandha, brahmi, echinacea, herbs, flowers, chicory, shallots, and hemp (Venkatesh et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2026b). Uniform seeding minimizes seed expenses, provides uniform stands, and allows mechanized tillage. Seed tapes containing hydrogel, biofertilizers, or plant growth-promoting microorganisms can also improve germination and vigor of seedlings, particularly those grown under less than ideal conditions (Cardarelli et al., 2022; Fiodor et al., 2023). The use of seed tape technology is extremely important, especially in high-value vegetables where seed costs and quality are important in economic returns.

6.4 Protected cultivation and controlled environment

Protected cultivation requires highly uniform crop establishment, which is essential for efficient irrigation, fertigation, and environmental control. Seed tape systems can contribute to uniform establishment in protected cultivation by providing predetermined seed spacing and synchronized germination. However, commercial transplanting systems and robotic transplanting technologies represent a distinct technological category and should not be considered seed tape systems (Chaplygin et al., 2025). Accordingly, transplanting technologies are discussed separately from seed tape technology in this review. Seed tape systems may nevertheless have future potential for integration with automated and robotic crop-establishment systems in protected agriculture.

6.5 Precision horticulture and climate-smart crop establishment

In recent years, seed tapes have evolved beyond simple sowing tools into multifunctional carriers that support precision horticulture and climate-smart agriculture. These functional seed tapes enhance early crop establishment by integrating hydrogels, slow-release fertilizers, microbial inoculants, and nano-engineered materials (He et al., 2026). Advanced seed tapes may integrate sensors, RFID, IoT technologies, and AI to enable real-time monitoring of germination, soil moisture, crop establishment, and other key parameters (Miller et al., 2025). These innovations help manage increasingly unpredictable climatic conditions and support data-driven crop management. In this context, seed tape technology is evolving from a simple seed carrier into a smart platform for crop establishment that can contribute to sustainable precision agriculture. Table 6 summarizes the key distinctions in planting precision, labor needs, input-use efficiency, adaptability, and technical preparedness in order to provide a more comprehensive comparison of traditional versus precision sowing/planting systems under various agricultural production.

Table 6. Comparative assessment of conventional and precision sowing/planting systems across major agricultural production conditions.

6.6 Crop-specific suitability of sowing system

Crop value, seed traits, plant density, crop volume and the economic merit of accurate plant spacing are all important in determining the suitability of sowing technology. Thus, there is a potential clear separation between high-value horticultural crops and extensive cereals and row crops. Seed tape systems are well suited for high-value horticultural crops, especially small-seeded vegetables like carrot, onion, lettuce, radish, spinach, leek, and other brassica crops, as accurate within-row spacing reduces seed wastage, overcrowding, and the need for thinning (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024). These crops may also have an economic value that makes the added material and handling expense for precision seeding worthwhile. However, extensive cereals and row crops are more adaptable to seed drills or modern precision planters, which offer high field capacity and are compatible with existing large-scale mechanization (Loewen and Maxwell, 2024). Seed tape systems can be used in certain field crops such as rice and other small to medium seeded crops, but factors such as tape strength, seed size, compatibility with machines, field suitability, and the economics of large-scale implementation limit the use of these systems. The main benefit of seed tapes in high-value horticulture is precision per unit area and reduced labor downstream, while for extensive cereal and row-crop production, the major needs are high field capacity, mechanization compatibility, and low cost/hectare (Liu et al., 2026b). It is significant that technology that is economically promising for intensive vegetable production can not necessarily be considered an economically competitive technology to conventional drills and precision planters for broad-acre agriculture. Seed tape technology should therefore be regarded as a precision establishment technology that is specific to a crop and production system, and not as a form of sowing equipment. Protected cultivation is another niche where seed tapes can be beneficial, as they ensure high uniformity of establishment, resulting in better irrigation, fertilization, environmental control, and automatic control (Chaplygin et al., 2025). It is important to note that commercial and robotic transplanting are not synonymous with seed tape systems, as they belong to different technological categories. In general, the biggest potential market for seed tape technology seems to be in those crops with a higher value, like specialty crops, protected cultivation, and in all other systems where the cost of seed, plant spacing, and labor all play significant roles in profitability (Yanchenko et al., 2024). In the case of extensive cereals and row crops, adoption can be driven mainly by the availability of rapid spread of the mechanized tape deployment, carriers that are durable, economical, and biodegradable, as well as existing planting equipment that is suitable for the new technology and proven economic benefits at field-scale.

