The eagle as an agricultural ally: quantifying the predation of medically significant snakes and public perception gaps in the Thar Desert

Effective raptor conservation in human-dominated landscapes requires understanding both biological realities and local socio-ecological perceptions. This study investigated the dietary ecology and community perception of the short-toed snake eagle (Circaetus gallicus) in the agropastoral landscapes of the Thar Desert, India. Autonomous nest camera monitoring was used to observe a single representative breeding pair during the chick-provisioning phase. Concurrently, a structured survey of 87 local community members assessed traditional ecological knowledge and socio-cultural perceptions across different age cohorts and livelihoods (traditional pastoralists and agriculturalists). Camera monitoring recorded 62 prey deliveries, revealing similar proportions of snakes (order Ophidia) and large desert lizards (order Lacertilia) during the observation period. Baseline perceptions were highly positive, with strong consensus on the eagle’s cultural value (median=4.0, IQR=1.0) and conservation importance. Furthermore, respondents demonstrated an acute awareness of the eagle’s role as a biological snake controller (median=3.67, IQR=1.0). However, quantitative analysis revealed a highly significant ecological blind spot (p<0.001) regarding the raptor’s reliance on desert lizards, with widespread lack of awareness (median=1.0) cutting equally across all generations and livelihood groups. To foster long-term coexistence, we recommend an “agricultural ally” conservation framework. By actively integrating empirical nest camera evidence with the community’s existing spiritual ethos of compassion (Jeev-Daya), conservationists can bridge this cognitive gap. Demonstrating that culturally revered snake controllers depend fundamentally on lizards can transform local perspectives on native open scrublands, protecting these critical habitats from industrial fragmentation.

Apex predators serve as vital ecological indicators of environmental stability, structuring trophic cascades and regulating community dynamics within their foraging ranges (Ordiz et al., 2021). Many birds of prey occupy the highest trophic levels, functioning as apex predators in terrestrial food chains. They are among the most familiar and geographically widespread of all vertebrates (McClure et al., 2018). These species fly rapidly, occur at low densities, are secretive, and range widely (Bellier et al., 2023). Among avian apex predators, the short-toed snake eagle (Circaetus gallicus) exhibits a highly specialized evolutionary adaptation: it is a dedicated herpetophagous predator, relying almost exclusively on reptiles to sustain both adult metabolic needs and seasonal reproductive output (Onofre and Sampaio, 2020).

Specialized diet directly dictates how the species interacts with its sub-arid surroundings. While the eagle relies on highly visible, open terrains to hunt its primary reptilian prey, its reproductive cycle is entirely dependent on isolated pockets of mature trees for nesting (Cecere et al., 2017). This strict dual reliance on open hunting grounds and clustered nesting trees creates a distinct spatial footprint, one that directly overlaps with human land use and sets the stage for how local communities perceive, value, or overlook the raptor’s ecological role. In the arid Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India, where resource availability is structurally fragmented, the Dholiya Oran landscape serves as a premier example of an ethnobotanical refuge shaped by human-wildlife coexistence. At the core of this socio-ecological matrix are “Orans”-sacred community-conserved pastoral forests governed by ancestral spiritual mandates that strictly prohibit the cutting of green timber (Singh and Singh, 2025).

By anchoring local resource governance in religious taboos, these community institutions preserve legacy desert trees, notably Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) and Kumath (Acacia senegal). Within an otherwise open, tree-scarce landscape, these sacred groves function as conspicuous arboreal islands (Kumar and Sen, 2022). This layout brings breeding raptors and pastoralists together within the same tight spaces, transforming the Dholiya Oran into the main socio-ecological stage for human-eagle interactions.

Globally, however, arid-zone raptor habitats are undergoing unprecedented, human-driven landscape transformations (O'Bryan et al., 2022). In western Rajasthan, the rapid expansion of intensive irrigated agriculture, linear infrastructure development, and the massive deployment of green energy grids (overhead high-voltage power transmission lines and wind/solar installations) threaten to fragment native habitats (Madhok, 2025).

