A systematic review to support the development of social technologies for housing design and construction in Rural Amazonia

1 Introduction

Housing integrates functional and symbolic dimensions, serving both as physical shelter and as an expression of identity (Bonilla et al., 2025). Within the architectural perspective, the functional dimension enhances efficiency, comfort, accessibility, spatial sizing, and the circulation between spaces (Battaino et al., 2025; Vial Ribeiro, 2024). From the symbolic dimension, the home embodies meanings of belonging, security, and identity, reflecting the deep relationship between human beings and the built environment, since space only becomes place when it is inhabited both physically and symbolically (El Nachar and Abdel-Hadi, 2018; Tuan, 1983).

The occupation of territory and the resulting dwellings have historically shaped architectural typologies that serve as enduring testimonies to the history and culture of societies (Rapoport, 1969). Across societies and regions worldwide, shared knowledge has historically guided the construction of dwellings, shaped by the availability of local materials and the need to address specific demands. This collective wisdom is embodied in what is known as vernacular architecture (Marques et al., 2009; Oliver, 1997).

Vernacular architecture draws upon local materials and emerges from customs and techniques transmitted across generations. It employs resources from the surrounding environment, such as earth, stone, and timber, thereby shaping typologies and morphologies with a distinctly regional character that intertwine historicity with tradition (Mileto et al., 2019). In this context, timber stands out as a vernacular material in the Amazon, given its abundant availability, the specific construction techniques refined over time, and its central role in processes of self-construction.

The singularities inherent in each community’s building practices, or in the convergence of factors unique to each human settlement, generate symbols and meanings with distinctive characteristics that shape the relationship between the built environment and its site. This phenomenon is referred to as “genius loci”, an expression that conveys the “spirit of place”, a unique atmosphere and symbolic essence that emerges from the interaction between people and their environment (Norberg-Schulz, 1980; Barda, 2007). Genius loci refers to the immaterial identity of a place, the lived reality people encounter in everyday life, whereas vernacular architecture represents its tangible counterpart: the physical, practical, and traditional expression built with local resources to meet specific needs (Giroto, 2010). Genius loci is established when a site is transformed into a place through the recognition and integration of its historical, cultural, physical, and identity-related characteristics (Barda, 2007).

Preserving the essence of place, its genius loci, is important for the human condition (Marques et al., 2009). New technologies, when integrated with vernacular knowledge, can reshape the meaning of place and reinforce a sense of belonging. This synergy strengthens respect for cultural, social, and environmental traditions, giving rise to the concept of Social Technology (ST) (Arruda, 2016; Bijker et al., 2012).

An ST is a set of transformative techniques, methodologies, and products developed with a community to solve problems. Its actors include social movements, cooperatives, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), public research and development (R&D) centers, governments, public companies, and, to a lesser extent, private companies. The purpose of an ST is not necessarily to create a new product, but to add knowledge, technique, and methodology to develop transformative solutions that can be easily (re)applied by the population in the search for a better quality of life (Thomas et al., 2012; Bonilla et al., 2025). Whereas traditional technology often focuses on profit and technical novelty, ST focuses on social impact, the emancipation of those involved, and the solution of fundamental demands of vulnerable populations (Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovações, 2025; Gonçalves da Silva et al., 2025).

Although the concept of Social Technology (ST) has been more strongly consolidated in Latin America, particularly in Brazil, similar participatory and sustainable housing initiatives have emerged worldwide as strategies to address social and territorial inequalities in rural areas. Across different regions, these experiences commonly emphasize three interconnected dimensions: community participation, environmental adaptation, and economic and ecological sustainability. In this context, housing initiatives based on local knowledge, collective organization, and adaptive technologies have increasingly contributed to improving living conditions and strengthening community resilience in vulnerable territories. In developed European countries such as Spain and Portugal, digital innovations have been integrated into rural housing and community energy systems, including smart energy monitoring and resource management technologies, with a focus on sustainability and climate adaptation (Infrastructure and Environment Executive Agency, 2024; European Federation of Agencies and Regions for Energy and the Environment, 2023). In less developed regions, particularly in Africa, experiences in countries such as Kenya and Uganda have prioritized low-cost housing solutions built with local materials such as earth and bamboo, strengthening community practices and improving resilience to climate-related hazards such as floods and droughts (Habibi et al., 2023; Dobson et al., 2015). In Asia, initiatives in India and Nepal highlight earthquake-resistant and adaptive housing systems, often supported by cooperative reconstruction approaches and microfinance programs that strengthen household autonomy and post-disaster resilience (Hendriks and Opdyke, 2021; Gautam et al., 2016). In Latin America, outside Brazil, projects in Colombia and Mexico stand out for using bioconstruction techniques and ecological sanitation, reinforcing social bonds and reducing costs (Lozano, 2008; Robles-Morua et al., 2009).

