Adoption of neo-vernacular architecture strategies in selected arts and cultural centres in Lagos, Nigeria

1 Introduction

Arts and cultural centres serve as institutions for preserving and expressing communities’ identities through cultural exchange and social cohesion, offering immersive experiences that combine tangible elements—museums, art, landscape—with intangible ones such as customs and oral traditions. In Africa and across West Africa, these centres function as cultural stewards, preserving indigenous traditions while interpreting them through contemporary creativity and expression. As a major cultural hub, Lagos offers a rich setting to explore how neo-vernacular architecture is being reimagined in today’s urban environment (Nemati Nasab et al., 2024; Zeng, 2017). The spatial configuration, material palette, and aesthetics, aligned with architectural expressions, cultural values, and traditions, influence users’ emotional and social perspectives, encouraging them to connect, interact, and engage (Goudsmit et al., 2024; Nemati Nasab et al., 2024).

Neo-vernacular architecture provides a model for combining traditional materials, forms, and techniques with modern functions, aligning with sustainability goals. It ensures that culture and practices are not eroded, while enhancing environmental performance and community relevance (Onuorah et al., 2022; Rajpu and Tiwari, 2020). In arts and cultural centres, neo-vernacular design preserves heritage, supports public engagement and sustainable tourism, and various scholars have emphasised its importance: Pardo (2023) highlights the role of modern and vernacular fusion in community identity, while Hassan (2014) and Onuorah et al. (2023) explore how traditional spatial configurations and materials sustain authenticity in the evolving urban landscape. Olaniyan et al. (2024) further argue for integrating traditional artistic elements to reinforce cultural identity.

Despite this growing body of work, research on the practical application of neo-vernacular architectural strategies in arts and cultural centres, especially in Lagos, remains limited. Most studies focus on theoretical frameworks, individual case studies, or contexts outside the African urban environment. A particular gap exists in systematic, strategy-based evaluation frameworks that can assess the degree to which specific neo-vernacular design decisions have been adopted and compare adoption levels across multiple buildings. Without such frameworks, it is difficult to identify which strategies succeed, which are underutilised, and what the implications are for future cultural infrastructure design.

This gap has practical consequences. As Lagos continues to develop its cultural infrastructure, architects and policymakers lack evidence-based tools for commissioning, evaluating, and improving culturally grounded buildings. The absence of comparative, empirical assessment also limits African architectural scholarship’s ability to contribute meaningfully to global discourse on postcolonial urbanism, decolonial design, and culturally responsive architecture.

This study addresses these gaps by assessing how selected arts and cultural centres in Lagos adopt neo-vernacular strategies to balance cultural identity, tourism, and sustainability. The study aims to evaluate the adoption of neo-vernacular architecture strategies in selected arts and cultural centres in Lagos, Nigeria, to enhance cultural preservation and sustainable development. The specific objectives are.

• to identify neo-vernacular architecture strategies applicable to arts and cultural centres in the Yoruba architectural context;
• to assess the current adoption level of neo-vernacular architecture strategies in the selected arts and cultural centres; and
• to triangulate expert architectural assessment with published user perception data to evaluate the relationship between adoption depth and user-perceived sustainability outcomes.

This study contributes to the literature by presenting a comparative, strategy-based evaluation framework for neo-vernacular architecture in Nigerian cultural buildings and by introducing a two-tier assessment model, expert observational assessment paired with user perception data for evaluating culturally embedded architecture.

2 Literature review

2.1 Neo-vernacular architecture

Neo-vernacular architecture blends traditional and historic elements with modern design, creating buildings that convey a distinct identity without merely replicating the past. Rather than striving for authenticity or exact restorations, this approach reinterprets historical references to meet contemporary needs and evoke meaningful experiences. Unlike vernacular architecture, which evolves organically within communities, neo-vernacular architecture is a deliberate and informed effort by trained architects. It fuses the past and present through modern technologies, incorporating traditional forms as conceptual frameworks or symbolic details within contemporary designs. This intentional blending ensures adaptability, functionality, and cultural resonance in modern architecture (Tiwari and Vij, 2024).

Neo-vernacular architecture is the most effective way to marry the past and the present to reap a sustainable future, as the past signifies traditional and vernacular practices which could not be adopted due to evolving lifestyles. At the same time, the present signifies modern and contemporary approaches that conceal and diminish our vernacular principles by deviating from local traditions and culture, while also causing environmental degradation (Rajpu and Tiwari, 2020).

Neo-vernacular, as the name suggests, means “New Vernacular,” combining trends from vernacular architecture with modern technology and requirements, providing a balance between form, function, energy consumption, technology, the building’s natural context, the site’s geographical location, and cultural context. Neo implies the technological advancements in the field, while vernacular tends to revive ancient architectural practices. It aims to go back to the specific vernacular with technical consciousness. Neo-vernacular architecture is an advanced version of vernacular architecture, as buildings now are meant to serve multiple purposes with complex services, hence the need for more strength and stability, which vernacular architecture cannot give alone, but with the help of modern technology, while ensuring environmental conservation (Rajpu and Tiwari, 2020).

According to Manao et al. (2022) Neo-vernacular architecture integrates traditional architectural elements with modern designs to create buildings that resonate with local culture and environmental contexts. It draws inspiration from vernacular architecture, reinterpreting traditional forms, materials, and layouts into contemporary expressions. Key characteristics include physical elements, which incorporate cultural and environmental factors like climate into plans, details, structures, and ornaments in a modernised form; non-physical elements, which embed cultural values, beliefs, and cosmological ideas such as macro-cosmos principles into the design; and visual focus, which prioritises the aesthetic reinterpretation of vernacular principles over strict adherence to traditional methods.

According to Wibawa et al. (2021), Neo-vernacular architecture is guided by several key principles—direct, abstract, landscape, contemporary, and future relationships—which balance traditional architectural practices with modern needs and innovations, ensuring buildings are functional, culturally relevant, sustainable, and adaptable to future challenges.

The global discourse on neo-vernacular architecture increasingly situates the approach within postcolonial and decolonial frameworks. Frampton (1983) concept of critical regionalism distinguishes between architecture that superficially borrows regional forms and architecture that genuinely engages with place through tectonic, environmental, and material logic.

Comparative international studies on neo-vernacular assessment provide useful methodological precedents for this study. Makhloufi et al. (2024) examine neo-vernacular practice in Algeria’s arid regions, identifying landscape integration as the weakest dimension of neo-vernacular adoption across postcolonial urban. Tiwari and Vij (2024) assess neo-vernacular adaptation in contemporary Indian temple architecture through case study methodology, demonstrating the applicability of qualitative observational frameworks for evaluating cultural continuity in built form across diverse geographical contexts. In Southeast Asia, Manao et al. (2022) examine the application of neo-vernacular principles in the design of a cultural centre in South Nias, Indonesia, highlighting how traditional spatial organisation and local materials can be reinterpreted through contemporary design without losing cultural authenticity. Together, these studies confirm that qualitative, observation-based assessment of neo-vernacular adoption is an established methodological approach across global contexts, and demonstrate that the specific framework developed in this study, tailored to the Yoruba architectural tradition, addresses a gap in the African literature that existing international frameworks do not.