While remote sensing technology allows for the precise macro-quantification of these structural changes (Pettorelli et al., 2014), a critical gap persists in raptor conservation literature: the disconnect between empirical biological data and ethno-ecological community perceptions (Panuccio et al., 2021a, 2021b; Antonio et al., 2025). Traditional conservation frameworks often focus exclusively on either the biological monitoring of a species (Stem et al., 2005) or local policy enforcement, failing to recognize that long-term wildlife survival outside protected areas depends entirely on how local human communities perceive the ecosystem services or disservices rendered by apex predators (Milda et al., 2020). Effective and sustainable wildlife conservation in shared landscapes necessitates a comprehensive understanding of the human dimensions of ecological management (Manfredo, 2008; Nyhus, 2016).

This research addresses this baseline gap by presenting an integrated socio-ecological assessment of Circaetus gallicus as a natural pest control agent within a 3558.06 km 2 landscape centered on the Dholiya Oran region of Pokhran.Our study bridges fine-scale breeding biology with social science by synthesizing two primary empirical datasets: high-resolution nest camera data capturing 62 distinct prey delivery events, and a perception-based semi-structured interview survey of 87 local residents.

By aligning direct biological observations of raptor predation with the ethno-ecological insights of the community, this framework provides a holistic understanding of human-raptor dynamics in an agropastoral desert ecosystem. While biological and empirical dietary data are foundational, the success of conservation policies fundamentally hinges on the local communities that coexist with wildlife (Dickman, 2010). In arid ecosystems like the Thar Desert, traditional cultural values, livestock-dependent livelihoods, and localized knowledge systems profoundly shape daily human-wildlife interactions. When conservation frameworks overlook these human elements, they risk community resistance and the potential exacerbation of human-wildlife conflicts (Redpath et al., 2013). Conversely, integrating community perceptions into conservation planning fosters mutual trust and improves the efficacy of mitigation strategies. By investigating how local populations perceive apex predators and medically significant reptiles, conservationists can pinpoint specific knowledge gaps and design targeted, culturally resonant educational programs. Acknowledging these public perception dynamics is an essential prerequisite for developing pragmatic, community-supported conservation outcomes that protect biodiversity while respecting human livelihoods (Dickman, 2010; Nyhus, 2016).

Specifically, this paper aims to:

Establish the empirical dietary composition of a representative breeding Circaetus gallicus pair using localized nest camera data, with a specific focus on quantifying their predation of venomous snakes.

Evaluate local community perceptions regarding the eagle’s ecological role, cultural value, and pest-control services across agropastoral zones.

Identify and evaluate the cognitive gaps between empirical biological reality (the nest camera data) and local community awareness (the survey data) in human-raptor relations.

By framing Circaetus gallicus as a vital ‘agricultural ally, ‘ this study argues for a paradigm shift in desert conservation strategies, one that bridges the gap between indigenous cultural values and empirical ecological data to foster more harmonious, long-term human-wildlife coexistence within community-conserved Oran landscapes.

Study area

The study was conducted within a defined landscape envelope spanning 3,558.06 km 2 (355,806 ha), centered on the Dholiya Oran region within the Pokhran tehsil of Jaisalmer district, western Rajasthan, India (extending from approximately 72° 09′ E to 72°54′ E longitude and 26°49’ N to 27°19′ N latitude) (Figures 1, 2).

Temperatures in the region range from ≤ 0 °C in winters to ≥ 50 °C in summers. The arid region is characterized by limited and erratically distributed seasonal precipitation, high atmospheric temperatures with large diurnal and seasonal variation, strong insolation, and persistent wind regimes (Poonia and Rao, 2018). The landscape is slightly undulating, shaped by inland drainage and sand deposition, and includes intermittent streams and salt lakes (Singh and Kumar, 2015).

The region has limited water resources and arable land, high evapotranspiration, sparse vegetation, rodent infestations, absence of perennial rivers, and a sparse, largely nomadic human population dependent on livestock rearing (Kaur and Singh, 2023). The study area’s topography, comprising sand dunes, interdunal plains, rocky outcrops, and saline depressions, contributes to substantial habitat heterogeneity. Vegetation is sparse and primarily consists of xerophytic shrubs, hardy grasses, and scattered thorny trees such as Calligonum polygonoidis, Prosopis cineraria, Prosopis juliflora, Acacia capparis, Acacia senegal, Acacia catechu, Anogeissus pendula, Butea monosperma, and Azadirachta indica. Major faunal species include Vulpes bengalensis, Gazella bennettii, Antilope cervicapra, and Felis lybica ornate. Community forests and rangelands, locally known as Orans and Gauchars, constitute a significant proportion of the region’s land area (Chaudhry et al., 2011).