In Brazil, the dissemination of Social Technologies (STs) aimed at housing has been driven by the work of the Banco do Brasil Foundation (FBB), which is responsible for the certification and dissemination of replicable solutions focused on social development. According to a study by the Institute for Applied Economic Research (IPEA, 2024), several housing-related STs certified by the FBB emphasize principles such as community participation, low cost, and sustainability. Among these initiatives, notable examples include experiences of collective housing construction in rural settlements, adaptable housing models designed for situations of environmental risk, and simplified sanitation systems based on assisted self-construction and local technical support.

Among the initiatives aimed at rural settlements, the ST Construction of Housing in Settlements, certified by the State Association for Agricultural Cooperation (AESCA) in Mato Grosso do Sul, enabled the collective construction of dwellings in the 17 de Abril Settlement through cooperative labor practices and community participation. In areas exposed to environmental vulnerabilities, the initiative Light House proposes a dismantlable and transportable housing model designed to respond to hazards such as floods and fires, thereby increasing household safety and family autonomy. Complementing these experiences, the ST Low-cost Septic Tanks, developed in the municipality of Caratinga, Minas Gerais, combines sanitation and social participation through an assisted self-construction model in which residents acquire the necessary materials and carry out installation with technical support from municipal professionals (Banco do Brasil Foundation, 2026). Together, these initiatives demonstrate how the Brazilian experience aligns with international trends by integrating sustainability, local knowledge, collective action, and adaptive resilience into rural housing strategies.

Housing is one component of public policies aimed at promoting rural development, which also include access to education, health, drinking water, basic sanitation, electricity, transport for production outflow, and access to credit, all of which are essential for sustainable development and for keeping families in the countryside (Maria et al., 2019; United Nations, 2021). From this perspective, the implementation of rural housing public policies can integrate STs as strategies for promoting social inclusion, while considering the socio-environmental and cultural particularities of different regions.

Based on the previous background stated, the objective of this study is to identify principles, vernacular techniques, and local knowledge capable of informing the proposal of social technologies applied to construction systems-technologies that are territorially appropriate, environmentally responsive, culturally coherent, and participatory for the Rural Amazon dwellings. The contribution of this study lies in its integrated genius loci approach, which provides a framework for developing socially appropriate technologies, informing future rural housing policies and design guidelines, and fostering the integration of traditional knowledge into contemporary housing solutions.

2 Methodology

The methodology is classified as qualitative (Denzin and Lincoln, 2018; Gil, 2008), since it brings together concepts and analyzes them in light of the research questions. Regarding its objectives, it is descriptive because it addresses the characteristics of a given phenomenon and establishes relationships between variables as well as exploratory because it seeks to provide greater familiarity with the problem (Creswell, 2014; Marconi and Lakatos, 2003). Regarding its nature, the research is applied because it aims to consolidate knowledge directed toward the solution of specific practical problems (Baimyrzaeva, 2018; Azevedo and Ensslin, 2020).

This study adopted a systematic literature review (SLR) following a structured methodological approach comprising five stages: (i) definition of the review scope and research question; (ii) establishment of inclusion and exclusion criteria; (iii) systematic search and selection of relevant studies; (iv) data extraction; and (v) synthesis and interpretation of the findings (Snyder, 2019). The review process was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., 2021; Shafique and Tahir, 2026) to ensure transparency, reproducibility, and methodological rigor.

2.1 Definition of the review scope and research question

The review focused on the construction attributes of rural housing in the Amazon, considering studies published in both the international literature and the Brazilian scientific context. The research question was formulated using the PICO framework (Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome) (Aromataris and Munn, 2020), which provides a structured approach for developing systematic review questions. The application of the PICO framework is presented in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Components of the research question based on the PICO framework.

The research question guiding this systematic review was: How can the architectural characteristics and vernacular construction systems of rural housing in the Amazon, informed by genius loci principles, support the development of socially appropriate technologies that are culturally grounded, environmentally responsive, and technically feasible for improving housing conditions in rural Amazonian settlements?