2.2 Yoruba architecture and its neo-vernacular interpretation

2.2.1 Yoruba architecture

Traditional Yoruba architecture is deeply rooted in environmental harmony and spiritual ontology, serving as a dynamic interface between human experience and environmental philosophy, as Adebamowo and Adejumo (2012) noted. This framework is influenced by the Yoruba concept of “ase”—the spiritual energy inherent in all living and non-living entities, which shapes spatial configurations and material choices. Ayomide et al. (2024) describe Yoruba architecture as a sophisticated linguistic system that encodes cultural and spiritual meanings, with elements such as courtyards, doorways, and ornamentation communicating social narratives, cosmological beliefs, and collective memories. These features make each building a vessel of cultural knowledge, reflecting the values, beliefs, and way of life of the Yoruba people. Key characteristics of Yoruba architecture—materiality, spatial organisation, symbolic ornamentation, and climatic adaptability—provide a foundation for neo-vernacular reinterpretation.

In terms of materiality and sustainability, traditional Yoruba architecture relies on locally sourced materials such as stone, laterite, wood, thatch, bamboo, and clay, which reflect an intrinsic connection to the land and offer thermal comfort, durability, and environmental harmony as highlighted by Olaniyi et al. (2020), these materials are practical and symbolic, embodying spiritual connections to the land and reinforcing cultural identity.

Spatial organisation in Yoruba architecture reflects the community-focused lifestyle of the Yoruba people, mainly through the design of the Agbo Ile (family compound), which includes the Orowa house and the central courtyard (Akodi), according to Adeokun et al. (2013), the courtyard is a gathering place for family interactions, rituals, and ceremonies, fostering unity and social balance. This arrangement symbolises Yoruba values of harmony with nature and community cohesion.

Symbolism and ornamentation are central to Yoruba architecture, with carved designs and decorations conveying spiritual beliefs, social roles, and cultural narratives, as explored by Anifowose and Olatubosun (2020). These elements in palace architecture and domestic structures include motifs, patterns, and materials like carved wood and mud bricks, which reflect family histories and Yoruba cosmology.

Finally, Yoruba architecture demonstrates a profound understanding of climatic adaptability, incorporating features like deep roof overhangs, verandas, and high-pitched roofs to optimise natural ventilation and thermal comfort, as Adebamowo and Adejumo (2012) emphasised. These passive design strategies reflect a philosophy of living in harmony with nature. These elements highlight how Yoruba architecture serves as a model for culturally resonant, environmentally responsive, and socially meaningful design in both traditional and neo-vernacular contexts.

2.2.2 Yoruba vernacular architecture as a modern interpretation

Neo-vernacular architecture seeks to reinterpret traditional principles within a contemporary framework, balancing cultural authenticity with modern innovations. Reinterpreting traditional architectural forms involves preserving cultural identity while adapting to contemporary needs, as Adedokun (2014) emphasises, highlighting the preservative translation of architectural idioms. For instance, the Yoruba courtyard, a central feature of traditional spatial organisation, is often reimagined in modern designs as atria or open communal spaces, retaining its social and environmental significance while addressing constraints posed by urbanisation. Symbolic continuity in art and ornamentation is crucial for expressing cultural identity. Akande (2020) explores how the Yoruba concept of Orí (head) can be integrated into modern designs as òrùlé (roof), ensuring cultural symbols transition into contemporary expressions without losing significance.

Similarly, Opoko et al. (2016) and Pelumi (2023) demonstrate how traditional Yoruba art forms and motifs can be adapted for modern architecture, creating a visual link between the past and present. Anifowose and Olatubosun (2020) further argue that ornamentation in Yoruba architecture conveys deep cultural meanings, which can be preserved in neo-vernacular designs while adapting to contemporary aesthetics—material innovations, as advocated by Olaniyi et al. (2020), involve integrating local materials such as bamboo and compressed earth blocks with modern techniques to create sustainable, culturally resonant structures.

Preserving the vanishing features of Yoruba traditional architecture, such as artistic objects, courtyards, verandahs, and caryatids, as emphasised by Adekoyejo et al. (2019), ensures the continuity of cultural heritage by reinterpreting these elements in contemporary designs.

Environmental considerations and sustainability are also central to neo-vernacular and Yoruba architecture, with Olojede (2012) highlighting the traditional emphasis on living in harmony with nature. Climate-responsive designs, such as courtyards for natural ventilation and thick walls for thermal insulation, can be reinterpreted using modern energy efficiency technologies, as Adenaike et al. (2020) noted. Additionally, integrating green spaces inspired by traditional Yoruba compounds can promote biodiversity and strengthen the connection between inhabitants and the natural environment, as Adebamowo and Adejumo (2012) suggested. Together, these principles demonstrate how neo-vernacular architecture bridges tradition and modernity, preserving cultural heritage while addressing contemporary challenges.

2.3 Neo-vernacular architecture strategy categories

2.3.1 Direct relationship

This emphasises directly getting inspiration from tradition by adapting local forms, materials, and building methods to meet modern demands. This approach values continuity, allowing indigenous elements to evolve and improve without losing cultural meaning.

In Yoruba architecture, materials such as clay, timber, and stone have long grounded structures in their environment, reinforcing a deep connection to place and heritage. In many neo-vernacular buildings, these materials are combined with modern ones, such as applying concrete plaster over mud walls or pairing corrugated metal roofing with glass panels to improve strength and performance without discarding cultural references (Adeokun, 2013).

Features like verandas and courtyards still play a key role in today’s Yoruba-inspired buildings. They support social connection and help regulate temperature naturally. The traditional “Orowa” layout, which places a courtyard at the centre of family life, continues to influence how space is arranged. These adaptations maintain cultural relevance while making buildings easier to manage and more environmentally resilient. Shared spaces remain a priority, reflecting Yoruba values around collective life and multi-generational living (Adeokun et al., 2013).

Hand-carved doors and decorative clay finishes preserve the tactile and symbolic depth of traditional Yoruba aesthetics (Anifowose and Olatubosun, 2020). By combining old and new, these design choices meet practical needs while also celebrating heritage, demonstrating that tradition and innovation can coexist in meaningful ways (Ridwan and Eze, 2023).