Despite the harsh climatic conditions and anthropogenic constraints, this region supports numerous resident and migratory raptor species. Economically, the area relies heavily on subsistence agriculture and livestock rearing, livelihoods that are particularly vulnerable to climatic variability, land degradation, and other environmental stresses, highlighting the need for sustainable resource management. Over the past few decades, anthropogenic pressures such as overgrazing, excessive groundwater extraction, and land-use change have further exacerbated desertification processes (Varghese, 2016).

The primary socio-ecological anchors of this landscape are the community-conserved Orans (sacred pastoral forests), with the Dholiya Oran serving as the focal multi-use matrix where local communities directly interface with wildlife. These Orans represent mature arboreal islands within the open desert, maintaining dense clusters of deep-rooted legacy trees, specifically Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) and Kumath (Acacia senegal).

Outside the Oran boundaries, the land use transitions into rain-fed (barani) subsistence agriculture and active pastoral grazing grounds. Because the mature canopy trees required for the nesting platforms of Circaetus gallicus are strictly conserved within the Oran boundaries under community religious mandates, while their primary herpetofaunal prey ranges across the contiguous open scrublands and agricultural fields, this landscape represents a highly integrated human-wildlife interface ideal for evaluating socio-ecological dynamics.

Biological data collection and nest monitoring

To establish an empirical baseline of the dietary composition of Circaetus gallicus within the agropastoral matrix, intensive nest monitoring was conducted over a two-year period spanning consecutive breeding seasons within the Pokhran arid belt. Active nesting sites situated on legacy trees within the Dholiya Oran and surrounding landscape were identified through preliminary line-transect field surveys and observations of parental territorial displays during the early courtship phase. While structural nest-camera monitoring infrastructure was maintained across the full multi-year deployment, the intensive dietary and temporal analysis presented here was intentionally constrained to a standardized three-month peak provisioning window corresponding to the active chick-rearing phase (from egg-hatching to chick-fledging) of a single representative nesting site.

Upon confirmation of active incubation, a high-resolution, weather-proof autonomous camera trap equipped with a passive infrared (PIR) motion sensor and an invisible infrared flash array was systematically deployed at the nest site. The camera was mounted on a sturdy, adjacent lateral branch approximately 1 to 1.5 meters from the nest platform to ensure an unobstructed, high-angle view of the nest bowl while minimizing structural disruption or parental abandonment risks. The unit was programmed to operate continuously on a 24-hour cycle, capturing a burst of 3 high-resolution still images followed by a 10-second video sequence upon motion trigger, with a minimal 1-second refractory period to ensure continuous documentation of parental arrivals.

Image and video data were retrieved during minimal-disturbance maintenance checks conducted during periods of parental absence. The raw image cache from this peak breeding block was filtered to isolate distinct parental arrival and prey delivery events. A total of 62 distinct prey delivery events were verified, logged, and extracted for taxonomic analysis over this active observation matrix.

Prey identification was conducted by analyzing high-definition video frames and still captures. Delivered items were categorized into broad taxonomic classes (Ophidia vs. Lacertilia) and further identified to the finest possible taxonomic resolution (species or genus level) by evaluating distinct morphological markers, scale patterns, colorations, and body-to-bill length ratios. Specific attention was given to identifying the Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinatus), a highly venomous snake prevalent in the Pokhran region.Delivery events were cross-referenced with precise automated timestamps to analyze diurnal feeding frequencies and peak prey delivery windows.

Socio-ecological survey and perception analysis

To evaluate human-raptor relations, cultural attitudes, and community awareness regarding the ecosystem services provided by C. gallicus, a socio-ecological perception-based survey was deployed across the agropastoral communities surrounding the Dholiya Oran. Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were conducted with a total of 87 local residents, targeting primary landscape stakeholders including traditional pastoralists, subsistence farmers, and village elders who directly interface with the landscape.

