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Frontiers in Aquaculture ·

Volume 5 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/faquc.2026.1862744

Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal in aquafeed for a sustainable aquaculture industry: a review

  • Kawkabul Saba1
  • Gowhar Iqbal1
  • Aakila2
  • Shafiya Mushtaq1
  • Oyas Asimi1
  • Faisal Rashid1*corresponding author
  1. 1Faculty of Fisheries, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Rangil, India
  2. 2Department of Zoology, Sri Pratap College, Cluster University Srinagar, Srinagar, India
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Abstract

The increasing interest in sustainable and cheaper protein resources in aquaculture production has generated a growing interest in alternative feed ingredients. Aquaculture is one of the world’s most rapidly expanding and largest food production industries. Notably, the inclusion of fishmeal in aqua feed has been gradually replaced with alternative sources of protein inputs due to the high cost of production, limited availability of raw materials, and environmental pressures. The black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens; BSFL) meal is attracting greater attention as a feed ingredient for aqua feeds, as it contains high protein content similar to fishmeal (FM). H. illucens larvae rearing can also be realized with different biodegradable substrates, which are converted into high-value biomass. BSFL-based diets have been evaluated in several finfish and crustacean species have assessed final body weight (FBW), specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR), feed intake (FI), feed efficiency (FE), survival rate (SR), and apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC), using fishmeal-based diets as the reference. Although previous reviews have examined insect meals and black soldier fly larvae, integrated evidence remains fragmented regarding the practical use, sustainable production, benefits, and limitations of BSFL meal in aquafeeds. Therefore, this review aims to evaluate the practical use of BSFL meal as a protein source in aquaculture, with particular emphasis on sustainable production practices, nutritional benefits, and the challenges associated with its wider application in the aquafeed industry as well as its benefits.

Keywords

Introduction

Aquaculture is one of the major food-producing industries according to FAO (2026) and needs huge amounts of fishmeal for aqua farming (Jannathulla et al., 2019). The feed of monogastric animals, e.g., fish, must be rich in high-quality protein. The basic nutritional requirements of a protein source include high protein content, a balanced amino acid composition, good digestibility, acceptable palatability and the absence of anti-nutritional factors. Fishmeal satisfies many of these requirements and is therefore commonly used as a high-quality protein ingredient in animal feeds (Cho and Kim, 2011). It is a dry, protein rich product prepared by processing, drying, and grinding whole fish or fish processing by-products into a fine meal (FAO, 1986). According to the Marine Ingredients Organization (IFFO), more than 87% of fishmeal in 2021 was used for feeding farmed fish. Around 185.4 million tons of aquatic animals were extracted from the ocean in 2022, almost 89% (164.6 million tonnes). About 83% (17 million tonnes) of the 20.8 million tonnes used for non-food uses were converted into fishmeal and fish oil (FAO, 2024).

The global demand for aquatic animal foods has increased steadily over the years. Annual per capita consumption rose from 9.1 kg in 1961 to an estimated 20.7 kg in 2022 (FAO, 2024). At the same time, pressure on wild fish stocks, the limited availability and rising cost of fishmeal and fish oil, and concerns about their environmental impact have encouraged researchers to explore alternative protein sources for aquafeeds (Olsen and Hasan, 2012; Hua et al., 2019). As a result, overfishing increased from 35.4 per cent in 2019 to 37.7 per cent in 2021. As possible substitute protein sources, animal-based protein additives like insect meals may partially or completely replace FM in aquafeeds (Henry et al., 2015). Insect meals are considered a promising alternative to traditional plant and animal-derived protein sources in aquaculture and animal feeds. They are generally rich in protein and provide several essential amino acids, although their nutritional composition may vary depending on the insect species, rearing conditions and processing methods (Sánchez et al., 2014; Spranghers et al., 2017). However, insect meals are not completely free from anti-nutritional compounds. Chitin is naturally present in the insect exoskeleton, while tannin oxalates, phytates, saponins, and alkaloids have also been reported in some insect species (Rivas et al., 2023). Although approximately one million insect species have been documented worldwide, estimates suggest that the actual diversity could reach 80 million (Erwin, 2004). Insects comprise over 58% of the known global biodiversity (Foottit and Adler, 2009). Grimaldi (Grimaldi and Engel, 2005) indicated that only about 20% of insect species have been named and described. Insects serve not only in aquaculture but also as food for humans (Baiyegunhi and Oppong, 2016). Among the insect species evaluated for aquafeed, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have attracted significant attention at both research and commercial levels (Veldkamp et al., 2022).