2.3.2 Abstract relationship

Abstract relationships in architecture rely on symbolic interpretation to capture the deeper meaning behind cultural heritage by referencing historical patterns, spatial organisation, and visual themes (Tiwari and Vij, 2024). In Yoruba-influenced architecture, elements like Adire textile patterns and ancestral art often appear in façade treatments, partitions, and interior features, offering subtle nods to cultural identity (Ayomide et al., 2024; Ridwan and Eze, 2023). Roofing styles such as high gables or hipped forms do more than provide shelter; they symbolically echo Yoruba cosmology and traditional family homes (Adeokun, 2007; Ridwan and Eze, 2023). Visual storytelling also plays a significant role. Artworks, carvings, murals, and sculptures are often incorporated to tell stories, honour shared memory, and strengthen a building’s cultural meaning (Anifowose and Olatubosun, 2020). Open floor plans and spaces that encourage social interaction mirror the collective living arrangements found in traditional Yoruba compounds (Adedokun, 2014; Ayomide et al., 2024).

2.3.3 Landscape relationship

This approach emphasises working with the natural environment rather than against it. The layout of a building, along with the materials used and its overall form, is shaped by factors such as terrain, local climate, surrounding vegetation, and available water sources. By responding to these elements, architects can create spaces that are not only sustainable but also visually integrated with the landscape. (Adewale and Ene, 2024; Adeyemo et al., 2022; Tiwari and Vij, 2024).

Across Nigeria, vernacular studies consistently highlight designs that fit into the land’s natural shape, whether built on hills, flatlands, or gentle slopes, supporting natural drainage and minimising earthworks (Arome and Çağnan, 2021). These works note the purposeful retention or planting of local flora, such as palms and native shrubs, around buildings and within compounds, reinforcing microclimatic comfort and aesthetic integration (Adewale and Ene, 2024).

Courtyards and shaded outdoor spaces are essential elements for passive cooling and everyday life, used for cooking, socialising, and cultural practices (Adeyemo et al., 2022). Preserving natural features like existing trees and water channels is frequently cited, with some compounds featuring impluvia to collect rainwater, an environmentally and culturally significant design feature (Adeokun et al., 2013).

Across these vernacular traditions, passive shading such as large eaves, verandas, and covered walkways serves as a key response to solar intensity (Arome and Çağnan, 2021). Buildings are also equipped with strategic openings, windows, doorways, and louvred vents to maximise natural ventilation in hot, humid climates (Adedokun, 2014; Sholanke and Oyeyipo, 2023).

Bringing in natural light through skylights or large windows has proven effective in improving indoor comfort while cutting down on electricity use (Arome and Çağnan, 2021). In addition, case studies have shown that simple techniques for managing rainwater, such as collecting runoff through courtyard impluvia or directing it via roof channels, continue to reflect traditional, climate-sensitive approaches to water use in design (Adewale and Ene, 2024).

2.3.4 Contemporary relationship

In neo-vernacular architecture, the aim is to combine modern technologies and materials with traditional design values. This approach helps maintain cultural relevance while meeting present-day expectations for usability and accessibility (Tiwari and Vij, 2024). By blending heritage with innovation, architecture continues to evolve without abandoning its origins.

Today’s design strategies often incorporate energy-saving features like solar panels, LED lighting, and net-zero systems. These additions reduce running costs and environmental strain and make interior spaces more comfortable for users (Adedokun, 2014; Adewale and Ene, 2024; Chairuniza et al., 2020; Turkušić, 2011). Materials such as steel, glass, and reinforced concrete are commonly used alongside traditional textures and finishes, enabling structural adaptability and cultural preservation (Chairuniza et al., 2020; Turkušić, 2011).

Passive cooling techniques remain essential to adapting to warmer climates. These include cross-ventilated facades, ventilated walls, shaded corridors, and breathable roof structures, all of which take inspiration from older building forms (Soumaya and Chaouche, 2018). Sustainable features such as compost bins, rooftop gardens, and recycling areas are often visible design elements (Chairuniza et al., 2020). Smart tools like automated lighting and temperature control are also added to improve energy performance without disrupting traditional spatial language (Soumaya and Chaouche, 2018).

In terms of aesthetics, modern artistic expressions like murals, interactive art, and digital installations are layered onto traditional motifs to strengthen a sense of place (Opoko et al., 2016; Pelumi, 2023; Turkušić, 2011). Even with all these updates, time-honoured spatial ideas such as shared courtyards and gathering areas are still present, though now reinterpreted through simpler forms and more adaptable layouts (Adeokun et al., 2013; Chairuniza et al., 2020; Turkušić, 2011).

2.3.5 Future relationship

Neo-vernacular architecture that looks ahead often focuses on how buildings can stay functional and sustainable over time, responding to significant challenges like climate change, rapid population growth, and emerging technologies by encouraging flexible layouts, selecting durable materials, and reducing negative environmental impacts, all while keeping future generations in mind (Adewale and Ene, 2024; Makhloufi et al., 2024). Instances of this forward-thinking approach include spaces designed for multiple uses. A single hall might serve as a venue for meetings, cultural events, or shared community activities, depending on need (Kamara et al., 2020; Kooi, 2022). These buildings often combine familiar local construction techniques with modern reinforcements. For instance, traditional earth-based structures might be strengthened with steel or reinforced finishes to ensure long-term stability and reduce maintenance demands (Arome and Çağnan, 2021; Scuderi, 2019).

Energy use is another primary concern. These projects now include solar power systems, rainwater collection setups, and natural ventilation methods that help reduce dependence on external utilities and promote self-sufficiency (Adewale and Ene, 2024). To better handle changing weather conditions, designs often feature elevated foundations, strong drainage networks, and modular open-air areas that can shift with the seasons (Kamara et al., 2020).

Courtyards, shaded resting spots, and terraces that can expand as needed reflect both cultural values and recreational flexibility. Interior spaces tend to retain the traditional Yoruba layout while offering more adaptable, efficient use (Estaji, 2017). These strategies, combined with the use of long-lasting local materials and hybrid construction systems, demonstrate a clear commitment to designing responsibly for both people and the planet.

2.4 Theoretical framework

These theoretical frameworks underpin this study’s approach to evaluating the adoption of neo-vernacular architecture.

Critical Regionalism, associated with Frampton (1983), champions architecture grounded in local culture and climate while resisting the homogenising effects of globalisation. Frampton distinguishes between architecture that superficially borrows regional forms—applying cultural symbols as decorative references—and architecture that genuinely engages with place through tectonic, environmental, and material logic. This distinction is central to the evaluation framework developed in this study: the five relationship categories assess not merely whether Yoruba cultural elements are present, but the depth and authenticity with which they are embedded in the building’s spatial organisation, material system, and environmental layout.