The interview instrument was translated and administered in the local vernacular language (Marwari/Hindi) to ensure clarity and cultural comfort. The survey was structured into three primary thematic blocks:

Demographic Profile: Capturing age, primary livelihood (pastoralism vs. agriculture), and duration of residency within the Pokhran region. (Note: Formal education levels were not recorded, as Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) was deemed a more accurate metric of environmental literacy for this specific rural demographic).

Qualitative and Cultural Value Metrics: Gauging general cultural respect, traditional taboos protecting raptors, and perceived population trends of the species over time.

Ecosystem Services Perception: Evaluating specific awareness regarding the eagle’s dietary habits, explicitly testing their recognition of snake control vs. lizard predation services.

To convert qualitative ethno-ecological perspectives into quantifiable data, key perception metrics were evaluated using a standardized 5-point Likert scale. The response categories were explicitly defined as follows: 1 = Strongly Disagree (or Completely Unaware), 2 = Disagree (or Somewhat Unaware), 3 = Neutral/Unsure, 4 = Agree (or Somewhat Aware), and 5 = Strongly Agree (or Highly Aware). Upon survey completion, responses were digitized and compiled. Mean Likert scores and standard deviations were calculated for each thematic block. To evaluate community consensus, interpretation thresholds were established using an equal-interval calculation (interval size = 0.80) to provide symmetrical scoring boundaries around the neutral scale midpoint. Specifically, a mean score of ≥ 3.41 was defined as indicating a consensus of agreement or high awareness, whereas a mean score of ≤ 2.60 indicated a consensus of disagreement or low awareness. Mean scores falling within the intermediate range of 2.61 to 3.40 were interpreted as representing neutrality or a lack of definitive community consensus. Standard deviations were assessed concurrently to ensure that mean scores reflected genuine community agreement rather than polarized distributions. Finally, the quantitative survey scores representing community perceptions of the eagle’s diet were compared directly to the empirical dietary data derived from the nest cameras. This comparison was conducted to evaluate the alignment between local ecological beliefs and the biological reality of the species. As the survey instrument was originally developed for this study to assess local perceptions of raptors, we established content and face validity prior to full-scale deployment. The initial draft of the questionnaire underwent an internal review process with field research staff to ensure the ecological relevance and clarity of the items. Subsequently, a pilot test was conducted with a small subset of local community members in the study area. Feedback gathered from these initial interactions was used to evaluate the cultural appropriateness and comprehensibility of the questions. Minor linguistic and structural refinements were made based on this local input to minimize misinterpretation, thereby ensuring the reliability and consistency of the survey instrument during the primary data collection phase.

Statistical analysis

To evaluate dietary preferences, temporal patterns, and socio-ecological survey responses, statistical analyses were performed using R (version 4.3.1). Descriptive statistics were utilized to quantify total nest-camera prey delivery counts (n = 62), taxonomic composition percentages, and the relative proportions of major reptile clades (Ophidia vs. Lacertilia). Continuous and ordinal survey metrics derived from the 5-point Likert scale were summarized using means and standard deviations.

In light of ongoing methodological discussions regarding the treatment of Likert-derived data, we approached our survey metrics strictly as ordinal variables (Jamieson, 2004). Normality of the data was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test, and because the ordinal data violated assumptions of normality, robust rank-based non-parametric inferential statistics were applied throughout the analysis to ensure conservative comparisons.This rank-based approach was intentionally selected to prevent overfitting and ensure conservative, reliable comparisons across groups. To evaluate cognitive gaps between human perception and empirical biological reality, a Paired Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was utilized to compare individuals matched composite scores regarding snake control awareness versus lizard predation awareness, with effect size calculated as r = Z/√N. An independent Wilcoxon Rank-Sum (Mann-Whitney U) Test was deployed to assess variations in lizard predation awareness across dichotomous occupational groups (pastoralists vs. agriculturalists). Lastly, variations across three distinct generational age cohorts (Young Adults, Mid-Career, and Village Elders) regarding lizard awareness metrics and the Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) Index were evaluated using a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance. For all statistical models, significance thresholds were established a priori at alpha = 0.05.