2.2 Eligibility criteria

The inclusion scope was restricted to studies focusing on rural housing or small settlements in the Brazilian Amazon. Eligible publications were required to provide sufficiently detailed descriptions, both textual and visual, to enable architectural analysis and to discuss the technological innovations applied to the dwellings.

Research addressing mass-produced housing aimed at reducing the urban housing deficit was excluded, as such typologies diverge from the central focus of this investigation. Duplicate studies were eliminated, as well as those concerning indigenous or forest-dwelling communities when their housing typologies reflected highly specific vernacular traditions. These exclusions were justified because such traditions do not correspond to the genius loci of rural family farmers, particularly those residing in agrarian reform settlements, which are the primary object of this study. In cases of duplicate publications, one version was systematically excluded.

2.3 Definition of databases and search descriptors

The databases consulted were Web of Science, Portal de Periódicos CAPES (https://www.periodicos.capes.gov.br/), and the Brazilian Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (BDTD) (https://bdtd.ibict.br/). In Web of Science, an iterative refinement process was conducted to maximize the relevance of the retrieved literature to the research scope, resulting in the adoption of the search string (“housing” OR “dwelling” OR “architecture”) AND (“settlements” OR “communities” OR “rural areas”) AND (“Brazilian Amazon” OR “Amazon rainforest”), restricted to publications in English. For Brazilian literature, the review focused on studies addressing rural housing in the Legal Amazon (Brasil, 1966), with Portal de Periódicos CAPES and BDTD selected as primary sources due to their higher potential for retrieving publications aligned with the research objectives. Searches were conducted without date restrictions, using the descriptors “moradia AND amaz,” “habitaç AND amaz,” and “habitaç AND rural”.

2.4 Search and selection of studies

The search and selection of studies were conducted in accordance with the PRISMA framework (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) (Page et al., 2021; Awodele et al., 2026), which guided the processes of identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and inclusion of relevant studies. The procedure began with searches in the previously defined databases, followed by the removal of duplicate entries when present. In the identification phase, publications were selected based on titles that demonstrated explicit or potential relevance to the research topic. During the screening phase, abstracts of the selected publications were reviewed to verify duplication and apply the exclusion criteria. In the eligibility phase, the full texts were examined and subjected to weighted quality assessment criteria (Table 2). Finally, in the inclusion phase, the individual analyses of the pre-selected studies were consolidated to provide a final judgment on their adherence to the systematic review (Dresch et al., 2014). As a result, only studies that achieved high scores in the weighted quality assessment (Table 3) were included. These high-quality studies were systematically reviewed and subjected to content analysis to address the research questions.

TABLE 2. Criteria for assessing the quality dimensions of the publications.

Source: Adapted from Dresch et al. (2014).

TABLE 3. Weighted quality assessment criteria for study inclusion.

Only studies classified as High in the weighted quality assessment were included in the systematic review. Combinations resulting in Medium or Low scores were excluded, as the review focused exclusively on publications demonstrating methodological rigor, thematic relevance, and strong alignment with the research objectives.

Source: Adapted from Dresch et al. (2014).

2.5 Interpretation of results

Content analysis was employed to address the research problem (Krippendorff, 2019). The results were organized to identify within the research corpus the following housing attributes: constructive typologies, materials used, and bioclimatic strategies with the potential to improve residents’ quality of life according to the location of the studied dwellings. Particular attention was given to ethnographic descriptions of the houses, as they provided detailed insights into construction practices and local contexts.

The reading of the genius loci was operationalized through four guiding questions: (1) Which natural conditions shape the way of inhabiting? (2) Which practices, memories, and symbols confer identity? (3) Which materials and knowledge connect construction to local economy and ecology? And, (4) Which tensions arise when policies, technical standards, or aspirations of modernity alter these relationships?

This formulation draws on Norberg-Schulz (1980) but is applied here as a comparative tool rather than a stylistic label. The elements characterizing the genius loci were grouped into dimensions from which potential social technologies applicable to the study context were derived, using directed qualitative documentary analysis. The selected studies were coded (labeled from E01 to E22) to enable cross-referencing, expressed through a multiple-membership alluvial diagram composed of five columns representing housing attributes (typologies, construction materials, and bioclimatic strategies), genius loci principles, and identified potential social technologies. In this diagram, each line corresponds to a study, and the branches indicate associations with more than one dimension. Based on the identified genius loci principles, potential social technologies were anchored as proposals to address the housing challenges faced by Amazonian communities.

3 Results

Figure 1 presents the adapted PRISMA flowchart, which begins with 1,019 publications and results in 22 publications that constitute the research corpus.

