Tuning the structure-piezoelectric property relationship in electrospun PLLA nanofibers through collector-induced fiber alignment

Electrospinning has become one of the most common methods to fabricate piezoelectric polymer nanofibers for flexible electronics, sensors, energy harvesting devices, and bioelectronic scaffolds. Fiber alignment is one of many parameters that can impact nanofiber performance attributes since alignment affects mechanical anisotropy, crystal organization, and piezoelectric response. Nonetheless, few published works provide an in-depth discussion of collector rotation speed as it impacts nanofiber alignment, leaving detailed and reproducible methods for tuning alignment-dependent piezoelectric performance largely unreported. Here, we report a standardized electrospinning protocol to reproducibly fabricate piezoelectric nanofibers with controlled alignment through tuning the speed of a rotating collector. The steps in this protocol include preparing polymer solutions, setting up an electrospinning system, determining collector speed, collecting fibers, performing optional post-processing steps, and quantitatively evaluating fiber morphology and piezoelectric response. The protocol was validated through quantification of fiber alignment using scanning electron microscopy coupled with image-based orientation metrics, and piezoelectric performance through quantification of electrical output and piezoelectric coefficients. We demonstrated that increasing collector rotation speed from 1000 to 4000 rpm reduced orientation spread from 19.57° to 11.23°, and showed this increase in alignment was associated with an increase in the effective piezoelectric coefficient (d33) from 3.37 pC/N to 5.92 pC/N and an increase in open-circuit voltage output from 15 mV to 35 mV. These results highlight how the provided protocol enables users to reproducibly tune nanofiber orientation and associated piezoelectric performance. This protocol can aid in the design of scaffolds with tunable properties, wearable sensors, and mechanically-triggered energy harvesting devices.

Piezoelectric materials convert mechanical strain into electrical signals (Whitfield et al., 2026). Piezoelectric polymers have been widely used in applications that benefit from flexibility such as flexible electronics, wearable sensors, energy harvesters, and electrically active biomaterial scaffolds (Xu et al., 2024). Polymeric biomaterials have also been broadly engineered for biomedical applications through control of their chemical, structural, and functional properties (Wei et al., 2023). Poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) is one of several biodegradable piezoelectric polymers that has seen increased attention due to its unique characteristics of biocompatibility, biodegradability, mechanical flexibility, and piezoelectricity (Schonlein et al., 2026; Dai et al., 2022) PLLA exhibits promising properties and shows potential for applications in piezoelectric nanofiber systems due to its high surface area, structural tunability, mechanical compliance, biodegradability, and intrinsic piezoelectric properties(Chen et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2024; Tai et al., 2021). In particular, our groups have demonstrated PLLA nanofiber-based piezoelectric systems for biodegradable transducers, cartilage repair, wound healing, and osteoinductive scaffolds (Das, et.al., 2023; Das, et.al., 2024; Vinikoor, et.al., 2023; Le, et.al., 2022; Liu, et.al., 2022; Curry, et.al., 2020; Huang, et.al., 2018; Das, et.al., 2021), highlighting their structural tunability and ability to generate therapeutic electrical cues under mechanical or ultrasound stimulation.

Electrospinning is one of the most widely utilized methods to produce polymer nanofibers (Lian et al., 2024). When applied to a droplet of polymer solution, a high electric field pulls the fluid out of the needle toward a grounded collector. This process results in continuous fibers that range from micro- to nanoscale diameter (Al-Abduljabbar and Farooq, 2022). Electrospun nanofiber mats are more similar to native ECM architecture than bulk films and allow for enhanced control over fiber diameter, alignment, and surface topography (Dai et al., 2025). The elongation involved in electrospinning can also help induce molecular alignment and crystallinity, both key factors for piezoelectricity in PLLA fibers.

Of these many factors influencing nanofiber performance, fiber alignment has garnered particular interest (Robinson et al., 2021). Randomly deposited fibers result in isotropic mats, while aligned fibers boast enhanced directionality in mechanical properties and can induce more uniform electromechanical responses (Delaine-Smith et al., 2021). In PLLA nanofibers, increased alignment could facilitate enhanced chain orientation, improved stress transfer and piezoelectric output under mechanical loading (Rentero et al., 2025). For these reasons, fiber alignment presents an important parameter to be controlled when designing nanofiber scaffolds and devices with tailored piezoelectric properties.