7 Sustainability and climate-smart agriculture

Innovative technologies are needed to promote sustainable agriculture and enhance climate change adaptation to maximize productivity, improve resource-use efficiency, minimize environmental footprint, and enhance the resilience of cropping systems (Table 7) (Gigendhiran et al., 2025). Seed tape has grown from being a precision sowing tool to a platform that can incorporate different types of biodegradable materials, controlled input delivery, beneficial microorganisms, and digital agriculture technologies (Chaplygin et al., 2025). Therefore, sustainability needs to be assessed through four dimensions such as environmental, economic, social, and circular bioeconomy.

Table 7. Qualitative sustainability attributes and advantages of conventional and emerging tape systems.

7.1 Environmental sustainability

Environmental sustainability is one of the main benefits of seed tape technology because precise seed placement can reduce seed loss, improve crop establishment, and enhance the efficiency of production inputs such as water and fertilizers (Podzorov et al., 2024). Biodegradable carrier materials such as cellulose, paper, starch-based polymers, PLA, and PVA have an added advantage in that after sowing, they degrade gradually, which helps in minimizing plastic residues and environmental pollution by allowing the tape to degrade gradually after sowing (Rakhmetullayeva et al., 2026). Functional additives, such as slow-release fertilizer, hydrogels, micronutrients, PGPR, mycorrhizal inoculants, and biological control agents, enable targeted delivery of inputs directly to the seed microenvironment (Zvinavashe et al., 2019). Such localized application can utilize nutrients efficiently while reducing nutrient leaching, volatilization, and the emission of greenhouse gases due to overapplication of fertilizers. Similarly, hydrogel-containing seed tape can enhance soil moisture availability upon contact with soil, particularly during dry spells, thereby supporting climate resilience (Mandal et al., 2024). Emerging smart seed tape systems are being developed that integrate sensors and IoT technology to allow for real-time tracking of soil moisture, nutrient availability, and crop establishment, supporting precision irrigation, variable rate nutrient management, improved resource use efficiency, and sustainable intensification (Chaplygin et al., 2025). However, the environmental benefits of biodegradable seed tapes should be evaluated beyond their physical degradation, as degradation products may influence soil microbial communities. These effects may be particularly important for advanced seed tapes containing hydrogels, nutrients, microbial inoculants, biostimulants, and nanomaterials. Therefore, comprehensive environmental assessment should consider not only the degradation rate and persistence of the carrier material but also potential changes in microbial diversity, community structure, biomass, and functional activity (Meng et al., 2019; Xie et al., 2025). Field-based studies are consequently needed to determine whether degradation products and associated functional additives exert beneficial, neutral, or adverse effects on soil microbiomes, particularly in multifunctional and nano-enabled seed tape systems.

7.2 Economic sustainability

The seed tape technology offers many economic benefits by optimizing seed placement and minimizing seed wastage, manual thinning, labor, irrigation, and agrochemical expenses. For example, Zhang et al. (2021a) reported savings of approximately 490–530 CNY per 667 m² in green radish compared with artificial sowing, while seed-tape cultivation reduced production costs by approximately 2,000 CNY per 667 m². In rice, seed-tape sowing was reported to reduce seed consumption by 17-33% and save approximately 4,500 m³ of water per hectare compared with conventional transplanting (Zhang et al., 2021a). These examples indicate potential economic benefits through reduced seed use, labor requirements, water use, and production costs. The advantages gained from its use may justify the extra expenses, especially improved crop establishment, uniform plant spacing, enhanced crop uniformity, increased marketable yield, and reduced labor requirements (Podzorov et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2026b). The economic benefits are especially clear in precision horticulture, protected cultivation, mechanized cultivation systems, and high-value vegetable crops, where precise plant spacing has a direct impact on productivity and profitability (Hanif et al., 2024). Intelligent and smart seed tapes, together with AI-powered equipment, digital support systems, smart seed delivery solutions, and autonomous planting machines, may provide additional economic benefits by reducing labor requirements and improving the precision and efficiency of planting operations. However, these technologies currently entail higher manufacturing and technology costs (Jorzik et al., 2024). For wider commercial adoption, particularly among smallholder farmers in developing regions, production technologies need to be scaled up, manufacturing and deployment costs reduced, and affordable biodegradable materials developed to improve accessibility and sustainability.