Ethical considerations

Formal institutional ethical review and approval were not mandated for this study under local institutional guidelines, as it consisted entirely of a non-clinical, fully anonymous questionnaire posing no physical or psychological risk to participants. However, ethical considerations for participant recruitment and data collection were strictly observed in accordance with standard international guidelines for human subjects’ research. Prior to conducting each interview, the scope and objectives of the study were explained to prospective respondents in the local language. Given the rural context of the study area, informed verbal consent was obtained from all participants prior to survey administration. Participation was entirely voluntary, with respondents retaining the right to decline or withdraw at any point. To ensure complete privacy and confidentiality, no personally identifiable information was recorded during data collection.

Avian dietary composition via nest monitoring

Taxonomic analysis of the nest camera data collected during the critical 3-month chick-provisioning windows yielded a total of 62 distinct prey delivery events (Table 1). The dietary spectrum of the monitored breeding Circaetus gallicus pair consisted of similar proportions of the orders Ophidia (50.0%, n = 31) and Lacertilia (50.0%, n = 31) during the observation period.

Among the ophidian deliveries, the Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinatus), a medically significant venomous snake species, constituted 16.1% (n = 10) of all recorded prey deliveries (32.3% of the total snake intake). The remaining ophidian prey comprised non-venomous and semi-venomous colubrids and psammophiids. The lacertilian component (50.0%) consisted entirely of large desert lizards, primarily Bengal monitors (Varanus bengalensis) and fringe-toed lizards (Acanthodactylus cantoris), highlighting heavy foraging reliance on open native scrublands.

Socio-cultural buffers and core perception metrics

Initial review of the demographic profiles indicated that the surveyed population consisted almost entirely of lifelong, generational residents. Due to this high demographic homogeneity and lack of variance in residency duration, complex multivariate demographic modeling was excluded in favor of targeted non-parametric comparisons. The survey of 87 local community members revealed deeply rooted cultural affinity and positive conservation intent toward the raptor (Figure 3). The overall Cultural Value score for C.gallicus across the landscape was consistently high, yielding a median Likert score of 4.0 (IQR = 1.0; Q1 = 3.0, Q3 = 4.0) out of 5 (Statement 1: “The presence of the eagle in our village is an auspicious sign”). Furthermore, the community strongly favored active conservation measures, returning a median score of 4.0 (IQR = 1.0) regarding the statement that eagles must be protected regardless of direct tangible benefits (Statement 4).

Quantifying the cognitive disconnect (snake vs. lizard awareness)

To evaluate the alignment between local human perception and biological reality, the community’s awareness of the eagle’s diet was contrasted directly against empirical nest data, which demonstrated similar proportions of snakes and lizards in the monitored diet. To test this quantitatively, Statements 8, 10, and 12 were aggregated (by calculating the mean response per participant) to form a composite ‘Snake Control Awareness’ index, as these statements collectively capture the community’s recognition of the raptor’s most culturally valued ecosystem service. This composite metric was then directly compared against Statement 18 (‘Lizard Predation Awareness’) to measure the presence of an ecological blind spot. Results showed that respondents possessed an acute awareness of the eagle’s role as a biological snake control agent (Median = 3.67, IQR = 1.0), returning a consistently high index score across all three snake-focused variables:: Statement 8 (“The eagle keeps our agricultural fields safe by killing venomous snakes”), Statement 10 (“Due to the presence of the eagle, we feel less fear of snakes while working in the agricultural fields”), and Statement 12 (“If eagles are absent from the village, the population of harmful organisms (snakes and rodents) will grow out of control”).

In stark contrast, community awareness regarding the eagle’s reliance on lizard populations was severely deficient. When presented with Statement 18 (“I have observed the eagle hunting not only snakes, but also desert lizards and monitor lizards”), the response dropped significantly (Median = 1.0), with 52.9% (n = 46) of respondents recording a score of 1 (complete disagreement/absolute lack of awareness).

A Paired Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test confirmed that this difference was a systematic, highly significant ecological blind spot rather than random variance (V = 2785.5, Z = 5.29, p < 0.001). The calculated effect size (r = 0.57) indicates a very strong cognitive gap across the human population: they heavily value the eagle for snake management but fail to recognize that half of the raptor’s survival fuel depends on lizard predation (Figure 4).