Place Attachment Theory, as articulated by Motalebi et al. (2023) and Ujang and Zakariya (2015), considers how emotional and symbolic relations with spaces develop through familiarity, shared memory, and the meanings people assign to their environments. In neo-vernacular architecture, traditional materials and cultural symbols may enhance identification and render spatial experience more significant—but when these components feel disconnected from lived cultural practice, buildings may feel remote or irrelevant, regardless of their architectural depth. This framework informs the triangulation of expert adoption assessment with user-perception data, providing a theoretical basis for understanding why architecturally embedded neo-vernacular strategies may not automatically yield higher user-perceived sustainability benefits.

Together, these frameworks provide complementary lenses for evaluating whether neo-vernacular architecture is both architecturally embedded and experientially effective, and for situating that evaluation within the broader discourse on culturally grounded design in postcolonial African cities.

3 Materials and methods

3.1 Research design

This study adopts a qualitative case study design combining a systematic literature review with structured observational assessment. This approach is appropriate for evaluating the built environment, where observable physical attributes constitute the primary evidence and where the depth of contextual interpretation takes precedence over statistical generalisation (Yin, 2018).

The literature review served two functions: establishing the theoretical foundation for neo-vernacular architectural assessment in the Yoruba context, and generating the pool of strategies from which the observation framework was constructed. Relevant literature was identified using targeted keywords — ‘neo-vernacular architecture,’ ‘vernacular architecture,’ ‘Yoruba architecture,’ ‘sustainable architecture,’ and ‘arts and cultural centres’ — across Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and Scopus. The search focused on open-access, peer-reviewed publications from 2015 to 2024, supplemented by foundational pre-2015 works on Yoruba architectural theory. An initial search on Google Scholar returned approximately 2,470 results. A structured three-stage screening process was applied: elimination of duplicates across platforms; abstract review for relevance to neo-vernacular principles, Yoruba spatial culture, or Nigerian architectural contexts; and full-text assessment of content applicability to built environment evaluation. Forty-five studies were retained and subjected to thematic textual analysis, yielding a comprehensive inventory of neo-vernacular design strategies organised under five relationship categories derived from Wibawa et al. (2021): Direct, Abstract, Landscape, Contemporary, and Future.

The 40-strategy observation framework was derived inductively from this literature review. For each category, thematic analysis identified recurring design principles, confirmed by at least 2 independent, peer-reviewed sources addressing neo-vernacular practice in tropical or Sub-Saharan African contexts. Each strategy was operationally defined to ensure observational precision and to maintain clear distinctions between strategies operating at different architectural scales and temporal frames. Each strategy was then assessed using a five-point ordinal scale adapted from Dalhat’s framework, as cited in Adewale and Odewumi (2024), and customised for neo-vernacular architectural assessment by anchoring each score level to specific observable physical criteria, as detailed in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Measurement scale with observable anchors.

Each of the 40 strategies was assessed independently for each centre during on-site visits conducted between December 2024 and January 2025. Assessment notes were recorded in a structured observation guide for each strategy across all three centres. To enhance scoring consistency, two safeguards were applied: each strategy was assessed against its written operational definition rather than general impressions, and scores were reviewed after fieldwork was completed to ensure consistency across all three centres. Photographic documentation was captured for strategies receiving the highest score of 5, providing an evidentiary basis for the best-case adoption examples. Each centre’s cumulative score was then calculated as follows:

Cumulative Score % = Sum of all 40 strategy ratings ÷ Maximum possible score 200 × 100

The maximum possible score of 200 reflects a perfect rating of 5 across all 40 strategies. Category-level sub-scores were calculated using the same formula applied to the subset of strategies within each category, enabling nuanced identification of relative strengths and weaknesses within each building.

The equal weighting of all 40 strategies reflects a deliberate methodological choice appropriate for an exploratory assessment framework in an under-researched context. As noted in reviews of building sustainability assessment systems, equal weighting is commonly adopted in the absence of empirically validated evidence for the differential importance of individual criteria, thereby avoiding the introduction of researcher subjectivity into the relative significance of assessment items (Papachatzis and Theodosiou, 2026). In the Nigerian neo-vernacular context specifically, no established hierarchy of strategy importance exists in the literature, making differential weighting premature at this stage of framework development. This assumption has implications for interpretation: category-level sub-scores, calculated separately for each of the five relationship categories, partially address this limitation by enabling disaggregated comparison of performance across dimensions. Future research incorporating stakeholder weighting exercises or expert Delphi methods could produce a contextually calibrated framework that better reflects the relative cultural and environmental priorities of Yoruba-influenced architectural assessment.

3.2 Site selection

A purposive non-probability sampling approach was applied to select cultural centres meeting three criteria: (1) cultural significance to Lagos and to Yoruba heritage specifically; (2) architectural relevance to neo-vernacular design principles, evidenced by documented design intent or architectural commentary; and (3) physical accessibility for structured observational assessment. The three selected centres—the John Randle Centre for Yoruba Culture and History, Terra Kulture, and KAP Hub—represent the primary purpose-built or substantially adapted arts and cultural facilities in Lagos whose architectural programmes explicitly engage questions of cultural identity. Table 2 provides site details.

TABLE 2. Selected arts and cultural centres.

3.3 Triangulation with published user perception data

To enhance the validity and interpretive depth of the observational assessment, this study draws on findings from a companion peer-reviewed study examining user perceptions of neo-vernacular architecture at the same three cultural centres (Jegede and Enwonwu, 2025). That study collected 110 valid questionnaire responses from users of the John Randle Centre (n = 47), Terra Kulture (n = 33), and KAP Hub (n = 30) during the same December 2024 to January 2025 fieldwork period. Using descriptive statistics, Kruskal–Wallis H tests, and post hoc pairwise comparisons (Dunn test, FDR-adjusted), it evaluated user perceptions of four sustainability dimensions—cultural, environmental, economic, and social—using a structured questionnaire with Cronbach’s Alpha reliability values ranging from 0.718 to 0.934.

4 Results

4.1 Overview of selected arts and cultural centres

4.1.1 The John Randle centre for Yoruba culture and history

This centre (Figure 1) celebrates Yoruba heritage through a museum and a restored 1928 swimming pool. Once neglected, the site, as shown in Figure 2, has been revitalised, blending history with contemporary design. The architecture embodies Yoruba values, using visual metaphors to reflect cultural beliefs. The building rises from the landscape, symbolising the Yoruba connection to nature and history. Visitors enter beneath a striking monolithic gateway, leading to a structure that tilts forward by 9°, symbolising Yoruba progressiveness. Wrapped in a metal screen inspired by traditional crafts like weaving and forging, the facade pays homage to enduring Yoruba artistry. While Adobe was not feasible, a Tyrolean concrete finish mimics the texture of historic Yoruba settlements. The museum’s windowless design preserves its exhibits, while an adjacent building houses visitor amenities, including offices, a restaurant, restrooms, and an arcade. Expansive verandas and outdoor spaces, such as a green roof, bleacher stands, and a mini theatre, enhance community engagement, hosting cultural events and festivals (Ralph Appelbaum Associates, 2024; Singh, 2023).