The popularity of black soldier fly larvae is attributed to their short production cycle, rapid biomass accumulation, and capacity to convert selected organic by-products into ingredients suitable for animal feed. Early feeding studies evaluated dried H. illucens larvae in poultry and swine diets (Hale, 1973; Newton et al., 1977), and subsequent research has expanded their application to aquaculture. However, the nutritional composition of BSFL is not constant. The levels of protein, lipid, fiber, ash, amino acids, and fatty acids are influenced by the rearing substrate, developmental stage, harvesting time, drying method, and degree of defatting. On a dry-matter basis, BSFL typically contain about 32–53% crude protein and 18–33% lipid (Lu et al., 2022). Processing also affects the final composition of the meal; for example, defatting lowers the lipid content and increases the relative concentration of protein (Zozo et al., 2022). Overall, BSFL meal can provide good amounts of protein, energy, minerals, and essential amino acids, but its successful use in aquafeeds depends on digestible nutrient balance, lipid quality, chitin content, processing conditions, and the nutritional requirements of the target species (Makkar et al., 2014; Henry et al., 2015; Tran et al., 2022). This presents a major advantage for scaling up insect production for the feed sector (Tran et al., 2022). Furthermore, BSFL meal is suggested to have a more suitable amino acid profile for fish compared to several plant-based protein alternatives (Makkar et al., 2014; Tran et al., 2015; Fisher et al., 2020). In addition to its protein content, BSFL meal is also an excellent source of minerals and vitamins (Henry et al., 2015; Fisher et al., 2020). These insects have long been consumed by humans for their high nutritional value (Srivastava et al., 2009; Vantomme et al., 2012). BSFL are increasingly recognized as a sustainable, nutrient-rich feed ingredient that may offer environmental and economic benefits, making them a promising alternative to fishmeal. Recent feeding trials confirm that BSFL meal can replace a substantial share of conventional fish-based feed, although the response depends on the species, life stage, processing method, and dietary inclusion level (Bartucz et al., 2023; Eide et al., 2024; Sangsawang et al., 2024). Research involving BSFL meal has been successfully conducted on several fish species, including rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Stammer et al., 2014; Józefiak et al., 2019; St-Hilaire et al., 2007; Sealey et al., 2011; Renna et al., 2017), European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (Abdel-Tawwab et al., 2020; Abdel-Latif et al., 2021), African catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Fawole et al., 2020), Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar (Belghit et al., 2018; Yousefi Mojir, 2023; Fisher et al., 2020), Jian carp, Cyprinus carpio var. Jian (Li et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2018), Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Tippayadara et al., 2021; Devic et al., 2018), and turbot, Scophthalmus maximus (Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Nutritional composition of black soldier fly larvae

Protein and lipids

Previous studies have shown that BSFL can convert organic waste into nutrient-rich biomass that may be used in animal feeds (Van Huis, 2013; Veldkamp et al., 2012). Various types of organic waste are used for cultivating BSF larvae, which include fruit waste (Jucker et al., 2017), vegetable waste (Julita et al., 2019), chicken manure (Bortolini et al., 2020), swine manure (Newton et al., 2005a), and cow manure (Oonincx et al., 2015). The proximate composition of BSFL varies considerably among studies because of differences in the rearing substrate, developmental stage, harvesting conditions and processing method. Consequently, protein and lipid values should be interpreted according to whether they refer to whole larvae, full-fat meal or defeated meal and whether they are expressed on a dry-matter or as-fed basis (Makkar et al., 2014; Lu et al., 2022). The type of rearing substrate influences their nutritional composition, particularly their protein and lipid contents (Nguyen et al., 2015). Insects, especially BSFL, have attracted growing interest due to their significant nutritional benefits and possible uses in animal feed, notably for aquaculture, livestock, and poultry. Insect meals, including BSFL meal, are generally rich in crude protein; however, the reported concentration varies with the insect species, developmental stage, rearing substrate and processing method, particularly the degree of defatting (Makkar et al., 2014).

BSFL provide several essential amino acids, although their amino acid composition may vary with the rearing substrate. In a study using different vegetable by-products, black soldier fly prepupae contained 67–89 mg/g protein of leucine, 47–72 mg/g protein of lysine, 32–45 mg/g protein of methionine plus cysteine, 7–19 mg/g protein of tryptophan, and 56–72 mg/g protein of valine (Fuso et al., 2021). Substrate-related differences were also observed in larvae reared on kitchen waste, chicken manure, and brewer’s spent grain. Larvae fed kitchen waste contained higher levels of proline, hydroxyproline, tyrosine, and phenylalanine, whereas methionine, lysine, isoleucine, and leucine did not differ significantly among the three substrates (Shumo et al., 2019). These findings indicate that careful selection of the rearing substrate is important for obtaining BSFL meal with a consistent nutritional quality. BSFL meal has also been evaluated as a feed ingredient in poultry and aquaculture diets.

Research by Józefiak et al. (2016) reveals that the high protein and amino acid content of BSFL resulted in better growth rates in poultry. Furthermore, BSFL have been utilized in aquaculture, where their amino acid composition has demonstrated benefits for the health and growth of various fish species, including tilapia (Heuel et al., 2021). Likewise, the bioavailability of protein in BSFL is crucial for the nutrition of livestock, ensuring that animals can effectively digest and absorb essential nutrients, which in turn boosts their growth and performance. Besides protein, BSFL are rich in fats, making them a valuable source of lipids and fatty acids. They are particularly recognized for their substantial fat content, which can vary from 58% to 72% saturated fatty acids and from 19% to 40% mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Ewald et al. (2020) found that larvae reared on 11 diets prepared from mussels, fish, bread, and food waste differed in their fatty acid composition. However, saturated fatty acids, particularly lauric acid, remained the major components of larval fat. Dietary modification can also increase the levels of specific omega-3 fatty acids in BSFL. Barroso et al. (2017) showed that the larvae could be enriched with omega-3 fatty acids by changing their diet. Similarly, Liland et al. (2017) found that adding brown seaweed to the feeding medium increased the EPA content of the larvae. However, seaweed inclusion above 50% reduced larval growth, nutrient retention, and total lipid content. These findings suggest that substrate selection can be used to modify the fatty acid profile of BSFL, but both the type and inclusion level of the substrate must be carefully considered. The reported proximate composition of BSFL and BSFL meal varies among studies because of differences in rearing substrate, developmental stage, processing method, degree of defatting, and analytical basis. Published studies show substantial variation in the proximate composition of BSFL and BSFL meal because of differences in substrate, developmental stage, processing, and analytical basis (Table 1).