Perception divergence across occupational livelihoods

When the data was segregated by primary livelihood strategies to test if landscape usage shapes environmental knowledge, overall perception scores regarding Short-toed Snake Eagles were found to be consistent and highly positive across both demographics. Agriculturalists (n = 53) reported a median total perception score of 68.0 (IQR = 9.25; Q1 = 60.75, Q3 = 70.0). Similarly, traditional pastoralists (n = 34) reported a median score of 68.0 (IQR = 9.00; Q1 = 64.00, Q3 = 73.0). These uniform median values, visualized in Figure 5, indicate a generally positive baseline of community perception regardless of land-use practices.

Despite these strong overall scores, the ecological blindspot regarding lizard prey remained highly pervasive across both demographic groups. An independent Wilcoxon Rank-Sum (Mann-Whitney U) Test confirmed that direct awareness of lizard predation did not statistically differ between groups (W = 915.5, p = 0.40). The median response score for both Traditional Pastoralists and Agriculturalists sat flat at 1 (absolute lack of awareness), demonstrating that the underestimation of lacertilian-based prey delivery cuts equally across landscape stakeholders regardless of whether they manage static crop fields or dynamically trail livestock through open scrublands.

Generational trends and traditional knowledge erosion

To trace how environmental awareness changes across generations, respondents were classified into three cohorts: Young Adults (18–35 years, n = 21), Mid-Career (36–55 years, n = 43) and Village Elders (>56 years, n = 23).

Lizard Awareness Matrix: A Kruskal-Wallis test was conducted to determine if there were differences in lizard predation awareness (Lizard_Score) between generational cohorts. Descriptive statistics revealed low overall awareness across all groups, with Young Adults (Median = 1, IQR = 2.00), Mid-Career (Median = 1, IQR = 2.75), and Village Elders (Median = 1, IQR = 2.00) all demonstrating a similar ecological blindspot. The Kruskal-Wallis test indicated no statistically significant difference between the generations (χ2 = 0.920, df = 2, p = 0.631).Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) Index: When testing deeper natural history literacy across statements 14, 15, 16, and 20 (nesting cycles, prey identification, legacy tree selection, and chick-feeding behavior), a Kruskal-Wallis test revealed no significant variance across generations (χ2 = 2.47, df = 2, p = 0.29). The younger cohort maintained a stable median index score of 2.86 (IQR = 0.39), which did not statistically diverge from mid-career managers (Median = 3.00, IQR = 0.71) or village elders (Median = 2.86, IQR = 0.64), demonstrating that core ethno-ornithological lore is structurally preserved across generations. Parent provisioning images from the nest cam captures different food delivery items brought by the parents (Figures 6, 7).

The biological reality: trophic regulation and ecosystem services

The nest monitoring data collected during the critical 3-month chick-provisioning window establishes Circaetus gallicus as a specialized apex herpetophagous predator within the Pokhran agropastoral landscape. This role mirrors the broader classification of the species as an obligate reptile consumer across both its West Palearctic and Indian ranges (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Naoroji, 2006). A key finding is the substantial predation pressure on the Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinatus), which constituted 16.1% of all documented prey deliveries during this short, intense breeding period. Within the arid ecosystem of western Rajasthan, E. carinatus represents a cryptically colored, highly venomous snake of significant medical concern (Das and Rathore, 2004).

While actual envenomation incidents remain relatively rare in the Pokhran region due to sparse human distribution and localized snake micro-habitats, the eagle’s targeted consumption of this species during its diurnal basking cycles provides a proactive, preventative regulatory service. By naturally suppressing the density of a medically significant reptile, C. gallicus helps maintain a low baseline risk for human labor forces and livestock operating within agricultural fields and open grazing tracts.

Furthermore, the roughly equal raw count of ophidian and lacertilian prey items underscores the raptor’s high functional reliance on the landscape mosaic during this vital reproductive phase. While snakes are hunted within irrigated agricultural borders due to artificial micro-climates and localized rodent concentrations, the other half of the eagle’s dietary fuel consists entirely of large desert lacertilians, primarily Bengal monitors (Varanus bengalensis) and fringe-toed lizards (Acanthodactylus cantoris).