Although there are claims of seed wastage savings, labor savings, water savings, and savings in production costs with seed tape, economic assessments are still limited. Few studies have provided economic evaluation on a carrier material basis, let alone a full cost accounting of all the components across carrier materials, tape manufacturing, seed incorporation, storage and transportation, laying equipment, field capacity, operating speeds, labor, input savings, and yield or marketable-yield responses (Yanchenko et al., 2024). Hence, the available evidence does not allow a firm generalization of a cross-crop comparison of total production costs and net economic returns without making large assumptions. This limitation is especially relevant in establishing a production scale for the additional costs involved in seed tape preparation and deployment to offset savings in seed, labor, inputs, and better crop establishment. The standardization of partial budget and full budget analyses in representative crops and production levels should be considered in future investigations to measure capital costs, operating expenses, input savings, yield gains, and net returns. These analyses would assist in determining the crop types, size of farms, and production systems in which seed-tape technology offers a positive economic benefit.

7.3 Social sustainability

The advantages of seed tape technology are that physical labor, for example, seed planting, thinning, and sowing, can be reduced to promote social sustainability. These advantages are particularly relevant to regions with a low supply of agricultural labor, an older farming workforce, and rising wages for agricultural labor (Podzorov et al., 2024; Gigendhiran et al., 2025). The precision of planting is also enhanced, which means improved crop establishment for smallholder farmers, urban agriculture, protected cultivation, community gardens, and educational farming programs, and fewer technical skills are required for precision sowing (Onyango et al., 2021). Furthermore, specific use of fertilizers and biological inputs can minimize farmers’ occupational contact with agrochemicals and enhance their health and safety. Successful technology adoption requires access to affordable precision sowing technologies, farmer training, effective extension services and support from the government (Khan et al., 2024; Liu and Liu, 2024). Improved research-industry-extension-farmers linkages may play a significant role in equitable technology dissemination.

7.4 Seed tape technology within the circular bioeconomy

The development of biodegradable seed tape technology closely follows the principles of the circular bioeconomy, which seeks to use renewable resources, sustainable production systems, and reduce waste (Holden et al., 2023). Cellulose fibers, starch-based biopolymer materials, natural fibers, and biodegradable composites from agricultural products have been widely employed in the manufacturing of seed tapes in recent years (Schutz et al., 2024). Although their environmental advantages depend on material composition, degradation behavior, production methods, and field conditions, bio-based and biodegradable carrier materials may reduce dependency on traditional petroleum-derived plastics (Holden et al., 2023). Future seed tape technologies may incorporate bio-based hydrogels, biodegradable nanomaterials, microbial inoculants, and renewable functional polymers capable of delivering multiple agronomic inputs through a single biodegradable platform, thereby supporting more circular agricultural production (Pirzada et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2026b). Precision agriculture technologies can also minimize unnecessary input application, optimize resource recycling, and reduce the environmental impact of crop production. The use of biodegradable materials, green manufacturing technologies, and life-cycle assessment is key to developing next-generation seed tape systems that facilitate sustainable intensification, climate change adaptation, and circular agricultural production. Seed tape technology has evolved beyond precision sowing into an integrated platform that combines biodegradable materials, controlled input delivery, biological inoculants, nanotechnology, and digital agriculture (Gigendhiran et al., 2025). These multifunctional systems improve resource-use efficiency, environmental sustainability, economic viability, and social resilience while supporting climate-smart and circular agricultural production (Chaplygin et al., 2025). Continued advances in AI, robotics, sensor networks, and precision agriculture are expected to further enhance the performance and adoption of emerging seed delivery systems.