4.1.2 Terra Kulture

Founded in 2003 by Bolanle Austen-Peters, Terra Kulture (Figure 3) is a vibrant cultural hub dedicated to preserving and promoting Nigerian arts, languages, and heritage. It is a lively space for exhibitions, theatre, literature, and culinary experiences, attracting locals and international visitors. Over the years, it has hosted hundreds of art exhibitions, plays, book readings, and language classes while housing a language school, an art gallery, and one of Nigeria’s few art auction houses. (Terra kulture, 2025). Terra Kulture’s design integrates culture, art, and hospitality. As shown in Figures 4, 5, Visitors enter through a lively space featuring a restaurant, bar, and lounge. A curved ramp with wooden railings leads to the bookshop, gallery, and offices, with the gallery showcasing rotating exhibitions of Nigerian artists. Reclaimed wood and lush vegetation enhance the centre’s eco-conscious aesthetics, while the restaurant, AKO by Terra, offers a taste of Nigeria’s diverse cuisine. Next to the restaurant is a 400-seat Terra Arena, a state-of-the-art theatre with modern backstage facilities, dressing rooms, and VIP seating. Outside, vibrant greenery and floral arrangements complement the centre’s signature bright orange façade, providing serene spots for relaxation and cultural events. Even without performances, Terra Kulture remains a lively social hub, blending tradition with modernity to celebrate Nigeria’s rich artistic and cultural heritage.

4.1.3 KAP hub

KAP Hub (Figure 6), founded by filmmaker Kunle Afolayan in 2020, is a vibrant cultural centre in Lagos that blends film production, education, and hospitality. It includes KAP Motion Pictures, KAP Film and TV Academy, KAP Cinemas, and KAP Sound Stage Studio, alongside a lively restaurant and bar, Afefeyéyé, as shown in Figures 7–9. The hub promotes creativity and cultural preservation, offering a space where arts, entertainment, and learning intersect seamlessly. The complex features three main structures: the Office building, KAP Studio, and the Afefeyéyé restaurant. KAP studio includes a soundstage, control room, green room, and changing rooms, creating a functional space for film production with a post-production unit made from repurposed shipping containers for video editing and media training. The second building houses the Afefeyéyé Restaurant and Bar, with reclaimed wood interiors. Above it is a rooftop bar and a 120-seat cinema, offering a blend of dining, entertainment, and relaxation. KAP Hub thrives on its lively, multifunctional spaces that promote cultural exchange, blending modern and traditional elements to strengthen its architectural identity.

4.2 Adoption level of neo-vernacular architecture strategies

Table 3 presents a cross-case analysis of the three centres, based on the adoption level of each of the 40 neo-vernacular architecture strategies, rated on a scale of 1 (Very Poor) to 5 (Excellent) as established in Table 1, and evaluated using cumulative percentage scores.

TABLE 3. Cross-case analysis of neo-vernacular architecture strategy adoption.

Scale: 1 = Very Poor; 2 = Poor; 3 = Fair; 4 = Good; 5 = Excellent. Maximum possible score per category = 40 (5 × 8 strategies). Overall maximum = 200 (5 × 40 strategies). Sub-score % = (Category Raw Score ÷ 40) × 100. Cumulative % = (Total Raw Score ÷ 200) × 100.

The John Randle Centre demonstrated the strongest overall adoption of neo-vernacular architecture strategies, achieving a cumulative score of 80%. The centre excelled particularly in Abstract and Direct relationships, showcasing deep cultural symbolism, communal spatial layouts, and the integration of traditional elements, including courtyards, verandas, and Yoruba motifs. Nine of the centre’s 40 strategies received the highest rating of 5, reflecting strong implementation in areas such as community gathering spaces, local craftsmanship, Yoruba motif integration, cultural storytelling through art, and communal layout. Weaknesses emerged in the Contemporary and Future relationship categories, where the adoption of passive cooling systems, smart technologies, and sustainability features such as solar panels and rainwater harvesting was limited.

KAP Hub achieved a cumulative score of 71%, reflecting a moderate application of neo-vernacular design principles. The centre performed strongly in communal gathering areas, local craftsmanship, communal layout, and cultural sculptures. It also scored notably well in energy-efficient systems compared to the other centres. Landscape integration was the weakest category, with minimal effort to incorporate indigenous planting or preserve natural features. Energy-saving features and sustainability indicators in the Future relationship category also remained limited.

Terra Kulture scored 70%, with strength in cultural expression through communal spaces and local craftsmanship, but with only moderate engagement with abstract symbolism and cultural storytelling. Notably, the building’s ability to tell a story about Yoruba history or identity received the lowest rating across all three centres and strategies in this category, indicating that the architectural form itself does not strongly communicate cultural narrative independent of programming. Landscape strategies were evident (shaded areas and courtyard spaces with indigenous planting). Technological and environmental strategies, including passive cooling and sustainability features, remained the weakest category.

4.3 Highest-scoring neo-vernacular strategy adoption

This section examines strategies that received the highest score of 5 across the three centres.

4.3.1 Direct relationship

The strategy of incorporating traditional features, such as verandas, in Figure 10 and the courtyard in Figure 11 was adopted in John Randle, providing open, transitional spaces that blend interior and exterior environments and support thermal regulation and daylighting, a key feature of Yoruba domestic architecture.

Similarly, the adoption of community gathering spaces across all centres (Figures 12, 13, 14) highlight the significance of social cohesion, an essential element of Yoruba spatial philosophy.

Adoption was also observed in the use of local craftsmanship, as seen in handmade furniture and decorative items within the interiors of all three case studies (Figures 15, 16, 17, 18). These features contribute to cultural preservation and support local artisanship and economic sustainability.

4.3.2 Abstract relationship

Among abstract strategies, John Randle’s deliberate inclusion of culturally meaningful ornaments and motifs in Figure 19, ranging from traditional textile patterns to emblems of local folklore, further enhances the architecture’s storytelling potential. These artistic features elevate the buildings beyond functional spaces into vessels of cultural memory and identity.

Open and communal layouts (Figures 3, 13, 20, 21) were universally adopted across all three centres, reflecting traditional Yoruba spatial hierarchies favouring inclusivity and fluid interaction.