In the Web of Science database, international literature predominantly addressed diseases related to housing conditions and urbanization processes in the Amazon region. Only two publications were selected with a direct focus on the study: Mazzone (2020) and Celuppi et al. (2019). By contrast, Brazilian literature presented a broader set of research related to housing, construction systems, and environmental adaptation in rural Amazonian settlements. A total of 1,019 publications were initially identified. After applying the exclusion criteria, 31 studies met the eligibility requirements, and 22 of them were included in the final analysis, all classified as high quality (Table 4). Figure 2 presents the spatial distribution of the studies included in the systematic review, highlighting the geographic locations investigated across the Brazilian Legal Amazon.

TABLE 4. Publications by keyword, database, author, year of publication, weighted quality, and state location.

Source: authors.

The publications are described below according to their attributes of typology, materials, strategies, and location.

3.1 Typologies

Six construction typologies were identified: standardized rural housing provided by the government; riverside/stilted or floating housing; vernacular housing of rubber tappers; prototype of Social Interest Housing (SIH) tested with new technologies; and household sanitation infrastructure. The distribution highlights two complementary fields: studies that describe the habitat and studies that discuss programs, components, or infrastructure capable of transforming it. The typology of standardized rural housing provided by the government reflects a building model proposed under INCRA’s public policy. Silva et al. (2021) and Silva and Santana (2021) examined the implementation of the National Rural Housing Program (PNHR) in rural communities of Abaetetuba, Santa Isabel do Pará, and Soure, in the state of Pará (Figure 3). The program delivered standardized housing units of approximately 42 m², consisting of an integrated living room and kitchen, two bedrooms, one bathroom, and a small covered service area. While residents acknowledged improvements in housing safety, sanitation, and privacy due to the provision of formal construction elements such as doors, windows, and indoor sanitary facilities, the studies identified significant discrepancies between the standardized housing model and local dwelling practices.

The main criticisms concerned the reduced dimensions and rigid spatial organization of the houses. Residents reported inadequately sized rooms, insufficient kitchen space, poor natural ventilation and daylighting, and the absence of elements typical of traditional Amazonian rural dwellings, such as large covered outdoor areas, yards, verandas, hammock supports, and spaces for social interaction and productive activities. The housing design also failed to accommodate cultural practices such as cooking with wood- or charcoal-burning stoves, washing dishes on a jirau, and gathering family members in semi-open spaces adjacent to the house. In several cases, the number and size of rooms proved insufficient for local family structures, resulting in overcrowding and, at times, forcing some members to sleep outside the dwelling. These findings suggest that the PNHR adopted a homogeneous housing model with limited adaptation to the environmental, cultural, and socioeconomic realities of the Amazon. Residents’ preference for larger, more open, and better-ventilated spaces demonstrates the persistence of vernacular spatial arrangements that prioritize thermal comfort, flexibility, social interaction, and the integration of domestic and productive activities. The studies also indicate that the transition to formal housing introduced new maintenance and service costs that often did not exist in previous housing arrangements. Overall, the authors argue that future rural housing initiatives should incorporate vernacular design principles and participatory planning processes to more accurately reflect local dwelling patterns. While the standardized project improved health-related aspects, it weakened the correspondence between home, work, sociability, and the local climate that characterizes the Amazonian genius loci. The homogenization of the PNHR contrasts with rural Amazonian practices and with residents’ demand for ventilation, outdoor space, and spacious kitchens.

Alves (2023) examined the implementation of the House Installation Credit modality under the Second National Agrarian Reform Plan (II PNRA) in the Caeté-Taperaçu Marine Extractive Reserve (REMCT), Pará, focusing on the dwellings provided to fishing and crab-gathering families. The standardized housing model delivered by INCRA (Figure 4) sought to improve living conditions by providing basic infrastructure, including electricity, piped water, and sanitary facilities. Despite these improvements, 91% of the households had modified their dwellings after occupation by adding kitchens, bedrooms, bathrooms, courtyards, and semi-open rear spaces used for productive activities, storage, and social interaction (Figure 5). These interventions demonstrate that the original design did not adequately accommodate residents’ daily routines, livelihood activities, or sociocultural practices.

One of the most frequently reported shortcomings concerned the bathroom, particularly its limited size and location between the bedrooms. Residents indicated that locating the bathroom at the rear of the house would better reflect local practices by allowing direct access after fishing, crab harvesting, and other extractive activities. The widespread post-occupancy adaptations highlight the importance of design flexibility and meaningful user participation in rural housing programs.