8 Commercialization and technology readiness

For successful commercialization of seed tape technology from prototype to agricultural application, the following technology maturity aspects are important: manufacturing scalability, regulatory acceptance, market acceptance, and policy support (Podzorov et al., 2024). While traditional paper-based seed tapes proved to be successful products over many years, there are still several innovative technologies that use biodegradable functional materials, microbial inoculants, nanotechnology, AI, and digital sensing in their early stages of development (Zhang et al., 2021a). Each innovation needs to be technologically ready for commercialization, and the socio-economic factors of adoption need to be evaluated. The reviewed evidence was interpreted through four levels to avoid mixing demonstrated performance with evidence based upon related technologies using seed tape. Direct evidence comes from experimental work that directly tested the proposed material, functional element, and technology in a seed-tape or seed-rope system (Podzorov et al., 2024). Enabling evidence has been shown in a closely related seed treatment, biomaterial, controlled-release, sensing and agricultural delivery system; it serves as a technical basis for adaptation to seed tapes but doesn’t represent direct evidence. Contextual evidence is evidence that shows relevance, but not evidence of performance in seed tape systems, and it might be agronomic, material, environmental, or engineering in nature (Afzal et al., 2020). Speculative evidence consists of proposed integrations or future ideas for which there is no experimental evidence supporting it in seed-tape systems.

8.1 Technology maturity and development status

There is no standardized TRL assessment for the wide range of seed-tape technologies described in the literature, and the TRLs provide a general framework for describing technological maturity. Accordingly, this review does not use numerical TRLs but instead classifies seed-tape technologies by their documented development and validation status. The most traditional type is seed tapes made with conventional paper, and there are records of their use in vegetable and horticultural crops (Podzorov et al., 2024). Biodegradable polymer and natural fiber carriers are at various stages of development, with some in the lab, at pilot scale, or in field trials. Gels with functional systems containing nutrients or biological components are less developed and require further work to validate formulation stability, field performance, manufacturing consistency, and economic feasibility (Rakhmetullayeva et al., 2026). Concepts for nanotechnology-enabled seed tape and sensor-integrated seed tape are mainly research projects, and autonomously operating, intelligent seed delivery platforms are still in a preliminary stage. This qualitative classification is based on the best available evidence in the literature and is not intended as a standardized TRL score (Lowry et al., 2024). Because published studies rarely assign formal TRLs to seed-tape technologies, the qualitative development status presented in Table 8 represents an author-derived qualitative assessment based on evidence of laboratory validation, field testing, pilot-scale development, commercial availability, and system integration. They should therefore be interpreted as indicative rather than standardized industry TRL ratings.

Table 8. Qualitative development status and commercialization prospects of emerging seed tape technologies.

8.2 Commercial status

Seed tape technologies vary in the degree of commercialization. The low production cost, simple production process, and compatibility with the existing planting system make conventional biodegradable paper tapes widely used in vegetables, herbs, and ornamentals (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024). Biodegradable polymer materials are increasingly being investigated as potential carriers for seed-tape and seed-rope systems, particularly where greater mechanical stability and controlled degradation are required (Zhang et al., 2021a; Liu et al., 2026a). Fertilizer, hydrogel, or microbial seed tape has been evaluated and is being tested at a pilot scale for commercialization. But there are problems in keeping the biological elements viable in storage, during transport, in formulation, and in the standardization of the manufacturing process (Chaplygin et al., 2025). The seed tapes are still in the early stages of commercialization because they involve complex production systems, innovative materials, and quality control. As a result, most are used only in research institutes and experimental field trials (He et al., 2026). Although more expensive to produce than conventional loose seed sowing systems, seed tape may be more economically viable in reduced seed wastage, lower labor input, uniformity in planting, and use efficiency of inputs (Bagautdinov et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2021a). This particularly applies in the production of high-value vegetable crops, protected cultivation, precision horticulture, and mechanized cultivation systems.