One common approach for aligning fibers during electrospinning is to employ a rotating collector. By varying collector speed, the degree of fiber stretching and alignment can be tuned. Slow speeds typically lead to non-aligned or weakly aligned fibers while rapid rotation tends to yield highly aligned fibers along the axis of rotation. Many previous studies have implemented rotating collectors to align nanofibers, however specifics of these experiments are often omitted or included as supplementary material. Too often those specifics include limited discussion on solution preparation, ambient environment, collector configuration, speed determination, alignment quantification, or even piezo validation. This limits the ability of others to reproduce the presented methods or compare data between studies. As a result, the relationship between collector rotation speed, fiber alignment, and the resulting piezoelectric response has not been systematically characterized.

We provide here a detailed and reproducible electrospinning protocol to produce aligned poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) nanofibers, by controlling the rotating collector speed. This protocol details every step from polymer solution preparation to electrospinning conditions, collector speeds, fiber harvest and post-processing, as well as tips to characterize fiber morphology, alignment, crystallinity and piezoelectric output. We standardized both fabrication and validation methods to offer others a feasible protocol that can evaluate the relationship between collector rotation speed, fiber alignment, and piezoelectric properties. This protocol was designed to assist others in reproducibly fabricating PLLA nanofibers for use in sensors, energy-harvesting and bioelectronics scaffolds.

Here we present an optimized electrospinning protocol for the fabrication of aligned PLLA nanofiber scaffolds with enhanced piezoelectric performance (Whitfield et al., 2026; Das et al., 2023; Das et al., 2024; Vinikoor et al., 2023; Le et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022; Curry et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2018; Das et al., 2021; McHugh et al., 2017). This protocol details the fabrication workflow including the polymer preparation, electrospinning setup and operation, post-treatment procedures, scaffold characterization and troubleshooting guidelines to ensure reproducible production (Figure 1).

Preparation of PL38 solution

20 mL of chloroform (Millipore Sigma) was added to 1 g of PL38 (Corbion Purac Amsterdam, Netherlands) in a glass vial containing a magnetic stir bar. This solution was stirred overnight at room temperature until the polymer was fully solubilized. By manipulating these concentrations, one can alter the polymer concentration and viscosity of the solution to find the optimized electrospinning setup, as each electrospinning machine is not exactly the same.

Electrospinning setup

The electrospinning setup was assembled as follows (Figure 1): The collector drum (Automation Direct, Cumming, GA) was tightly wrapped with heavy duty aluminum foil (Fisher Scientific, NC0242536), shiny side up, such that the entire surface was covered without gaps or wrinkles. The foil overlap was cut and the resulting gap was secured with 2-inch Fisherbrand labeling tape (ThermoFisher Scientific, 15–953).

An EFTE tube syringe line (IDEX Health and Science, Northbrook, IL) was installed in the electrospinning chamber by connecting the tubing between a 10 mL Slip Tip BD Vacutainer Syringe (Fisher Scientific, 14-823-16 B) mounted in the syringe pump (New Era Pump Systems, Farmingdale, NY) and the needle assembly output (Figure 1A).

The needle assembly output was affixed with a 1.5 inch, 20 G needle (Fisher Scientific, 14-826D). The distance from the needle assembly tip to the surface of the collector drum is fixed 3 3/8’’ (8.573 cm), and is kept consistent throughout every electrospinning session.

To flush the line, 3–5 mL of chloroform was manually pushed through the ETFE tubing and needle assembly into a large KimWipe (Fisher Scientific, 06-666-1 A), taking care not to splash the chloroform onto the collector drum or the aluminum on it. This is followed by 3 cycles of 10 mL of air to remove residual chloroform. This chloroform syringe was then discarded.

To replace the chloroform syringe, 10 mL of the prepared PL38 solution was drawn up into aa 10-mL syringe through a20-gauge hypodermic needle (Fisher Scientific, 14-826D),ensuring no air bubbles were present in the syringe.

The needle was removed, and the syringe containing the prepared PL38 solution was twisted onto the ETFE tube and inserted into the syringe pump.