The consistent appearance of sculptures, murals, and carvings that celebrate Yoruba heritage in John Randle and Kap Hub (Figures 22, 23) also demonstrates a strong commitment to embedding symbolic narratives in the built environment.

4.3.3 Landscape relationship

John Randle integrated local plants into the landscaping with a green roof, as shown in Figure 1. Notable examples were also observed in landscape integration, with courtyards and shaded outdoor areas achieving top scores across all centres (Figures 20, 24–26). These spaces provide environmental comfort and reinforce vernacular spatial traditions that value pause points and gathering nodes.

4.3.4 Contemporary relationship

John Randle Centre incorporated contemporary artistic features, and the building feels modern without losing its cultural identity, as shown in Figure 27.

4.3.5 Future relationship

In the future relationship strategy, flexible multi-use spaces (Figures 28–32) featured prominently in all three centres, suggesting a forward-thinking approach that accommodates evolving cultural functions and user needs, reinforcing the adaptability of these centres for diverse programmatic uses from exhibitions and performances to workshops and community dialogues.

The adoption of these high-scoring strategies suggests a considered fusion of cultural identity, environmental sensibility, and functional adaptability. These examples serve as a reference point for architects and planners seeking to implement neo-vernacular architecture within sustainable and culturally resonant tourism infrastructure.

4.4 Triangulation of expert assessment and user perception scores

Table 4 presents a cross-referenced comparison of the expert observational adoption scores from this study and the aggregate user perception means from Jegede and Enwonwu (2025), enabling direct examination of how expert-assessed architectural adoption relates to user-perceived sustainability outcomes.

TABLE 4. Triangulation of expert observational scores and user perception means.

* Statistically significant difference from KAP, Hub and Terra Kulture (Kruskal–Wallis H test: χ² = 10.90, df = 2, p = 0.004 for Environmental; χ² = 15.77, df = 2, p = 0.001 for Economic; Dunn post hoc test, FDR-adjusted: JRC, vs KAP Hub p = 0.0078; JRC, vs Terra Kulture p = 0.0188 for Environmental; JRC, vs KAP Hub p = 0.0461; JRC, vs Terra Kulture p = 0.0004 for Economic). Source: Jegede and Enwonwu (2025). User perception is rated on a 5-point Likert scale. No significant differences were observed for the Cultural or Social sustainability dimensions.

The triangulation reveals a notable inversion in centre rankings between expert assessment and user perception. The John Randle Centre, which achieved the highest observational adoption score (80%), recorded the lowest aggregate user perception score (3.98) and performed significantly lower than both Terra Kulture and KAP Hub on environmental sustainability (3.82 vs. 4.11 and 4.15, p < 0.05) and economic sustainability dimensions (4.04 vs. 4.43 and 4.18, p < 0.05). Conversely, Terra Kulture, which received the lowest expert adoption score (70%), was rated most favourably by users overall (4.16), with particular strength in economic sustainability (4.43). KAP Hub maintained a consistent middle position across both assessments (71%; 4.11), with users rating it highest in environmental sustainability (4.15).

This ranking inversion is not a methodological inconsistency but an analytically significant finding that is explored in depth in the Discussion. Importantly, no statistically significant differences were found between centres for cultural sustainability (χ² = 1.18, p = 0.556) or social sustainability (χ² = 2.83, p = 0.243), suggesting that users perceive all three centres as broadly comparable in their cultural and social contributions, regardless of differences in architectural adoption depth.

5 Discussion

5.1 Why John Randle Centre outperformed: the role of architectural intent

The John Randle Centre’s comparatively higher adoption rate is not incidental. Its design process involved explicit research into Yoruba cosmology, material culture, and spatial tradition (Ralph Appelbaum Associates, 2024; Singh, 2023). The spatial sequence at the John Randle Centre—entry through the monolithic gateway, transition across the veranda threshold, arrival at the courtyard-and-pool space—directly echoes the hierarchical compound organisation documented in traditional Yoruba domestic architecture, where the central courtyard functions as the social and spiritual heart of communal life (Adeokun et al., 2013).

The veranda functions not merely as circulation but as a transitional social space mediating between public and private realms, consistent with traditional Yoruba spatial logic. The courtyard maintains spatial continuity with various supporting spaces leading to active social and gathering functions during cultural events, thereby preserving the Akodi’s dual role as a social and environmental centre. At the John Randle Centre, the adoption of traditional spatial features is organisational rather than decorative, reflecting a genuine translation of Yoruba spatial grammar into contemporary built form. When cultural meaning is embedded at the brief stage rather than applied as a finishing layer, it manifests across multiple strategies simultaneously. The nine-degree forward lean references Yoruba progressiveness as a structural concept; the Tyrolean concrete finish references the texture of historic Yoruba settlements as a material decision; the courtyard-veranda relationship is spatially functional, not merely symbolic. These are tectonic decisions, and they score highly precisely because they are physically legible across multiple evaluation criteria simultaneously. It should be noted that the claim of a nine-degree lean referencing Yoruba progressiveness is accepted here as documented design intent rather than as a verified principle of traditional Yoruba spatial cosmology.

As Ayomide et al. (2024) demonstrate, Yoruba architecture functions as a sophisticated linguistic system in which spatial and formal decisions communicate cultural meaning—but the specific cosmological significance of angular proportion in this tradition requires a deeper engagement with Yoruba cultural practitioners and scholars beyond the scope of this observational study. What can be asserted from the evidence is that the building’s spatial sequence—gateway, veranda, courtyard—translates the hierarchical compound grammar of traditional Yoruba domestic architecture (Adeokun et al., 2013) into a contemporary museum environment in a manner that is physically legible and culturally coherent.

This contrasts with Terra Kulture and KAP Hub, where cultural referencing, while genuine and meaningful, tends to operate at the level of interior elements, surface treatments, and programmatic intent rather than spatial geometry, structural logic, or environmental system. This resonates with Frampton’s (1983) critique of critical regionalism, which distinguishes between architecture that superficially borrows regional forms and architecture that genuinely engages with place through tectonic, environmental, and material logic—and with Norberg-Schulz’s (1991) concept of genius loci, where a building’s relationship to place is expressed through fundamental spatial and material decisions rather than ornamentation alone. The theoretical implication is that neo-vernacular architecture achieves depth when culture informs the building’s organisation from inception, not when it is applied to an otherwise conventional contemporary framework.

5.2 The perception-adoption gap: what users experience versus what architects embed

The triangulation of expert observational assessment and user perception data (Jegede and Enwonwu, 2025) reveals a theoretically significant gap between what neo-vernacular architecture achieves in terms of formal and material strategy adoption and what it delivers in terms of lived user experience. This perception-adoption gap demands interpretation rather than dismissal.