Table 1. Reported proximate composition of black soldier fly larvae and larval.

Crude protein (%)Crude lipid (%)Crude fiber (%)Ash (%)ReferenceAnalytical basis
43.1731.0816.196.76Muin and Taufek, 2024NR
30.0033.92NR10.59Melenchon et al., 2021AF
26.1236.473.626.84Tippayadara et al., 2021NR
36.2 ± 0.318.0 ± 1.6NR9.3 ± 0.3Barroso et al., 2014DM
43.1038.604.102.70Spranghers et al., 2017DM
35.3047.85NR5.35Fischer et al., 2021NR
47.0920.295.1012.67Dumas et al., 2018DM
42.0032.00NR9.25Weththasinghe et al., 2021DM
43.6033.10NR15.50St-Hilaire et al., 2007DM
39.2028.40NR8.30Liu et al., 2017DM

DM, dry-matter basis; AF, as-fed basis; NR, not reported. Values are presented as reported in the original studies and should be compared only when expressed on the same analytical basis.

Life cycle and distribution of Hermetia illucens

The black soldier fly larvae, known scientifically as Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), are saprophagous insects (Kaczor et al., 2023) that resemble wasps in their external structure (Bruno et al., 2020). BSF adults possess two wings and lack any stinging apparatus (Diclaro and Kaufman, 2009). They are large, slender and black, featuring brownish wings and a three-segmented antenna that projects outward from the top of their heads. Like other insects within the dipteran group, the adult body consists of three sections: the head, thorax, and abdomen (Oonincx et al., 2016; Üstüner et al., 2003). Their eyes are not covered and are set widely apart from each other (Oonincx et al., 2016). The abdomen is segmented into five sections, each adorned with white patches. In general, females are smaller than males, but their reproductive structures are longer and their wings are larger than those of males. The typical size of female bodies and wings ranges from 12 to 20 mm and 8 to 14.8 mm, respectively (Oonincx et al., 2016; Singh and Kumari, 2019; Üstüner et al., 2003). Temperature has a strong influence on the development and reproduction of the black soldier fly. Population growth is most favorable at around 30 °C, while temperatures below 15 °C can prevent egg hatching (Chia et al., 2018). The species originated in South America and has since spread worldwide through human activities (Kaya et al., 2021). Over time, their range has extended to other locations, and they are now mainly found in the equatorial tropics and has also been recorded in some temperate areas (Liu et al., 2017). Its larvae are commonly found in decaying organic materials, including compost, manure, and plant and food residues (Roháček and Hora, 2013).

BSF is different from other edible species by its superior capability to convert residual organic materials into high-quality protein and lipid sources, in addition to serving as a soil amendment. The mating and egg-laying behavior of black soldier flies is strongly influenced by environmental conditions, particularly light, temperature, and relative humidity. Reliable mating has been observed in greenhouse cages where natural sunlight and sufficient space for aerial mating were available. Mating also occurred during short winter days when sunlight was not blocked by clouds (Sheppard et al., 2002). Since low light levels inhibit BSF mating during winter, the use of artificial lighting becomes necessary (Zhang et al., 2010). Artificial lighting can support indoor reproduction, but its effectiveness depends on the type of light used. Zhang et al. (2010) found that a quartz–iodine lamp supported mating and egg laying, although the mating rate was lower than that observed under natural sunlight. In contrast, no mating occurred under the rare-earth lamp. Heussler et al. (2018) later reported that oviposition did not differ significantly among LED, fluorescent, and halogen lamps, and recommended LEDs for small-scale indoor rearing because of their energy efficiency. Temperature also affects egg survival and development. The highest egg-hatching rates were recorded at 30 and 35 °C, whereas egg viability was very low at 15, 37, and 40 °C (Chia et al., 2018). The ideal temperature for culturing is 27 °C; deviations above or below this will negatively impact larvae survival and adult eclosion rates (Tomberlin et al., 2009). Relative humidity is equally important, as egg hatching and adult emergence increase with increasing humidity. A relative humidity of at least 50% has therefore been recommended for maintaining BSF colonies (Holmes et al., 2012).