The line is primed by pumping the prepared PL38 solution through the ETFE Tube syringe line at a rate of 2 mL/min until the solution reached the end of the line, stopping the pump once drops of the prepared PL38 solution exited the needle assembly. Once the droplets of the prepared PL38 solution was cleaned up, the syringe pump rate was then changed to 2 mL/h.

Electrodes were connected to the needle using alligator clips such that the electrodes were positioned 6 mm on either side of the center of the needle.

Several electrospinning parameters such as applied voltage, flow rate, humidity, and tip-to-collector distance, may also influence fiber alignment and piezoelectric performance. As such, these parameters (polymer concentration, applied voltage, flow rate, humidity and tip-to-collector distance) are kept consistent throughout the process. With the setup complete, the nanofibers can now be electrospun.

Electrospinning operation

The collector rotation speed was set to the desired rpm (1000–4000 rpm). To ensure proper operation, the collector drum’s rotation was observed in a test run to determine there was no rattling or misalignment of the aluminum placed on the drum.

The pre-programmed stepper motor controllers were switched on to move the needle assembly back and forth in front of the face of collector drum as it was rotating.

The voltage supply was turn on and set it to 14 kV. The syringe pump was activated.

The drum was monitored to ensure the fibers were collecting on the drum.

The relative humidity was monitored (FisherScientific, 13-245-281) within the electrospinning chamber and ensured it was maintained at 25%–35% throughout the process

If it was above 35%, dry air was pumped into the electrospinning box until a stable humidity was reached.

If it was below 25%, a small amount of ultrahigh pure water was added into a small, non-conductive container and left inside the electrospinning box until a stable humidity is reached.

The needle assembly was continuously monitored for clogging and, if necessary, had obstructions removed from the needle tip using a non-conductive brush. Repeat steps 5 and 6 until the prepared solution is completely emptied from the syringe.

Once the electrospinning process is complete, the PL38 syringe was refilled with air and the line flushed once at 2 mL/h to remove any remaining PL38 solution. After the line is completely flushed, the system was shut down. First the voltage was turned off, then the pump, then the motor and finally the collector drum.

The electrospun fibers were left on the collector drum overnight to allow remaining chloroform to evaporate. Any possibly remaining chloroform in the electrospun material was removed in the following annealing process.

Post-treatment annealing

The aluminum containing the electrospun fibers was carefully removed from the collector drum.

The aluminum foil was marked with an arrow indicating the direction of the drum’s rotation and cut in half such that the + side (needle-facing side) fit within the oven (Quincy Lab Model 10, Burr Ridge, Illinois).

The electrospun fiber-containing aluminum sheet was placed in the oven set at 105 °C overnight, allowing the remaining chloroform to evaporate from the material completely The oven was then turned off the following morning and allowed to equilibrate to room temperature before the material was removed.

The electrospun sheet was carefully removed from the aluminum foil. The film was placed on extra-thick microscope slides (FisherScientific, 22–267013) sandwiched between two Teflon films (American Durafilm, 500A005-122).

This assembly was placed in a different oven (Quincy Lab Model 40 E, Burr Ridge, Illinois) set at 160 °C overnight. The oven was then turned off the following morning and allowed to cool to room temperature before the material was removed from the Teflon.

After this annealing step, the electrospun films were then sectioned into nanofibers.

Cryosectioning into nanofibers

An electrospun film was cut into 2 × 3 cm sections using a metal razor blade (Fisher Scientific, Cat No. 13-812-236), with the fiber alignment-oriented perpendicular to the short edge of each section.

One film section was placed into a 22 × 33 × 40 mm disposable embedding mold (Fisher Scientific, Cat No. 12-20) and covered completely with O.C.T. (Fisher Scientific, Cat No. 23-730-571).

A second film section was placed on top of the O.C.T layer and covered with additional O.C.T compound. This alternating layering process was repeated until the mold was full. Approximately five embedding molds were prepared.

The molds containing the electrospun films were then frozen at −80 °C for a minimum of 2 h.

Once he frozen molds were completed, a Sturkey Infinity High Profile Microtome Blade (Fisher Scientific, Cat No. 22-210-061), and 50 mL plastic centrifuge tubes (FisherScientific, Cat No. 06-443-19) were transferred to a Leica CM3050 S Cryostat (Lab X, ON, Canada). The cryostat chamber temperature was maintained at −20 °C.