8.3 Global adoption

The adoption rate of seed tape technology varies greatly from one region to another, depending on the mechanization, manufacturing facility, farming system, government support, and farmer awareness in each region (Curry et al., 2021). These technologies have been developed and evaluated in East Asian agricultural systems, including applications in crop production. The extent of commercial adoption varies among crops and regions (Podzorov et al., 2024) (Table 9). Commercialization has been ramped up with ongoing investments in agricultural engineering, home manufacturing, and precision agriculture (Zhang et al., 2021a; He et al., 2026). Adoption is found mainly in high-value vegetable crops; commercial systems have been developed to increase labor efficiency and planting uniformity in the United States (Chaplygin et al., 2025). In Europe, biodegradable seed tapes are becoming more popular, especially in organic and environmentally friendly production systems, although environmental control is quite strict and is a factor that affects commercialization (Domínguez-Solera et al., 2025). The commercial adoption of seed tape technology in India and sub-Saharan Africa indicates a need for region-specific assessments of manufacturing capacity, economics, farmer acceptance, and agronomic performance. Lack of awareness and extension services among farmers, insufficient manufacturing capacities, and high production costs are still hampering wider adoption. The prospects for this are significant as there has been growing interest in climate-smart agriculture, labor-saving technologies, and precision farming.

Table 9. Reported application and adoption status of seed tape technology across regions.

8.4 Regulatory issues

One of the most significant hurdles to commercialization of next-generation seed tape systems is the regulatory process. The materials and additional functional components utilized in seed-tape systems probably determine the regulatory requirements. Commercialization of these systems can involve assessment of safety, environmental fate, efficacy, quality, and product performance for each component and depends on the presence of biodegradable polymers, fertilizers, microbial products, nanoparticles, and digital components (Kumari et al., 2023; Shelar et al., 2023). Biodegradable seed-tape carriers should be evaluated in the regulatory process in terms of material composition, biodegradation, nature of degradation products, soil persistence, ecotoxicological effects, and potential effects on germination and root development. There is a need for standardized approaches in biodegradation testing, environmental risk assessment, life-cycle assessment, and quality control for consistent product approval and international market acceptance (Podzorov et al., 2024). The fertilizer, micronutrient, biostimulant, and controlled-release formulation need to be evaluated for nutrient composition, release rate, effectiveness for the crop, and losses to the environment. Therefore, a regulatory framework for nutrient delivery is predictable, effective, and environmentally safe (Sadiq V et al., 2026). Seed tapes containing PGPR, biofertilizers, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and biological control agents must be considered for microbial identity, viability, efficacy, biosafety, product uniformity, and shelf life (Paravar et al., 2023).

The nano-enabled seed tapes need to be more comprehensive, since they can vary significantly in persistence, mobility, bioavailability, and toxicity from traditional materials. In the regulatory evaluation, nanomaterial characterization, environmental fate and persistence, ecotoxicity, potential accumulation, and possible human exposure (Shelar et al., 2023). The sensor-integrated and intelligent seed tapes added further regulatory concerns regarding electronic safety, sensor reliability and durability, power supply, and wireless communication. These systems are still in conceptual or early prototype stages, and miniaturization of sensors, power supply, durability, and cost are identified as major challenges. Further systems with the integration of biodegradable electronics, RFID, IoT, GPS, and AI may need to have the right standards for degradation as part of the system (Mansoor et al., 2025). Incorporating microbial inoculants may alter the regulatory status of seed-tape products compared with conventional tapes used solely as seed carriers. Depending on the microorganism, intended function, product claims, and jurisdiction, such products may be subject to regulations governing microbial inoculants, biofertilizers, biostimulants, or biological control agents. Additional assessment may address microbial identity, viability, efficacy, biosafety, environmental risks, and product stability. Therefore, regulatory evaluation should consider the complete seed-tape formulation (Chaplygin et al., 2025). The lack of harmonized regulations for biodegradable and bioactive seed-tape materials further highlights the need for standardized testing and quality-control procedures.