These findings indicate that housing solutions for Amazonian extractive communities should move beyond standardized designs by incorporating vernacular spatial organization, productive spaces, and locally specific patterns of use. Although the housing program improved access to essential services such as sanitation, piped water, and safer construction, the adoption of a single housing typology and the limited participation of residents reduced its environmental, functional, and sociocultural suitability. The extensive modifications undertaken by occupants illustrate a process of spatial appropriation through which the dwellings were reshaped to reflect local knowledge, productive practices, and cultural values. From the perspective of genius loci, these transformations represent residents’ efforts to reconcile externally imposed housing models with the environmental and sociocultural characteristics of their territory. Consequently, the study suggests that future social technologies for rural housing should integrate vernacular knowledge, participatory design processes, and spatial flexibility to produce solutions that are culturally grounded, environmentally responsive, and better adapted to Amazonian ways of life.

Fernandes (1997) investigated living conditions in the Rio Cajari Extractive Reserve, Amapá, examining the relationship between housing conditions, environmental quality, and access to basic infrastructure. The study found that most dwellings had wooden or concrete floors and access to electricity, indicating some improvement in housing quality. Nevertheless, significant deficiencies remained, particularly regarding sanitation and waste management. Household wastewater was commonly discharged into open areas or directly into nearby watercourses, while solid waste was typically disposed of on the ground and burned. These practices were especially problematic because local communities relied on untreated river water for domestic use, increasing their exposure to environmental contamination and waterborne diseases. The findings highlight that improvements in housing quality alone are insufficient to ensure healthy living conditions, emphasizing the need for integrated housing solutions that combine adequate infrastructure, environmental sanitation, and locally appropriate technologies.

The relationship between vernacular housing and environmental adaptation was further explored by Nascimento and Perdigão (2023), who investigated riverine stilt-house settlements in Furo do Nazário, Pará, and on Sababa Island, Maranhão. The authors argue that traditional Amazonian communities have distinct ways of inhabiting their territories, shaped by the interaction between environmental conditions, socioeconomic organization, and cultural practices. Decisions regarding housing design and construction are influenced both by locally available resources and by the specific ways of life of each community. In both settlements, family-based livelihoods depend on plant and animal extractivism and are closely synchronized with seasonal environmental cycles, which are reflected in the material, functional, symbolic, and social dimensions of the built environment.

In Furo do Nazário, where periodic flooding strongly influences land occupation, houses are connected by elevated wooden walkways (estivas) that organize circulation throughout the settlement and provide direct access to the dwellings. These walkways lead to spacious front verandas that function as transitional spaces between the collective and domestic environments, creating a gradual transition from public to private space (Figures 6a,b). Beyond their social role, the verandas improve environmental comfort by acting as semi-open buffer zones that regulate solar exposure, promote natural ventilation, and provide protection from rainfall. This spatial arrangement represents a vernacular housing solution specifically adapted to flood-prone environments while simultaneously strengthening social interaction and community cohesion.

On Sababa Island, although elevated wooden walkways are also present, the relationship between the dwelling and its surroundings reflects a clearer distinction between public and private domains. Houses are commonly enclosed by fences or walls and generally lack formal entrance verandas, making the living-room doorway the principal threshold between indoor and outdoor spaces (Figures 6c,d). Even so, informal transitional areas covered with thatch are often created in front of the houses, facilitating daily activities and improving accessibility. The comparison between the two communities demonstrates that vernacular spatial configurations respond not only to environmental constraints but also to different cultural perceptions of privacy, sociability, and the use of domestic space. These examples illustrate how Amazonian riverine housing embodies the genius loci, integrating environmental adaptation with cultural values and local knowledge. Such characteristics provide valuable principles for the development of socially appropriate housing technologies that respect territorial specificities while enhancing environmental performance and quality of life.

The house, veranda, elevated walkway (estiva), and river together constitute an inherited socio-spatial framework in which the identity of place is embedded not in an isolated physical structure, but in the relationships established among residents, their dwellings, and the community.

Alencar and Souza (2016) characterize housing in the Mamirauá and Amanã Sustainable Development Reserves as the product of a long-term process of adaptation to the environmental dynamics of the Amazonian floodplains. The predominant housing typology consists of elevated wooden stilt houses constructed with locally available materials selected according to their structural performance and environmental suitability (Figure 7). Dense hardwoods are used for foundations and structural elements exposed to flood forces, whereas lighter timber species and palm-derived materials are employed for walls, floors, and roofing systems. Dwellings are generally organized around flexible, multifunctional spaces that respond to both the environmental constraints of the floodplain and the social organization of riverine families.