The microtome blade was secured in the blade holder. A small amount of O.C.T compound was applied to the specimen holder, and the frozen film block was mounted onto the holder. The mounted sample was allowed to equilibrate in the cryostat for 5 min to ensure secure attachment to the sample holder.

The specimen block was aligned such that 0.25 µm sections were cut perpendicular to the fiber direction.

Cryosectioned nanofibers were collected using a paintbrush (pre-equilibrated to −20 °C) and transferred into a 50 mL centrifuge tube.

20 mL of Mili-Q ultrapure water was added to the centrifuge tube containing the nanofibers, followed by sonication at 40 kHz and 100% power for 10 min.

An additional 15 mL of Mili-Q ultrapure water was added, and mixture was centrifuged at 4,900 rpm for 10 min at 4 °C. Following centrifugation, the supernatant containing water and O.C.T was carefully removed.

Steps 9 and 10 were repeated until all residual O.C.T was removed.

2 °mL of Mili-Q ultrapure water was added to the nanofibers followed by sonication. The centrifuge tube containing the nanofibers was then frozen at −80 °C.

Frozen samples were transferred to a lyophilization flask and lyophilized overnight. Sample was then collected and stored in a desiccator for up to 2 months.

Scaffold fabrication

The electrospun and annealed sheet was cut into 1 × 1 cm squares at 45 ° to the direction of the electrospun fibers.

For accurate piezoelectric characterization, the samples were soaked in DI water for 30 min to reduce triboelectric effect.

The samples were then dried in a desiccator with Kimwipes (FisherScientific, 06–666 A) underneath.

Aluminum foil electrodes (FisherScientific, 01-213-100) were cut into 0.8 cm × 0.8 cm and placed on two different pieces of polymide tape.

A precut 1 × 1 cm electrospun film was placed in the bottom electrode, the edges carefully secured to the polymide tape. The polymide tape containing the top electrode was carefully placed on top of that material, taking care to keep the aluminum leads parallel to each other (Figure 2B).

The exposed electrode leads that were not covered with polymide tape were reinforced with copper tape (Ted Pella).

Scaffold characterization

Measurement of open-circuit output voltage under ultrasound system

Open-circuit voltage output was measured using an oscilloscope (Picoscope 4000 A Series, 4824 A), with the sample subjected to ultrasound parameters of 1 MHz and 0.5 W/cm 2 (Richmar, SoundCare Plus, DQ9275) The finished sample was taped down with one layer of polymide tape (DuPont) directly perpendicular to where the sample is located to restrict electrode movement. Three The sample electrode was then coated with a small amount of Aquasonic 100 Ultrasound Transmission Gel (AquasonicGel, Clinton Township, MI), taking care to make sure the gel and the ultrasound transducer only touch the part of the electrode where the sample is located (Figure 2) to isolate the sample response. The transducer was then lightly placed on the ultrasound gel covering the sample for less than 10 seconds, and the resulting waveform was recorded.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

SEM was used to visualize scaffold microstructure, morphology, and porosity. Scaffold film was mounted on a standard SEM pin (Ted Pella, Redding, CA) using carbon conductive tape (Ted Pella, Redding, CA). Samples were plated in gold-palladium and imaged with (VERIOS, Storrs CT) SEM at ×5 kV and ×5000 magnification. Fiber orientation was quantified from SEM images for pre-sectioned PLLA nanofiber samples using the MATLAB Image Processing Toolbox and a two-dimensional structure tensor approach. Orientation distributions were generated as normalized intensity histograms over 0-180°. Orientation spread was calculated to quantify the dispersion of fiber alignments, with lower values associated with greater fiber alignment.