The black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens, undergoes complete metamorphosis through four main stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult (Liu et al., 2017). The prepupal phase represents the final, non-feeding part of larval development, during which the larvae leave the feeding substrate and prepare for pupation (Holmes et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2017). Females deposit egg masses in dry crevices close to moist, decomposing organic matter, and the eggs generally hatch within approximately four days under suitable conditions (Booth and Sheppard, 1984). After hatching, the larvae move into the organic substrate and feed actively on decomposing material. Once feeding is complete, they become darker and migrate away from the moist substrate to find a dry and protected site for pupation (Holmes et al., 2012). Adult BSF are dark, wasp-like flies and can be recognized by the characteristic translucent windows on their abdomen (Cai et al., 2022). The principal stages of the BSF life cycle are illustrated in Figure 1. Temperature and relative humidity strongly influence the development and survival of BSF. Survival from 4-6-day-old larvae to adulthood ranged from 74% to 97% at 27 and 30 °C, but declined to only 0.1% at 36 °C (Tomberlin et al., 2009). Relative humidity also affects egg hatching, adult emergence, and adult longevity. Eggs maintained at 25% relative humidity required approximately 1.5 -2.5 days longer to hatch than those maintained at 70%, while adults kept at 70% relative humidity lived about 2–3 days longer than those exposed to drier conditions (Holmes et al., 2012). Although adult BSF can survive for a limited period without a nutrient-rich diet, feeding trials have shown that providing suitable nutrients can extend adult longevity and increase egg production (Bertinetti Cerrato et al., 2019).

The life cycle of the black soldier fly, *Hermetia illucens*.
Figure 1. The life cycle of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens.

Organic waste treatment via black soldier fly farming

Food waste is generated on a substantial scale worldwide and has become a major global waste-management concern (Kim et al., 2021; UNEP, 2024). Rising food demand, together with inefficiencies across the food supply chain and consumption stages, contributes to increasing food loss and waste and the associated socio-economic challenges (FAO, 2019; Rai et al., 2025). Balancing the growing demand for food, feed, and fuel with the sustainable management of organic waste therefore remains a significant global challenge (Papargyropoulou et al., 2014; Gold et al., 2018). Food loss generally occurs during production, post-harvest handling, processing, and distribution, whereas food waste mainly occurs at the retail, food-service, and household consumption stages (Parfitt et al., 2010; FAO, 2019). In 2022, approximately 1.05 billion tonnes of food were wasted at the retail, food-service, and household levels, representing nearly 19% of the food available to consumers (UNEP, 2024).

Increasing food waste contributes to growing imbalances in global food systems, and hazardous waste poses risks to human health, biodiversity, and ecosystems (Djekic et al., 2019). Given the rising demand for food, feed, and fuel along with heightened concerns regarding organic waste management, utilizing insects to effectively convert organic waste into these resources appears to be a novel and promising approach (Ites et al., 2020; Purkayastha and Sarkar, 2022; Wang et al., 2017). Additionally, managing organic waste with insects generates lower greenhouse gas emissions (Parodi et al., 2020; Van Huis and Oonincx, 2017), diminishes ground and surface water pollution by degrading antibiotics (Liu et al., 2021; Mei et al., 2022), and reduces pathogen levels (Awasthi et al., 2020). In the realm of organic waste valorization, an innovative strategy involves the utilization of organic waste (Capanoglu et al., 2022; Sarker et al., 2024).

Insects, recognized as a rich source of protein and fat, can be produced from waste, which can also be used for biodiesel production (Rehman et al., 2018; Shorstkii et al., 2022; Singh and Kumari, 2019). Therefore, insects offer a valuable solution to two pressing issues: addressing the growing problem of organic waste that could lead to significant environmental challenges if not managed properly, and meeting the increasing demand for feed, food, and fuel (Salomone et al., 2017; Smetana et al., 2016). BSFL consume large quantities of decomposed fruits and vegetables, animal waste, and municipal organic refuse (MOW) (Diener et al., 2015; Salomone et al., 2017). These larvae are saprophagous and voracious feeders capable of utilizing a broad range of decomposing organic substrates. At the end of the feeding period, the prepupae cease feeding and migrate away from the substrate in search of a dry and protected pupation site, which facilitates their separation and harvesting. Their ability to reduce organic waste while producing protein- and lipid-rich prepupal biomass makes them particularly suitable for organic-waste bioconversion (Diener et al., 2009; Surendra et al., 2016).

Recently, the use of BSFL for processing organic waste has drawn considerable interest from insect researchers (Kim et al., 2021). The black soldier fly (BSF), scientifically known as Hermetia illucens, effectively converts livestock manure (from poultry or dairy) and other organic waste into larval biomass that is high in protein and fat, which can be utilized directly or dried for animal feed use (Liu et al., 2017; Shorstkii et al., 2020). Furthermore, this larval biomass can be processed to extract protein and fat, where the fat can be converted to biodiesel and the protein can be used as animal feed (Rehman et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017; Zhu et al., 2019). The residual material remaining after BSFL development can be used as an organic fertilizer or soil amendment (Ma et al., 2018; Mazza et al., 2020; Newton et al., 2005b). Therefore, BSFL-based bioconversion can simultaneously reduce the accumulation of organic waste and generate protein- and lipid-rich biomass for animal-feed and other value-added applications (Diener et al., 2009; Surendra et al., 2016). Rehman et al. experimentally demonstrated the conversion of dairy manure and soybean residue into larval biomass and compost. The process also produces a residual fraction that may be further developed as compost or an organic soil amendment, thereby supporting organic-waste reduction and resource recovery (Gold et al., 2018; Siddiqui et al., 2024).