The study demonstrates that housing location, structural elevation, material selection, and spatial configuration are closely shaped by seasonal flood regimes, unstable floodplain soils, and the need for lightweight, adaptable construction systems. These characteristics reflect the accumulation of vernacular knowledge developed through generations of interaction with the local environment and illustrate how environmental processes have been translated into culturally embedded building practices. Although more recent houses increasingly incorporate compartmentalized rooms, indoor bathrooms, electricity, and industrialized materials associated with improving socioeconomic conditions (Figure 8), the fundamental vernacular principles of floodplain housing, particularly the use of elevated timber structures above historical flood levels, remain largely unchanged. This continuity highlights the resilience of traditional construction knowledge and reinforces the importance of integrating vernacular design principles into contemporary social technologies for rural housing in the Amazon, ensuring that modernization enhances, rather than replaces, locally adapted solutions. The authors also contrast these environmentally adaptive housing systems with the standardized dwellings introduced through public housing programs, which often fail to account for local environmental conditions and traditional ways of living. Single-story houses with rigid spatial layouts have proven unsuitable for flood-prone environments and incompatible with everyday practices such as the use of hammocks and multifunctional domestic spaces (Figure 9). These shortcomings underscore the limitations of standardized housing models when implemented without consideration of local ecological and sociocultural contexts.

In response to increasingly dynamic hydrological conditions, some families have adopted floating houses constructed from timber species with high buoyancy (Figure 10). Rather than replacing vernacular building traditions, these dwellings represent a contemporary adaptation that builds upon accumulated local knowledge while responding to changing environmental conditions. The study demonstrates that the persistence of traditional housing systems in the rural Amazon is closely associated with their environmental suitability, cultural acceptance, and capacity to accommodate socioeconomic and climatic changes. These findings reinforce the value of vernacular knowledge as a foundation for developing socially appropriate housing technologies that are environmentally responsive, culturally grounded, and capable of enhancing the resilience of Amazonian communities.

The single-story houses provided by INCRA proved unsuitable for the hydrological dynamics of the Amazonian floodplains, leading many residents to retain their traditional dwellings or adopt floating houses as adaptive alternatives. Rather than abandoning vernacular construction practices, these responses combined traditional knowledge with technical innovation, enabling families to maintain their livelihoods and remain in floodplain environments. From the perspective of genius loci, the identity of place is intrinsically linked to the seasonal flood regime and to the locally developed strategies that allow communities to inhabit, adapt to, and persist within this dynamic landscape.

Mazzone (2020) and Celuppi et al. (2019) provide complementary evidence on housing typologies, construction materials, and environmental adaptation strategies adopted in rural and riverine communities of the Brazilian Amazon, highlighting how vernacular architecture responds to local climatic and environmental conditions.

Mazzone (2020) investigated housing conditions and thermal comfort in rural Amazonian communities, documenting vernacular dwellings characterized by elevated wooden structures, timber walls, natural materials, and passive cooling strategies that enhance natural ventilation and improve adaptation to the region’s hot and humid climate. The study also reports the increasing incorporation of modern construction materials, including brick masonry, cement, and metal roofing, driven by public housing policies and perceptions of modernization and durability. However, these changes frequently reduce thermal performance and compromise traditional climate-responsive design features. The findings indicate that the persistence of vernacular construction techniques is closely associated with their environmental suitability, reliance on locally available resources, and cultural acceptance.

Similarly, Celuppi et al. (2019) examined riverine housing in the Brazilian Amazon and its relationship with thermal comfort and environmental adaptation. The authors identified stilt houses and floating dwellings as the predominant housing typologies, typically constructed from locally sourced timber and incorporating elevated floors, large openings, and metal roofs. These building envelope characteristics promote effective natural ventilation while responding to seasonal flooding, high temperatures, and elevated humidity. The study further demonstrates that local construction practices are shaped by the availability of natural resources, cultural traditions, and the need for affordable self-built housing, resulting in vernacular architecture that successfully integrates passive bioclimatic strategies to enhance habitability under Amazonian environmental conditions.

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that thermal comfort in Amazonian rural housing depends not only on the physical performance of the building envelope but also on the close relationship between dwellings, environmental conditions, and residents’ everyday adaptive practices. Incremental modifications made by occupants and the continued use of vernacular construction principles reflect an ongoing process of adjustment to local climatic and territorial conditions. From the perspective of genius loci, these adaptive practices express the identity of place by integrating environmental knowledge, cultural values, and accumulated building experience, thereby providing valuable principles for the development of socially appropriate and climate-responsive housing technologies.