X-Ray diffraction (XRD)

All XRD diffraction measurements were performed at room temperature using a Bruker D2 phaser. The diffraction patterns were recorded from 5° to 45° with a scan rate of 0.1°/min.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was performed to characterize the chemical composition and evaluate the structural and conformational changes of the electrospun films, including changes in the α-phase and β-phase spectral features that may influence piezoelectric behavior. Film samples were sectioned into individual layers. Powder samples prepared as transparent KBr pellets by first drying at least 200 mg of KBr powder (Sigma Aldrich, Burlington, MA) overnight at 110 C, then mixing 2 mg of sample with the KBr using a mortar and pestle, and finally compressing the mixture in a pellet press (MSE Supplies, Tucson, AZ) under 14000 lb for 2–4 min. A background spectrum was collected prior to each measurement. Sample spectra were acquired from each film layer using an FTIR spectrometer (Nicolet iS20 Spectrometer, ThermoScientific) over the range of 400-4000 cm -1 with spectral resolution of 1 cm -1 using 16 scans per sample. The relative α-phase and β-phase content was calculated from the raw FTIR data by integrating the area under the curve within the 908-933 cm -1 and 853-883 cm -1 ranges, respectively. The integrated area for each phase was normalized to the sum of the integrated areas of both regions.

Piezoelectric coefficient measurement (d 33)

Electrospun samples were cut into 1 × 1 cm 2 sections and placed on a PolyK Quasi Static Piezoelectric d33 meter (State College, PA United States). A compressive force of 0.05 N was applied using a PolyK 10 N Static Force Sensor (State College, PA, United States) and the effective piezoelectric charge coefficient was measured.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

All DSC measurements were performed using a TA Instrument DSC Q20 (TA Instruments, New Castle, DE). Approximately 5–10 mg of material (powder or film) was placed in standard hermetic aluminum pans (PerkinElmer, 02190041, Waltham, MA). The pans were sealed using a TA Instrument Blue Press T (A Instruments, New Castle, DE) to ensure a hermetic seal. Two heating cycles were performed from 0 °C to 210 °C at a heating rate of 10 °C/min, with the temperature held for 2 min at the end of each cycle.

Troubleshooting

Researchers following this protocol may encounter common complications during the electrospinning process. This section outlines potential challenges, causes, and recommended solutions to prevent or resolve those most frequently encountered.

Relationship between collector speed and fiber orientation

To investigate the effect of drum collector rotation speed on nanofiber orientation and alignment, electrospun PL38 films were fabricated at the following drum rotational speeds: 1000 rpm, 2000 rpm, 4000 rpm. The resulting scaffolds were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) before and after Cryosectioning to evaluate scaffold microstructure. Pre-cryosectioned fibers collected at 1000 rpm exhibited a more random and unaligned fiber orientation compared to those collected at 2000 and 4000 rpm, which demonstrate increased fiber alignment along the direction of collector rotation (Figures 3A–C). Following Cryosectioning, rotation-dependent morphology differences were maintained, with lower drum rotation speeds resulting in more heterogeneous and disorganized fiber arrangement. In comparison, 4000 rpm samples retained a highly orientated architecture characterized by aligned fiber bundles (Figures 3D–F). Quantitative analysis of fiber orientation was conducted using the SEM images of the pre-sectioned samples fabricated at 1000 rpm, 2000 rpm and 4000 rpm. Consistent with qualitative observations, the normalized orientation histograms show narrower distribution of fiber orientation angles at higher rotational speeds, indicating a stronger concentration of fibers around a dominant fiber orientation. Further, the quantified orientation spread decreases with increasing collector rotation speed, from 19.57 ° at 1000 rpm, to 14.68 ° at 2000 rpm and 11.23 ° at 4000 rpm (Figures 3G,H). This increased fiber alignment observed at greater speeds is attributed to stronger directional pull and increased shear forces of the polymer jet at higher collector rotation speeds, which aids to minimize jet stream oscillations that may result in random fiber deposition.

Relationship between alignment, structural characteristics, and piezoelectric response

To evaluate the relationship between fiber alignment and structural changes associated with piezoelectric behavior, FTIR spectroscopy was used to compare the α-phase and β-phase associated spectral features of the three samples. The overall FTIR spectral of the PL38 films fabricated at 1000, 2000 and 4000 rpm exhibit similar characteristic absorption bands (Figure 4A) indicating consistent chemical composition between all sample nanofiber sheets. However, when focusing on the FTIR region corresponding to piezoelectric activity, 850-940 cm -1, it is evident that films fabricated at higher collector rotation speeds (2000 and 4000 rpm) show increased peak intensity of the beta-phase associated peak compared with 1000 rpm samples (Figure 4B). As shown in Table 1, increasing rotation speed during fabrication corresponds with increased PLLA beta: alpha phase. Both piezoelectric coefficient measurement, and output voltage measurement under ultrasound stimulation were used to verify the piezoelectric ability of the PL38 films fabricated at 1000,2000, and 4000 rpm. Consistent with FTIR findings a clear increasing trend was observed between collector speed and piezoelectric response as measured by effective piezoelectric constant (Table 2) and output voltage (Figure 5). The highest voltage output and effective piezoelectric constant are reported for samples prepared at 4000 rpm (35 mV, 5.92 pC/N) followed by 2000 rpm (20 mV, 4.13 pC/N) and 1000 rpm (15 mV, 3.37 pC/N). These findings suggest that increased fiber alignment during fabrication may enhance molecular packing within the polymer fibers, contributing to greater electroactive beta phase characteristics and resulting in increased piezoelectric coefficient and voltage output.