This absolute dietary reliance highlights the critical importance of open, uncultivated desert scrublands and dune matrices where these lizard populations are ecologically dominant and serve as the primary energetic fuel for rearing chicks (Prasad, 2005). This pattern of raptors exploiting distinct landscape matrices to balance energy budgets during breeding cycles is well-documented globally, where ecotones provide critical structural diversity for specialized foraging (Meunier et al., 2000; Panuccio et al., 2021b).

It is important to acknowledge a key limitation of the biological data presented in this study. The dietary composition-specifically the equal split between ophidian and lacertilian prey is derived from 62 delivery events recorded at a single representative nest over one intensive chick-provisioning window. While these high-resolution observations provide valuable localized insights into the trophic reliance of this specific breeding pair, they cannot be confidently generalized to the entire regional population of C. gallicus. Future multi-nest spatial telemetry studies are required to establish landscape-level dietary baselines.

Cultural buffers vs. utilitarian perceptions

The socio-ecological component of this study highlights a strong traditional conservation ethic inherent to the local communities of Pokhran. The strong consensus for overall cultural respect and the explicit collective agreement to protect the raptor regardless of direct tangible gains demonstrate that local wildlife survival is fundamentally anchored in traditional spiritual tenets and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) networks (Ramos, 2018). In western Rajasthan, the cultural footprint of the Bishnoi community and broader agropastoral socio-religious taboos heavily dictate landscape governance through ‘Jeev-Daya’ (compassion for all living beings) and the absolute protection of sacred “Orans” or community conservation forests (Swarnakar et al., 2024).

These Orans act as critical mature canopy sanctuaries-primarily of Prosopis cineraria (Khejri)-preserving the exact nesting substrates C. gallicus requires within an otherwise tree-scarce landscape (Naoroji, 2006; Kumar and Sen, 2022). This mirrors indigenous community-governed conservation models globally, such as the sacred groves of West Africa (Adjonou et al., 2021) and Europe (Barnett, 2007), which serve as critical ethnobotanical refuges for regional biodiversity under accelerating landscape modifications (Bhagwat and Rutte, 2006).

This deep spiritual protection aligns closely with the community’s utilitarian appreciation of the eagle.” The acute public awareness of the eagle’s role as a snake suppressor reveals that local tolerance for an apex avian predator is heavily reinforced by tangible, recognized ecosystem services (Dickman, 2010). Globally, public tolerance for potentially dangerous or apex predators-ranging from raptors in agricultural Europe to mammalian carnivores in pastoral Africa-increases dramatically when stakeholders identify a direct economic or safety service, such as pest regulation or disease vector suppression (O'Bryan et al., 2018). The raptor is explicitly perceived not just as wild entity, but as a protective guardian of the agropastoral workspace, reducing the baseline anxiety associated with working around venomous snakes during high-intensity agricultural seasons.

The cognitive disconnect and its conservation implications

Despite this positive cultural buffer, our statistical analysis exposes a profound cognitive disconnect within the community’s environmental knowledge. The sharp, highly significant contrast between the high awareness of snake control and the remarkably low awareness of lizard predation reveals a deep ecological blindspot.More than half of the surveyed population (52.9%) completely rejected or lacked any knowledge of the eagle’s dependency on lizard prey, creating a distinct conceptual mismatch between human perception and biological reality.

This “lizard blindspot” introduces a critical vulnerability into long-term raptor conservation. Because the community primarily values the eagle for its snake-control services, local conservation investment remains heavily localized around the nesting sites within the Oran canopy. The specialized ecology of the region’s prominent lacertilians, specifically Varanus bengalensis and Acanthodactylus cantoris, suggests they are highly sensitive to structural habitat alterations (Sharma and Gaur, 2005). Because these desert lizards rely on open, undisturbed xeric matrices to survive, the transformation of native scrublands into fenced infrastructure effectively fragments the precise ecological terrain that supplies half of the breeding raptor’s reproductive energy budget.