Celuppi, Meirelles, and Gobo (2022) investigated the thermal performance of a vernacular riverine stilt house in the Pesqueiro community, Amazonas, a housing typology widely adopted throughout the Amazon floodplains because of its effective adaptation to seasonal flooding (Figure 11a). The dwelling consists of an elevated timber structure with lightweight building envelope components, including wooden walls and a corrugated zinc roof. While the raised floor effectively responds to hydrological conditions, the study found that it does not necessarily ensure satisfactory thermal performance under the region’s hot and humid climate. Indoor overheating was primarily attributed to the zinc roof, which intensified solar heat gains and produced pronounced vertical thermal stratification. Air temperatures near the roof were up to 5 °C higher than those measured at floor level, highlighting the critical influence of roofing materials on indoor environmental conditions.

Rather than advocating the replacement of the vernacular construction system, the authors propose targeted improvements based on passive environmental design strategies. In particular, they recommend enhancing stack-driven natural ventilation through low-level air inlets combined with ridge openings to facilitate heat removal (Figure 11b). These findings demonstrate that the environmental performance of Amazonian riverine housing depends not only on structural adaptations to seasonal flooding but also on the compatibility between building envelope materials and local climatic conditions. From the perspective of genius loci, the study reinforces that improving thermal comfort should build upon, rather than replace, vernacular construction principles. Consequently, passive design strategies integrated with traditional housing systems provide a promising foundation for developing socially appropriate, climate-responsive housing technologies tailored to the environmental and cultural context of the Amazon.

Oliveira Junior (2009) describes vernacular stilt houses and floating dwellings along the Lower Solimões River, Amazonas, as representative responses to the region’s hydrological variability. Riverine houses are typically organized into four main spaces, a combined living room and kitchen and two bedrooms (Figure 12a), with the bathroom located outside the main structure and discharging wastewater directly into the river (Figure 12b), a solution that reflects both environmental constraints and limited sanitation infrastructure. Historically, houses built during the rubber boom were predominantly constructed from timber, with roofing materials ranging from wooden shingles to fiber-cement sheets (Figure 12c). These spatial layouts and material systems illustrate how local communities reconcile resource availability, climatic conditions, and cultural practices in their housing solutions, reflecting the adaptive principles that underpin the genius loci of Amazonian riverine settlements.

Lima and Longo (2010) examines the rubber tapper’s house as a vernacular housing system that emerged in Acre through the interaction of Indigenous building knowledge, the environmental conditions of the Amazon, and the practical needs of extractive communities. Constructed almost entirely from locally available forest resources, including paxiúba palm, roundwood timber, palm leaves, bamboo, and lianas used as lashings, these dwellings illustrate how the availability of natural materials strongly shaped housing production in remote forest areas. The predominant typology consisted of an elevated stilt house with a veranda, timber floors and walls, and a steeply pitched palm-thatch roof (Figures 13, 14). Construction techniques relied on simple processes of cutting, fitting, and lashing structural components, minimizing dependence on industrialized materials and external inputs. The study emphasizes that the adoption and persistence of this housing system were closely linked to its environmental suitability. The raised floor protected occupants from moisture, seasonal flooding, and wild animals while promoting airflow beneath the structure. Verandas functioned as transitional spaces that shielded the building envelope from solar radiation and rainfall, whereas the small gaps between paxiúba boards enhanced cross-ventilation. Likewise, the steep palm-thatch roof, combined with the absence of a ceiling, created a large ventilated air volume that contributed to thermal comfort under the hot and humid Amazonian climate. Collectively, these features demonstrate how vernacular construction knowledge integrated passive environmental strategies through the careful selection of materials, spatial organization, and climate-responsive building envelope design.

The authors also note that this housing typology remains present in parts of Acre, although it has undergone significant transformations over time. Palm-thatch roofs have frequently been replaced by fiber-cement or metal roofing, and timber walls have often given way to masonry construction, reflecting changing perceptions of durability, modernity, and socioeconomic status. Despite these material substitutions, many of the environmental principles embedded in the traditional system remain highly relevant. The rubber tapper’s house therefore provides an important example of how locally available materials, community-based construction practices, and climate-responsive design can inform the development of socially appropriate housing technologies that are culturally grounded, environmentally responsive, and technically viable for improving housing conditions in the rural Amazon. From the perspective of genius loci, its enduring value lies not in preserving its original form unchanged, but in maintaining the adaptive principles that have enabled Amazonian communities to live in harmony with their environmental and cultural context.