8.5 Manufacturing barriers and commercial prospects

A major challenge is scalability for next-generation seed tape technology. Producing multifunctional seed tapes involves combining biodegradable seed carrier materials with biological inoculants, hydrogels, nanomaterials and controlled-release formulations, without losing uniformity and bioactivity of the product (Liu et al., 2026b). It is difficult to meet these requirements in industrial manufacturing processes. A cost factor also plays a big role (Qu et al., 2025). The production of advanced seed tapes is much more complex than the production of traditional seed and demands a much higher level of raw material preparation, automation of seed production lines, capsule-setting technology, and quality control (Podzorov et al., 2024). For a broader commercialization of eco-friendly biocompatible materials, process optimization and large-scale production have the potential to be crucial to lowering production costs, especially in developing countries. Extension services and government policy are also very significant in driving adoption (Quarshie et al., 2021). Improving adoption through public investment, financial incentives, public/private partnerships, and farmer training is a great benefit for supporting precision agriculture, biodegradable materials, and sustainable farming technologies. Extension networks and technology transfer activities, as well as demonstration trials, play important roles in increasing farmer awareness and confidence in next-generation seed tape systems (Liu and Liu, 2024; Yang et al., 2024). In successful commercialization, further developments are needed in biodegradable functional materials, sensor miniaturization, microbially stabilized materials, digital agriculture, and autonomous sowing systems. With declining manufacturing costs and developing regulations, it is expected that smart delivery systems for seeds may be part of precision agriculture and climate-smart crop production.

9 Future research directions

Seed tape has evolved from a passive precision sowing technology to a multifunctional platform for integrating materials, biotechnology, digital agriculture, and AI within crop establishment systems. Although substantial progress has been achieved, future research should prioritize experimentally testable questions that address the performance, sustainability, scalability, and field applicability of these emerging technologies. This approach is essential for moving seed tape innovations from proof-of-concept studies toward reliable, commercially viable, and climate-smart crop establishment systems (Chaplygin et al., 2025).

Firstly, research needs to be done to link the degradation rate, mechanical strength, moisture availability, early crop growth, and seed germination to the composition, properties, and structure of the carrier and hydrogel, as well as the soil and climatic conditions. Future carrier materials will need to be not only biodegradable but also advanced degradable and stimulus-responsive polymers that can respond to soil moisture, temperature, pH, salinity, or microbial activity, leading to controlled-release properties and the delivery of water, nutrients, biostimulants, and protective compounds. Advanced hydrogel systems should also be tested with respect to their potential for controlling water inputs, nutrient release, and plant growth regulators, as well as their durability, biodegradability, cost-effectiveness, and performance in the field at large scale. Optimum properties of materials, degradation rates, manufacturing methods, and environmental performance should thus be optimized for future studies (Chakkalakkal et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2024).

Secondly, the experiments with controlled release should determine the biodegradability of matrices to provide spatial-temporal control of water, nutrients, biostimulants, and protective compounds and to ensure uniform seedling emergence, which should be accompanied by an acceptable mechanical strength of the matrix. Another emerging research area involves living materials, in which biologically active components are incorporated into the seed-tape matrix to develop dynamic delivery systems. Dynamic delivery systems, such as self-healing biofilms, designed microbial consortia, and bio fabricated carrier materials, could be used to deliver seeds and establish crops early in response to soil conditions. These technologies are at a very early stage and thus have to be first validated in controlled conditions before field-scale application (He et al., 2026; Liu et al., 2026b).

Thirdly, microbial seed-tape systems need to be tested for inoculant viability during storage, after sowing, rhizosphere establishment, and crop establishment in the field. Use of seed tapes as a delivery mechanism for beneficial microbial communities to the rhizosphere may become effective as more becomes known about the seed microbiome. PGPR, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, endophytes, and microbial consortia can provide enhanced nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and disease resistance. Future work needs to more specifically investigate the interactions between the microorganisms, carrier matrices, seeds, and plant roots and determine formulations that are viable during storage and release that is predictable after sowing (O’Callaghan, 2016; Rocha et al., 2019).