Life-cycle assessment and environmental performance

Beyond its nutritional and economic potential, the environmental sustainability of BSFL production is an important consideration for its large-scale application. Life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies indicate that the environmental performance of BSFL production depends strongly on the rearing substrate, the energy used for heating and drying, transport requirements, and the allocation of environmental impacts among larval meal, oil, and the residual material (Salomone et al., 2017; Smetana et al., 2016). The use of locally available, low-value organic residues may reduce waste-management burdens and dependence on conventional feed proteins, whereas energy-intensive drying and processing can offset part of these benefits. Future LCA studies should therefore apply clearly defined system boundaries, functional units, allocation methods, and region-specific energy scenarios. Environmental performance should also be evaluated together with nutritional quality, feed efficiency, economic feasibility, safety, and scalability. This integrated approach is necessary to determine the conditions under which BSFL meal provides a genuine sustainability advantage over fishmeal and plant-based aquafeed ingredients.

Functional benefits in aquaculture

Effects on immunity, intestinal health, and disease resistance

In addition to supplying protein and energy, BSFL meal contains chitin, lauric acid, antimicrobial peptides, and other biologically active compounds that may influence antioxidant status, innate immunity, and intestinal microbial communities. In European seabass, replacement of 25–50% of fishmeal protein with BSFL meal improved antioxidant and non-specific immune responses and increased resistance to Vibrio alginolyticus (Abdel-Latif et al., 2021). Changes in intestinal microbial diversity have also been reported in salmonids fed insect-based diets, while complete fishmeal replacement did not compromise the intestinal health of seawater-phase Atlantic salmon in a carefully balanced diet (Li et al., 2017; Rimoldi et al., 2021). Nevertheless, these responses are not always beneficial at all inclusion levels. Functional effects should be interpreted together with growth, nutrient digestibility, intestinal histology, and disease-challenge results. Recent studies indicate that appropriately formulated BSFL-based diets can maintain intestinal integrity while modulating gut microbial communities, immune responses, and antioxidant status. However, these effects remain dependent on the inclusion level and target species (Eide et al., 2024; Moutinho et al., 2024; Rimoldi et al., 2024; Chang et al., 2025).

Use of BSFL meal in crustacean aquaculture

The application of BSFL meal is not limited to finfish. Feeding studies in Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, have demonstrated its potential as a partial fishmeal replacement. Cummins et al. (2017) reported that most estimated growth responses remained close to their maximum when BSFL meal was maintained below approximately 25% of the diet. Chen et al. (2024) subsequently found that replacing 10% or 20% of fishmeal protein did not significantly reduce shrimp growth. The 10% replacement diet also increased survival following a Vibrio parahaemolyticus challenge. In contrast, replacement at 30% reduced growth and produced adverse changes in intestinal structure. These results confirm that BSFL meal may be used in shrimp feed, but its inclusion should be evaluated according to species, processing method, diet composition, and replacement level. In post-larval Penaeus vannamei, complete fishmeal replacement was technically possible in a nutritionally balanced nursery diet, although economic competitiveness depended on the price and dietary inclusion level of BSFL meal (Nunes et al., 2023). The BSFL-based pathway for converting biowaste into animal feed and oil is summarized in Figure 2.

Schematic presentation of animal feed and liquid energy production from proposed BSFL production unit.
Figure 2. Schematic presentation of animal feed and liquid energy production from proposed BSFL production unit.

Economic feasibility

The economic value of BSFL meal depends on local fishmeal prices, the market price of insect meal, rearing-substrate availability, processing and transportation costs, feed conversion, and the market value of the cultured species. Simply reducing fishmeal does not automatically result in a less expensive diet because commercially produced insect meal can sometimes be more expensive than traditional protein sources. However, better feed efficiency can help balance out a higher ingredient cost in some farming systems. In European seabass, replacement of up to 50% of fishmeal protein with defatted BSFL meal-maintained growth while and lowered the estimated feed cost by about 15.6% (Abdel-Tawwab et al., 2020). Rawski et al. (2021) also found that diets containing 10-15% full-fat BSFL meal produced the best economic results in Siberian sturgeon. Under earthen-pond conditions, replacing 25-75% of fishmeal with BSFL meal-maintained Nile tilapia growth and improved profit-related indicators compared with the fishmeal-based control diet (Kariuki et al., 2024). Because of this, economic studies should go beyond just reporting the cost per kilogram of feed. They should also include feed cost per unit of weight gain, economic conversion ratio, return on investment, and how sensitive profits are to changes in BSFL prices. The reported effects of BSFL meal inclusion or fishmeal replacement across aquaculture species are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Effects of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larval meal inclusion.