5.2.1 Terra Kulture: the ‘decorated shed’ paradox

Terra Kulture’s position—architecturally ranked third yet users’ top-rated centre—resonates with Venturi and Scott Brown’s cautionary concept of the ‘decorated shed’ (Costanzo, 2012): a building that communicates cultural meaning primarily through surface application and programmatic content rather than through structural, spatial, or material embeddedness. Terra Kulture’s highest user score in economic sustainability (4.43) reflects its commercial-cultural hybrid model—restaurant, gallery, theatre, language school, and auction house—that creates visible, tangible economic value for users and the creative community. This is a programmatic achievement rather than an architectural one, yet it delivers the highest overall user satisfaction. The implication is that architectural depth and experiential satisfaction can decouple significantly when programming is rich and well-executed.

This does not diminish Terra Kulture’s cultural contribution, but it raises a critical design question: can programmatic richness compensate for architectural shallowness in user perception? The data suggest it can, in the short term. However, from a neo-vernacular perspective, this represents a missed opportunity. A building that already achieves high user satisfaction through programming could amplify those benefits further and more durably by embedding cultural principles into its environmental performance, material systems, and spatial syntax.

5.2.2 John Randle Centre: architectural depth, experiential distance

The John Randle Centre presents the inverse case. Its 80% adoption score reflects genuine architectural commitment—the tectonic integration of Yoruba cosmology into building form, material, and spatial sequence is well documented and physically legible. Yet it received the lowest aggregate user perception score (3.98) and was statistically significantly lower than its peers in both environmental sustainability (3.82) and economic sustainability (4.04) perception (p < 0.05).

Two factors explain this divergence. First, temporal exposure: 66% of John Randle Centre respondents reported visiting rarely—less than twice a year—the highest proportion of infrequent visitors across all three centres (Jegede and Enwonwu, 2025). The centre reopened only recently following regeneration, and users have not yet developed the familiarity required for deep place attachment (Motalebi et al., 2023). Architectural depth requires time and repeated encounter to be perceived; symbolic meaning must be learned before it can be felt. A Tyrolean concrete finish referencing Yoruba settlement textures will not be perceived as culturally meaningful to a first-time visitor without interpretive framing.

Second, economic legibility: the centre’s economic sustainability was rated lower than at Terra Kulture and KAP Hub, partly reflected in the lower Cronbach’s Alpha for the economic dimension (0.558) identified by Jegede and Enwonwu (2025), attributed to users’ limited familiarity with the centre’s economic programming, given its recent reopening. The centre’s economic contribution of supporting Yoruba heritage as a living cultural economy through its museum, events, and community programming is architecturally embedded but not yet experientially visible to casual visitors. The John Randle Centre addresses interpretive legibility partially through its museum wayfinding and displays, which guide visitors through the Yoruba cultural narrative. As the centre matures and visitation frequency increases, user perception scores are likely to improve. A longitudinal assessment of user perceptions at this centre would therefore be a valuable avenue for future research.

5.2.3 KAP hub: consistency as a design principle

KAP Hub’s middle position across both assessments — 71% adoption, 4.11 user perception—suggests that a moderate yet consistent level of neo-vernacular integration across all five relationship categories produces a balanced and coherent user experience. Critically, users rated KAP Hub highest in environmental sustainability (4.15), despite the centre scoring lower than the John Randle Centre in landscape-related observational strategies. This discrepancy highlights that users may perceive environmental sustainability through experiential proxies—clean environments, natural ventilation feeling, visible greenery—rather than through technically specific architectural features. KAP Hub’s high staff-to-visitor ratio (50% of respondents were staff or officials) and the highest weekly visitation frequency (50% visiting weekly or more) across the three centres further support the place attachment explanation: familiarity with a space deepens its perceived sustainability across dimensions. The centre’s experiential programming—cinema, restaurant, rooftop bar, and studio tours—provides multiple opportunities for repeated interaction that sustain engagement and deepen users’ connection to the building’s cultural and environmental qualities over time.

At KAP Hub, the use of repurposed shipping containers for the post-production unit represents a contemporary material choice that, while distinct from traditional Yoruba material culture, reflects the vernacular principle of adaptive material reuse—using locally available resources to create functional space. This aligns with Turkušić's (2011) observation that neo-vernacular architecture need not replicate traditional materials but can engage with the spirit of vernacular resourcefulness through contemporary equivalents.

5.2.4 Synthesis: a two-tier framework for neo-vernacular evaluation

The triangulation findings establish that robust neo-vernacular evaluation requires two complementary tiers: an expert assessment of architectural adoption (what has been embedded) and a user perception assessment of sustainability benefits (what is experienced). Neither is sufficient alone. Expert assessment without user perception risks measuring architectural intention rather than architectural impact; user perception without expert assessment risks measuring satisfaction with programming and atmosphere rather than with architecture specifically.

The framework developed in this study provides the first tier. The companion study (Jegede and Enwonwu, 2025) provides the second. Together, they reveal a more complete and analytically richer picture of neo-vernacular effectiveness in Nigerian cultural infrastructure than either approach could provide on its own.

These findings can be understood through the theoretical frameworks underpinning this study. The John Randle Centre most fully realises the principles of Critical Regionalism through its tectonic integration of Yoruba spatial grammar, while its low user perception scores reflect the Place Attachment Theory insight that architectural depth requires time and repeated encounter to generate meaningful experiential outcomes. Terra Kulture’s high user satisfaction demonstrates strong programmatic cultural expression, but its limited architectural embeddedness suggests that Critical Regionalism’s deeper tectonic engagement remains unrealised. KAP Hub’s consistent middle position reflects moderate architectural adoption, with strong place attachment emerging from high visitation frequency, compensating for its moderate adoption scores.

The perception-adoption gap raises a broader theoretical question: if architecturally embedded cultural strategies do not yield proportionally higher user-perceived sustainability benefits, what mechanism accounts for neo-vernacular architecture’s meaningful outcomes? The data suggest three mediating factors. First, temporal familiarity: users who visit frequently develop place attachment, enabling deeper engagement with architectural meaning (Motalebi et al., 2023). Second, interpretive legibility: architectural depth requires communicative support—signage, wayfinding, guided experience—to be perceived by casual visitors. Third, programmatic richness: spaces that generate repeat visitation through experiential programming create the conditions for place attachment to develop. These mediating factors suggest that neo-vernacular effectiveness is not a direct function of adoption depth but rather a product of adoption depth, interpretive support, and user engagement frequency. Future research should design both assessment tiers simultaneously to enable statistical correlation and multivariate analysis of which specific strategies most strongly predict user-perceived sustainability outcomes.