Fourth, experiments designed to explore the dose-response relationships, release, biodegradation, phytotoxicity, and environmental safety over an extended period should be undertaken prior to the broader adoption of nano-enabled formulations in agriculture. A key factor in the development of materials should be sustainability. In addition to hydrocarbon-based materials, there are alternatives like agricultural residues, lignocellulosic biomass, cellulose nanofibers, starch, chitosan, polymers from seaweed, biochar, and other renewable materials that can be part of a circular bioeconomy. Their mechanical properties, biodegradability, environmental effects, waste valorization, and scalability to production should be investigated. The following should also be integrated into the process, including low-carbon manufacturing, renewable feedstocks, biodegradable composites, and life cycle assessment to avoid creating unintended environmental costs due to improvements in the establishment of crops (Zhang et al., 2021a; Podzorov et al., 2024).

Fifth, prototype-scale and multi-location field tests should be done to test smart and intelligent seed-delivery systems. Soil information and soil properties, weather predictions, historical yield data, and live data from sensors could be combined with AI and machine learning algorithms to inform decision-making when establishing crops. The addition of UAVs, IoT sensors, biodegradable electronics, RFID, GIS, satellite observations, and cloud-based decision-support systems could help to enable continuous monitoring and precise management. But it needs to be determined whether the data captured by the sensors and the decisions made by the AI can allow for greater accuracy in seed placement, more efficient use of resources, and greater emergence and early crop establishment than seed-tape systems. The use of robotics, computer vision, autonomous tractors, and variable rate technologies for automated seed-tape placement and better operational efficiency in commercial and smallholder farming systems (Afzal et al., 2020; Debnath et al., 2024). For broad-acre crops, priority should be given to field-scale techno-economic comparisons of seed-tape systems with modern mechanical and pneumatic precision planters, incorporating tape requirement per hectare, planting speed, field capacity, machine width, labor, downtime caused by tape failure, material and transport costs, crop establishment, yield, and net economic return. Across these research priorities, standardized experimental protocols, multi-location field validation, techno-economic analysis, and life-cycle assessment should be adopted to identify innovations that can advance from proof of concept to scalable applications in the agricultural landscape. Specifically, focus on manufacturing scale, cost, storage stability, mechanical properties, environmental safety, and regulatory compliance.

10 Summary and conclusions

Seed tape technology spans a broad development spectrum, from established paper-based systems used in horticultural production to emerging functional, biological, nano-enabled, and sensor-integrated concepts. The development of seed tape technology has advanced from basic seed carriers, designed for specific seed placement, to more complex seed delivery systems, which include biodegradable, nonwoven, and functional materials. Based on the strength and type of available evidence, these technologies can be organized into four broad categories such as direct, enabling, contextual, and speculative. Direct evidence is strongest for conventional paper-based seed tapes and seed rope systems, which are the most well-established technologies and have proven practical application, particularly for seed placement, spacing, and sowing operations. Studies of biodegradable and nonwoven carrier materials have also shown that these materials can provide adequate mechanical support while allowing seed germination and early seedling development. However, the performance of the seed coating remains dependent on crop species, carrier material, fabrication method, and field environment. These include biodegradable polymer-based seed tapes, hydrogel-based seed carriers, nutrient delivery systems, and systems incorporating biological activity. Evidence from related seed treatment and seed delivery technologies indicates potential benefits for germination, nutrient supply, microbial interactions, and stress mitigation. Contextual evidence is provided by developments in related fields, including nanotechnology, digital agriculture, biosensing, seed coating, and molecular delivery systems. These advances provide a scientific and technological basis for considering nano-enabled seed tapes, sensor-integrated systems, RFID- or QR-based traceability, and localized delivery of biomolecules as plausible directions for future seed-tape development. Speculative evidence concerns more advanced concepts, such as closed-loop smart seed-delivery platforms and highly integrated systems capable of sensing, decision-making, and localized delivery. These concepts remain largely hypothetical in the context of seed tapes and currently lack sufficient experimental validation to support claims of practical field effectiveness. Their feasibility requires targeted experiments addressing material compatibility, seed safety, germination and establishment, functional performance, durability, scalability, and field-level outcomes.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Musfiq Salehin, Texas A&M University, United States

Reviewed by: Selma Kıpçak, Yüzüncü Yıl University, Türkiye

Luis Figueroa, CONACYT Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco (CIATEJ), Mexico

Neha Singh Chandel, GLA University, India