SpeciesExperimental ecotypeBSFL inclusion rate (fishmeal replacement)Fishmeal protein replacedTrial duration (days)ObservationsReference
Rainbow trout(Oncorhynchus mykiss)Freshwater50%Partial56The sensory quality of trout fillets was not significantly affected although a slight but nonsignificant reduction in growth was observed.Sealey et al., 2011
25%Partial63Weight gain and feed conversion ratio was not affected.St-Hilaire et al., 2007
0%, 50%, 75%Partial56Growth responses and carcass compositions observed from the experiment were significantly influenced by the content of black soldier fly meal in the diet. BSF-meal might substitute fishmeal without severe losses in body weight gain, FCR and protein retention ratio, up to an extent of 50%.Stamer et al., 2014
0%, 28%Partial49The experiment demonstrated that substantial replacement of fishmeal by insect meal is possible without compromising growth, feed conversion and product quality. Improved lipid utilization and decreased protein utilization were observed in fish fed the HIM diet and darker coloration of fish fed HIM were observed.Stadtlander et al., 2017
0%, 6.6%, 13.2%, and 26.4%Partial90TGC was significantly lower with (26.4% BSFL meal) (P<0.05). There was a negative relationship between relative body protein content and dietary inclusion of BSFL meal, (P<0.001). The inclusion of BSFL meal had no impact on the histology of the posterior intestine, but villi in the anterior intestine of trout fed Diet D (26.4% BSFL meal) was significantly shorter relative to the Control diet. Low level of digestibility of lipid and dry matter was observed, digestibility of hydroxyproline increased.Dumas et al., 2018
0%, 25%, 50%Partial98Findings suggest that caution should be taken into account when 50% replacement of conventional ingredients.Cardinaletti et al., 2019
0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%Partial84Fish fed the insect-based diets showed higher bacterial diversity with a reduction in Proteobacteria in comparison to fish fed the fishmeal diet. Insect-meal inclusion in the diet increased the gut abundance of Mycoplasma.Rimoldi et al., 2019
4%Partial_The results indicated that using BSFL as a feed ingredient did not significantly affect the fat content and astaxanthin concentration of fish fillets in rainbow trout.Yousefi Mojir, 2023
0%, 25%, 50%Partial78Survival, growth performance, condition factor, somatic indexes, and dorsal fillet physical quality parameters were not affected by diet. The use of HI larvae meal induced a decrease of valuable polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) even if differences were only reported at the highest level of HI inclusion. The insect meal worsened the lipids health indexes of the same muscle. Dietary inclusion of insect meal did not alter the villus height of the fish. No differences were found among treatments in relation to ADC of ether extract and gross energy, while ADC of dry matter and crude protein were higher in HI 25 if compared to HI 50.Renna et al., 2017
0%, 3%, 6%, 9%, 12%, and 15%Partial131Growth performance parameters and histopathology of liver and gut wasn’t affected, viscero and hepato-somatic indexes increased at (15%). Total saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids increased. Polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased.Caimi et al., 2021
Atlantic salmon(Salmo salar)Freshwater or seawater phase, according to the cited trial33%, 66%, and 100%Partial to total112In general, this study showed that a total replacement of fishmeal with black soldier fly larvae meal in the diets of sea-water Atlantic salmon was possible without negative effects on growth performance, feed utilization, nutrient digestibility, liver traits or the sensory qualities of the fillet.Belghit et al., 2019
0% and 15%Partial112Microbial richness and diversity increased.Li et al., 2020
6.25%, 12.5%, and 25%Partial49BSFL meal and paste could replace up to 12.5% and 6.7% of dietary fishmeal and plant proteins, respectively, without compromising the growth performance or protein retention in Atlantic salmon. Nevertheless, protein and lipid digestibility, protein efficiency ratio and lipid retention decreased linearly with increasing dietary BSFL meal level. At higher replacement level of 25% BSFL meal, the growth rate was reduced, accompanied by a reduction in digestibility and utilization of lipids and protein efficiency ratio.Weththasinghe et al., 2021
0%, 5%, and 10%Partial390The findings from the current study revealed that dietary inclusion of BSFL meal up to 10% did not have any significant effects in general growth, welfare or survival. However, significant positive response was observed in the general skin mucosal, hematological, and gene expression profiles of salmonRadhakrishnan et al., 2023
10%, 20%, and 30%Partial112Specific growth rate, protein efficiency ratio and feed conversion ratio increased.Fisher et al., 2020
Meal, up to 100%Partial to total–No negative effects on growth performances until 85% inclusion. Altered fatty acid profile and increased dry matter content.Lock et al., 2016; Stenberg et al., 2019
European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)Seawater6.5%, 13%, and 19.5%Partial62No differences among groups in growth performance or feed utilization. Up to 19.5% of HM, corresponding to 22.5% of total dietary protein, may successfully replace FM.Magalhaes et al., 2017
0%, 25%, 35%, or 50%Partial56Haemato-serum biochemistry was not significantly affected by in the inclusion of defatted BSFL meal. The economic analysis evoked that feed cost decreased with increasing defatted BSFL meal levels in fish diets, also growth performance was not significantly changed by partial replacement of FM protein up to 50% by defatted BSFL meal protein.Abdel-Tawwab et al., 2020
Meal, up to 45%Partial_No negative effects on growth performances until 45% inclusionSánchez López, 2015; Sánchez-Muros et al., 2014
Jian carp(Cyprinus carpio var. Jian)Freshwater0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%Partial to total59Growth, nutritive utilization and serum biochemical parameters were unaffected and muscle DHA increased. However, replacement levels of 75% and above caused intestinal histopathological changes and increased indicators of dietary stress. The authors considered replacement up to 50% suitable.Li et al., 2016
0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%Partial to total56No negative effects until 50% inclusion. Mild hepatic necrosis in liver beyond 50% and irregular shaped hepatocytes, and apoptotic cells with small pyknotic nuclei at 100% fishmeal replacementZhou et al., 2018
Goldfish (Carassius auratus)Freshwater0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%Partial to total60Replacing 60% of the fishmeal protein with BSFL meal, equivalent to 201 g/kg of diet, resulted in the highest growth and feed utilization in juvenile goldfish.Kamalii et al., 2022
Nile tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus)Freshwater0%, 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%Partial to total84Replacement of fishmeal protein up to 100% did not adversely affect growth, feed utilization, survival, or hematological variables. Skin-mucus lysozyme and peroxidase activities were enhanced in fish receiving BSFL meal.Tippayadara et al., 2021
0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%Partial to total56Weight gain, specific growth rate and crude protein content increased at 50%. No significant differences in crude protein content and 100%)Muin et al., 2017
Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)reported asPsetta maxima (Linnaeus, 1758)Seawater0%, 17%, 33%, 49%, 64%, and 76%Partial56Feed intake, FCR and Growth performance was affected by dietary Hermetia illucens meal (HM) inclusion and decreased with increasing HM. Protein retention decreased significantly with increasing supplementation.Kroeckel et al., 2012
Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)Seawater/brackish water0%, 4.75%, 9.50%, and 14.25%Partial49Growth was maintained at 10% and 20% replacement but declined at 30%. The 10% treatment improved survival after Vibrio parahaemolyticus challenge, whereas the 30% treatment adversely affected intestinal structure.Chen et al., 2021