In the Pokhran region, open uncultivated lands are increasingly misclassified as “wastelands” and systematically converted into large-scale renewable energy installations, intensive fenced monocultures, and linear infrastructure grids (Centre for Energy, Environment & People [CEEP], 2024; Choudhary et al., 2024). This is a widespread global issue: semi-arid scrublands and native grasslands are systematically undervalued and labeled as marginal “wastelands” in state land records, leaving them highly vulnerable to industrial scale-up and renewable energy infrastructure investments. Because the local community is largely unaware of the eagle’s absolute dependence on open scrublands for lizard foraging, they offer little resistance to the landscape-scale elimination of these hunting grounds, provided the core nesting trees inside the Oran remain physically intact. The specific, measurable effect of this blindspot is the absence of local socio-political pushback against aggressive land-use conversion. If this cognitive gap persists, the real-world biological consequence will be localized foraging failures; protecting nesting trees becomes obsolete if the surrounding landscape is structurally degraded and cannot provide the 50% caloric fuel required to rear chicks. Ultimately, by failing to protect the lizard-rich scrublands, local agriculturalists risk inadvertently causing the regional collapse of the very avian snake-controllers they culturally value.

Integrating empirical data with cultural values for conservation

Our analysis reveals that the ecological “lizard blindspot” is systemic across all demographics, livelihoods, and age cohorts. However, rather than viewing this as a deficit, it presents a clear, actionable pathway for regional conservation programs. The traditional Oran system successfully protects nesting substrates through the deep-seated spiritual ethos of Jeev-Daya (compassion for all living beings). The critical next step for conservationists is to conceptually expand this protective spiritual buffer beyond the sacred groves and into the open scrublands.

To achieve long-term human-wildlife coexistence, we propose an “Agricultural Ally” conservation framework that directly integrates indigenous cultural values with empirical ecological evidence. By utilizing high-definition nest camera footage during local Gram Sabha (village council) meetings, conservationists can visually demonstrate the eagle’s absolute dependence on desert lizards. Pairing this hard empirical evidence with existing traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) transforms abstract ecosystem services into visible, tangible realities for local stakeholders. When communities realize that the open scrublands-often misclassified as disposable “wastelands” are the critical foraging engines that sustain their culturally revered snake-controllers, they are far more likely to resist the industrial fragmentation of these habitats. Bridging this cognitive gap ensures that cultural reverence aligns with total landscape conservation, securing both the avian apex predators and the arid agropastoral ecosystems they regulate.

Study limitations

While this study provides valuable integrated socio-ecological insights, several limitations must be acknowledged. Biologically, the dietary data is based on a relatively small sample size of 62 prey delivery events recorded at a single monitored nest. Furthermore, this temporal analysis was restricted to the critical chick-provisioning window of a single breeding season. Consequently, while these findings accurately reflect the localized behavior of this specific breeding pair, they cannot be confidently generalized to the broader regional population. Additionally, while high-resolution nest cameras were utilized, identifying partially consumed or rapidly delivered prey items strictly from imagery carries inherent limitations in achieving fine-scale taxonomic resolution. Socially, while the anonymous nature of the questionnaire was designed to encourage honesty, perception-based surveys are inherently subject to potential response bias, as participants might lean toward socially desirable answers regarding traditional cultural values. Future research employing multi-nest spatial telemetry over successive breeding seasons is necessary to build upon these exploratory findings.

This study reveals that while Pokhran’s traditional Oran system provides excellent canopy protection for nesting Circaetus gallicus, the sacred groves cover only half of the species’ reproductive needs. Data from our monitored nest demonstrates that this specific breeding pair relied heavily on open, uncultivated desert scrublands to capture 50% of their documented breeding-season prey (lizards). However, a pervasive public “lizard blindspot” exists across all local demographics because communities value the raptor almost exclusively for snake control. This community-wide cognitive gap allows the rapid industrial fragmentation of surrounding hunting grounds to proceed without local resistance under the guise of ‘wasteland development’.

To support localized nesting successes, our exploratory findings suggest that local conservation approaches could benefit from shifting from strictly tree-centric protection to a broader ecosystem matrix management. Furthermore, future regional planning in this landscape might consider reclassifying native scrubland buffers out of archaic ‘wasteland’ revenue categories to better evaluate the impact of infrastructure fencing. Culturally, integrating empirical nest camera footage into village Gram Sabha outreach is essential to expand community protective pride from the borders of the sacred groves out into the open desert tracking matrices.