5.3 Implications for practice, policy, and postcolonial design

The findings have implications that extend beyond the three centres analysed. Within Lagos and Nigerian cities more broadly, cultural architecture operates in a postcolonial context in which the tension between international design languages and indigenous spatial traditions is acute yet often unacknowledged. The neo-vernacular framework developed in this study provides a systematic tool for naming, measuring, and responding to that tension—not by prescribing historical replication, but by identifying where indigenous spatial intelligence has been underutilised.

From a policy perspective, the identified gaps in landscape integration, material authenticity, and future-oriented sustainability suggest that building briefs and procurement frameworks for cultural infrastructure should explicitly mandate engagement with neo-vernacular design principles from the earliest design stages. Architectural competitions for cultural facilities could include neo-vernacular adoption criteria as scoring dimensions, as has been explored in decolonial design discourse (Mbembe, 2015). From a scholarly perspective, this study contributes to the growing field of decolonial architectural theory by demonstrating that vernacular traditions are not passive heritage objects but active design resources. The framework is replicable and adaptable to other West African urban contexts; however, with three case studies, findings must be interpreted with appropriate caution and cannot support statistical generalisation about Nigerian cultural architecture as a whole.

5.4 Limitations

While this study provides valuable insights, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, observational scoring was conducted by a single observer. Although three safeguards were applied—operational definitions, photographic documentation, and post-visit verification—formal inter-rater reliability testing was not conducted. Future research should incorporate a second independent assessor and Krippendorff’s alpha analysis to establish formal consistency metrics.

Second, original technical drawings were unavailable for all three sites, constraining spatial analysis to schematic diagrams prepared from on-site observation. While these diagrams document observable spatial hierarchies and circulation patterns, they cannot substitute for verified architectural documentation, and future assessments should seek access to primary design records.

Third, the study’s sample of three centres, while appropriate for an in-depth qualitative case study, limits the generalisability of findings. Broader sampling across more cultural centres, Nigerian cities, and design generations would be required to draw more expansive conclusions. Findings from this study cannot be generalised to all cultural buildings in Nigeria or West Africa without such broader sampling across building types, cities, and design generations.

Fourth, while this study and the companion user perception study (Jegede and Enwonwu, 2025) were conducted concurrently at the same three centres during the same fieldwork period, they were not designed with a formal statistical integration framework from the outset. This constrains the ability to draw direct regression-based correlations between specific adoption scores and individual perception dimensions. Future research should design both assessment tiers simultaneously, using a prespecified analytical framework to enable more rigorous statistical integration between expert assessment and user-perception data.

Finally, as Jegede and Enwonwu (2025) note, user perception data rely on subjective responses that may be influenced by visitor familiarity, the occasion of visit, and demographic factors, further underscoring the need for longitudinal and mixed-method research designs.

6 Conclusions and recommendations

This study revealed that the adoption of neo-vernacular architecture strategies varied significantly across the three evaluated arts and cultural centres in Lagos. The John Randle Centre demonstrated the highest adoption (80%), followed by KAP Hub (71%) and Terra Kulture (70%), with all three centres performing strongest in Direct relationship strategies and weakest in Contemporary relationship strategies. Triangulation with published user-perception data (Jegede and Enwonwu, 2025) revealed a significant perception-adoption gap: the architectural embeddedness of neo-vernacular principles does not automatically translate into higher user-perceived sustainability benefits. Programmatic richness, visitor familiarity, and interpretive infrastructure are equally critical to delivering meaningful outcomes. The following recommendations are directed at architects, cultural policymakers, and institutional planners.

• Embed culture at the brief stage, not the design stage: Architectural depth in neo-vernacular expression requires that cultural principles such as spatial hierarchy, material ecology, and cosmological ordering inform the building’s organisation from inception. The John Randle Centre’s higher scores reflect the consequences of this approach. Cultural consultants, traditional practitioners, and community elders should be involved in briefing processes, not only in aesthetic review.
• Strengthen landscape narratives through indigenous ecology: While the John Randle Centre demonstrated stronger landscape integration through its green roof and indigenous planting, all three centres showed limited engagement with culturally specific softscape with indigenous species such as palms, sacred trees, and native shrubs that reflect traditional Yoruba ecological wisdom and perform passive climatic functions. Landscape should be treated as a constitutive architectural element rather than a residual site treatment, with future projects drawing explicitly on Yoruba traditions of planted courtyards and sacred vegetation as both cultural and environmental design strategies.
• Employ local materials with technological adaptation: Materials such as laterite, adobe, timber, and terracotta should be revisited as carriers of cultural and environmental value, rather than merely decorative references. Hybrid solutions such as earth-based facades with modern insulation, bamboo structural elements with contemporary jointing, can reconcile tradition with performance and reduce long-term operational costs.
• Invest in interpretive infrastructure: The findings across all three centres demonstrate that neo-vernacular design, however architecturally sophisticated, requires communicative support to be experienced meaningfully by diverse user groups. While the John Randle Centre partially addresses this through its museum wayfinding and interpretive displays, environmental signage, and visitor education ranked consistently lowest across all three centres (Jegede and Enwonwu, 2025). Multilingual cultural information, environmental education programs, and interactive interpretive content are not supplementary features; they are conditions for neo-vernacular architecture to deliver its intended cultural and sustainability outcomes to the full range of users who inhabit these spaces.
• Apply the two-tier evaluation model in future cultural infrastructure commissioning: Expert observational assessment and user perception studies should be designed and conducted concurrently, enabling direct correlation between adoption scores and perceived sustainability dimensions. This model, applied in this study, provides an evidence-based basis for architectural performance benchmarking in cultural infrastructure.
• Advance future-oriented sustainability beyond programmatic flexibility: While all three centres achieved high scores on flexible multi-use spaces, the Future relationship category revealed consistent gaps in climate-adaptive construction, energy self-sufficiency, and digital cultural interface. This suggests that architects have internalised the value of programmatic flexibility as a function of contemporary architectural culture generally, but have not extended that forward-thinking to material durability, environmental self-sufficiency, or technology-enabled cultural engagement. Future cultural buildings should integrate solar-ready structural systems, rainwater harvesting infrastructure, and thermally enhanced earthen wall systems as baseline requirements, not optional enhancements.

This research contributes to the growing discourse on decolonising African design by demonstrating that tradition is not a limitation but a launchpad for identity-driven, climate-resilient futures. Though grounded in Lagos, the findings have broader resonance for West African cities navigating similar cultural and environmental complexities. Future research should explore post-occupancy evaluations, longitudinal user engagement studies, and the economic impacts of culturally resonant architecture on local tourism economies, using the two-tier framework introduced here as a methodological foundation.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Mohammed Mashary Alnaim, University of Hail, Saudi Arabia

Reviewed by: Abu Towab Md Shahriar, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Bangladesh

Najib Al-Ashwal, University of Technology Malaysia, Malaysia