ADC, apparent digestibility coefficient; BSF, black soldier fly; BSFL, black soldier fly larvae; BSFLM, black soldier fly larvae meal; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; FCR, feed conversion ratio; FM, fishmeal; HI, Hermetia illucens; HIM, Hermetia illucens meal; HM, Hermetia illucens meal; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids; TGC, thermal growth coefficient.

Challenges in BSFL utilization

Using BSFL in aquaculture feed has a lot of potential, but there are a few key challenges that still need to be solved to use it effectively:

Elevated Fat Content: BSFL naturally possess high lipid concentrations, which can make it difficult to design well-balanced diets for fish. High fat levels can also cause practical problems, such as making feed pellets less stable and increasing the risk of fat oxidation during storage. To address this, researchers have suggested using defatted BSFL meal as a solution (Spranghers et al., 2017; Dumas et al., 2018; Rawski et al., 2020; Hurtado-Ribeira et al., 2023). Recent work also shows that full-fat and defatted BSFL products may produce different physiological responses, and very high replacement levels can cause adverse histological or intestinal changes even when overall growth is maintained (Sangsawang et al., 2024; Chang et al., 2025).

Chitin Presence: The exoskeleton of BSFL contains a high amount of chitin, a tough fiber that can be difficult for certain fish species to digest. Elevated chitin levels can hinder nutrient uptake and impact growth performance (Kroeckel et al., 2012; Eggink et al., 2022). Slaughtering, drying, and defatting methods can affect the oxidative quality of BSFL fat (Hurtado-Ribeira et al., 2023). Techniques such as fermentation can aid in lowering chitin content, thereby improving digestibility (Ardra et al., 2024).

Amino Acid Profile: Compared to fishmeal, BSFL may be low in certain essential amino acids. If this is not taken care of, it can affect fish growth and overall health. This can be managed by adding specific amino acids to BSFL-based diets or by blending BSFL with other protein sources to create a more balanced nutrient profile (Oliveira et al., 2024; Dirvariu et al., 2025).

Potential Contaminants: The type of substrate used for rearing BSFL plays a key role because it determines their nutritional value and how much contamination they might carry. When larvae are grown on contaminated organic waste, there is a chance for the accumulation of toxins or pathogens, which may harm aquaculture species. It is crucial to use clean and regulated substrates to minimize this risk (Spranghers et al., 2017; Purschke et al., 2017; Biancarosa et al., 2018; Gorrens et al., 2021).

Regulatory and Consumer Acceptance: The application of insects in animal feed is still new, and regulatory structures are not fully developed in every area. Moreover, consumer attitudes towards insect-based feeds can impact market approval. To improve acceptance, it is important to work with regulatory agencies and run public awareness programs. More research and development are also needed to address these challenges. Solving these issues will help increase the use of BSFL in aquafeeds and support more sustainable and cost-effective aquaculture.

Safety of BSFL used as food and feed

The black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) is increasingly seen as one of the most promising insect species for feed and food production due to its outstanding nutritional benefits (Abd et al., 2020). For economic sustainability and to support a circular economy, BSFL should ideally be raised on substrates that have little to no alternative use as feed or food sources (Bosch et al., 2019). These larvae can efficiently convert organic waste into valuable biomass, which makes them significant for a range of industrial uses because of their chemical makeup (Smets et al., 2020; Surendra et al., 2020). Ensuring chemical safety is vital for the use of BSFL as feed ingredients. The potential accumulation of various inorganic and organic contaminants, such as heavy metals, mycotoxins, and pesticides, in BSFL raises safety concerns, making the selection of rearing substrate crucial (Zhang et al., 2021). Given the lack of safety data, the European Union currently limits the use of certain organic waste streams for BSFL rearing, only allowing pre-consumed vegetable and fruit waste (Lievens et al., 2021). Organic waste streams may harbor harmful substances, including pharmaceuticals, pesticides, heavy metals, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), leading to worries about the transfer and accumulation of contaminants within the food and feed chain (Lievens et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021). Research endeavors have focused on verifying the safety of BSFL for food and feed applications (Bessa et al., 2021; Diener et al., 2015; Makkar et al., 2014). Investigations have indicated that BSFL treatment can lower microbial levels in substrates (Erickson et al., 2004; Lalander et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2008). Furthermore, results suggest that contaminants like dioxins, PCBs, PAHs, certain pesticides, antibiotics, and mycotoxins typically do not accumulate in BSFL (Bessa et al., 2021; Bosch et al., 2017; Lalander et al., 2016; Abdelfattah et al., 2021; Purschke et al., 2017).