Morphology and property trends

X-ray diffraction analysis was performed on the nanofiber films fabricated at varying collector rotation speeds to confirm polymer crystalline structures. All samples exhibited similar diffraction patterns across the measured range with no apparent differences in peak position or intensity across samples (Figure 6A). In addition, DSC analysis was performed to confirm the thermal properties and crystallization behavior of the samples. All samples exhibited similar thermal transition behavior, with all samples displaying characteristic melting endotherm near 180 °C (Figure 6B).

The method described provides a reproducible approach for tuning fiber alignment in electrospun PLLA nanofibers through control of collector rotation speed (Ayres et al., 2006). By increasing collector rotation speeds from 1000 to 4000 rpm, fiber alignment progressively increased as measured by a reduction in orientation spread from 19.57° to 11.23°. This was associated with increased electromechanical response, as the effective piezoelectric coefficient and open-circuit voltage output increased from 3.37 pC/N and 15 mV (1000 rpm) to 5.92 pC/N and 35 mV (4000 rpm). Therefore, our validated protocol demonstrates that tuning collector roation speed allows control of the fibers’ degree of alignment, leading to the desired level of anisotropy as well as piezoelectric response of the resultant fibers 2611. This approach can be leveraged towards the fabrication of piezoelectric flexible sensors/nanogenerators as well as electrically-active tissue engineering scaffolds with directionally dependent mechanical and electrical properties (Chen et al., 2025).

One advantage of this method is its simplicity. Adjustment of the collector speed allows control over alignment with little modification necessary to a typical electrospinning setup. Additionally, this method emphasized the ability to reproduce fibrous assemblies by reporting important parameters during fabrication, environmental factors, and characterization techniques to verify both alignment and piezoelectricity. This systematic approach may limit variance between studies and enable direct comparison of data between research groups.

This method also has some disadvantages. Fiber alignment is not only affected by collector speed, but other experimental parameters such as polymer concentration, solvent system, flow rate, applied voltage, tip- to- collector distance, and temperature and humidity of the environment. Hence, collector speed may not solely affect the final fiber morphology and electromechanical behavior. Fibers can also face issues with instability, breakage, or nonuniform deposition at extremely high rotational speeds, decreasing mat quality and reproducibility. All parameters must be optimized systematically for each system.

It should also be noted that fiber alignment does not always correlate linearly with piezoelectricity. Although higher alignment will help achieve directional response, crystalline phase content, dipole alignment, fiber diameter as well as device design will affect piezoelectric response (Echeverria et al., 2021). Morphological evaluation should therefore be coupled with structural and functional characterization to confirm fabrication parameters influence.

In summary, this method provides an efficient and versatile technique to produce piezoelectric PLLA based nanofibers that are aligned with tunable characteristics. Under the conditions examined, increasing collector rotation speed from 1000 to 4000 rpm reduced fiber orientation spread from 19.57° to 11.23°, and was accompanied by an increase in effective piezoelectric response from 3.37 pC/N to 5.92 pC/N and ultrasound-induced voltage output from 15 mV to 35 mV. By combining controlled electrospinning parameters with quantitative characterization, this protocol provides a practical framework for the fabrication, tuning, and evaluation of piezoelectric nanofiber systems Further implementations of this technique can involve other polymer systems, piezoelectric composite nanofibers, multilayer structures, or scaled-up set-ups. By providing a detailed and validated procedure, this method can support broader adoption of electrospun piezoelectric nanofibers in both research and applied device development.