However, heavy metals, especially cadmium and lead, are a significant concern. While cadmium, lead, and zinc do not greatly impact BSFL physiology, cadmium is known to accumulate in the larvae (Diener et al., 2015). Other research has indicated that heavy metals, including cadmium and chromium, can build up in larval and prepupal stages, occasionally surpassing permitted levels for animal feed (Lievens et al., 2021; Purschke et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2020). The decrease in biowaste volume during BSFL processing also intensifies heavy metal concentrations in the residues, restricting their use as soil conditioners or biofertilizers. Additionally, the presence of bacteria on or within the larvae and substrate residues may pose risks to the safety of animal feed and to human and environmental health (Lalander et al., 2013; Kannah et al., 2020). Research indicates that inoculating biowaste with beneficial bacteria can enhance the efficiency of BSFL processing (Zhang et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2020; Rehman et al., 2019; Xiao et al., 2018). Therefore, to guarantee the safe application of BSFL in food and feed, it is crucial to monitor heavy metals (like cadmium and lead) and pathogenic microorganisms in both larvae and substrate residues.

Conclusion

The increasing cost of fishmeal and the growing emphasis on sustainability have encouraged the search for alternative aquafeed ingredients (Kroeckel et al., 2012). Insect-based diets, particularly those containing BSFL meal, have shown promising results in aquaculture feeding trials (Kroeckel et al., 2012; Lanes et al., 2021). BSFL is abundant in crude protein, making it a viable replacement for fishmeal, and its elevated energy and fat content can provide further advantages in feed formulations. However, its nutritional composition is highly variable. Nevertheless, chitin present in the larval exoskeleton may reduce nutrient availability and digestibility, thus limiting the use of BSFL meal at high dietary inclusion levels (Kroeckel et al., 2012). Current feeding studies do not provide clear evidence that replacing more than 50% of fishmeal with BSFL is harmful. In fact, some species like Atlantic salmon, Jian carp, and Nile tilapia have been successfully raised on diets with high or even complete replacement of fishmeal with BSFL. Very recent studies have broadened the available evidence by reporting total fishmeal replacement in Parachanna obscura post larvae, evaluating adult black soldier fly meal as a shrimp-feed ingredient, and directly assessing BSFL-meal digestibility and palatability in Penaeus vannamei (Aissetche et al., 2026; Fricke et al., 2026; Tharaka et al., 2026). In contrast, other species such as turbot, shrimp, and a few others showed reduced growth, poorer nutrient absorption, or gut health issues at lower replacement levels. This is likely due to the high chitin and fat content in BSFL, and because some species are not well adapted to digest insect-based feeds. Because of these differences, the right inclusion level of BSFL needs to be worked out separately for each species and life stage. This should be done using balanced diets and BSFL products with consistent quality. Fish fed BSFL often show improvements in body composition, but more studies are needed across a wider range of commercially important fish species to fully understand its potential. Beyond aquaculture, BSFL also provide a promising solution for waste management. They can convert organic waste into useful products like protein, fat, biodiesel, chitin, and melanin. This process can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and minimize the environmental problems caused by landfills and incineration. The type of organic waste used to rear BSFL plays a big role in determining their protein and fat content. For example, waste that is too high in fiber can slow down BSFL growth due to poor nutrition. Recent work on combining different types of organic waste and adding beneficial microbes has improved the nutritional quality of BSFL, making them more suitable for both waste treatment and animal feed production. However, the sustainability of BSFL-based aquafeeds cannot be assumed solely from the capacity of larvae to turn organic waste into useful biomass. Life-cycle assessments is required to determine if BSFL meal is truly better for the environment than fishmeal or standard plant proteins ingredients. Available LCA studies show that the environmental impact depends a lot on several factors: what the larvae are fed, where that substrate comes from, how much energy is used for heating and drying, how far materials are transported, the processing methods, the electricity source, and how impacts are split between larval meal, oil, and frass. Energy-intensive processing or the use of purpose-grown substrates may offset some of the benefits associated with waste valorization. Future research should use clear and consistent system boundaries, functional units, allocation methods, and region-specific energy data, while integrating environmental indicators with nutritional performance, economic feasibility, feed safety, regulatory compliance, and the ability to scale production. Only with this kind of transparent, LCA-based approach we can identify which BSFL production systems actually deliver real sustainability benefits and support the responsible growth of BSFL as an aquafeed ingredient.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Stanley Iheanacho, University of Kiel, Germany

Reviewed by: Johnny Ogunji, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu Alike, Nigeria

Jibrin Muhammad Yelwa, National Research Institute for Chemical Technology, Nigeria

Statements

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Author contributions

KS: Visualization, Writing – review & editing. GI: Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing. A: Writing – review & editing. SM: Writing – review & editing. OA: Writing – review & editing. FR: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

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Citation

Saba, K., et al. (2026). Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal in aquafeed for a sustainable aquaculture industry: a review. Frontiers in Aquaculture, Volume 5. https://doi.org/
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5 - 2026

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Copyright © 2026 Saba, Iqbal, Aakila, Mushtaq, Asimi and Rashid.

License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

*Correspondence: Faisal Rashid

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