Only the attributes unrelated to Indigenous housing were considered from Metello (2006). The author documents a wide range of vernacular housing typologies found across the Amazon, particularly in regions characterized by intensive timber extraction and abundant forest resources. The survey identified stilt houses adapted to seasonally flooded environments (Figure 15), timber-based housing systems in which wood is used as the primary structural material (Figure 16a), and dwellings that incorporate timber in both wall and roofing systems (Figure 16b). The author also recorded the use of adobe construction by communities in Juara, Mato Grosso (Figures 16c,d), demonstrating the coexistence of bio-based and earthen building traditions within the region. Collectively, these examples illustrate the diversity of Amazonian housing systems, whose material choices and construction techniques are strongly shaped by the availability of local resources, environmental conditions, cultural practices, and socioeconomic constraints. From the perspective of genius loci, this diversity reflects the capacity of Amazonian communities to translate local environmental knowledge and cultural traditions into context-specific building solutions, providing valuable insights for the development of socially appropriate and environmentally responsive housing technologies.

3.2 Materials

Local timber and fibers are the main materials in 11 studies. Their predominance does not imply homogeneity: sawn and round timber, cumaru, paxiúba, thatch, lianas, sawmill waste, and industrialized panels are all reported. Mixed masonry systems, bamboo, and industrialized roofing demonstrate hybridization processes. Four studies provide insufficient data for material classification, a relevant limitation for any performance synthesis.

Nascimento (2015) assessed the technical feasibility of producing soil-cement bricks incorporating manganese-mining waste generated in southeastern Pará. The proposed technology simultaneously addresses two regional challenges: demand for low-cost construction materials and the accumulation of mining waste associated with mineral extraction. The author demonstrated that manganese waste can be incorporated into soil-cement bricks while still meeting Brazilian performance standards, indicating its potential as a technically viable construction material. Because soil-cement bricks are compacted rather than fired, their production avoids the high energy consumption and greenhouse-gas emissions associated with conventional ceramic bricks. Technology also uses locally available resources, including soil and abundant mining waste, contributing to the circular use of regional materials and reducing environmental impacts.

Barbosa (2019) investigated living conditions in the São Francisco Settlement in southern Amazonas, home to 217 settled families. Timber remained the predominant construction material, used in 93% of dwellings, while only 7% were built in masonry (Figure 17). This predominance reflects continued reliance on locally available forest resources, the lower cost of timber construction, and residents’ familiarity with timber-based building techniques.

The typology identified as a Social Housing Prototype involving technology testing was studied by Arenas and Arenas (2022), Mota (2018), Oliveira (2018), Metello (2006), and Nascimento (2015). Arenas and Arenas (2022) examined a bamboo housing proposal based on the material’s availability in Acre. The design included large windows and high ceilings for cross-ventilation, verandas and overhangs to shade façades, especially the north-facing façade, and bedrooms positioned to the east. The authors support bamboo’s economic feasibility and climatic suitability, including its potential to reduce costs and construction time, provided that appropriate treatment and techniques are used. They nevertheless acknowledge that community acceptance depends on validation through community prototypes if the technology is to become part of the genius loci.

Mota (2018) also studied housing built with a mixed masonry-and-bamboo system in Acre, focusing on environmental thermal performance. The study concluded that bamboo alone does not guarantee suitability, because an unlined roof compromised the overall performance, demonstrating that place requires systemic coherence. In this respect, the genius loci of the Amazonian rubber-tapper house can be recognized in its use of timber and thatch roofing to improve thermal comfort.

Oliveira (2018) investigated bamboo as a construction system for rural housing in Rio Branco, Acre, emphasizing its potential as a locally available, renewable, and low-cost material (Figure 18). Bamboo was used in structural and enclosure elements, demonstrating the feasibility of alternative materials derived from regional resources. Although the dwelling experienced thermal discomfort, the study attributed this mainly to design decisions, particularly the limited openings for natural ventilation and the low-pitched fiber-cement roof, rather than to bamboo itself. Daylighting and acoustic performance were considered satisfactory. Simple improvements, such as installing a timber ceiling, were proposed to improve indoor thermal conditions. Bamboo is therefore a promising material system for rural Amazonian housing when combined with climate-responsive design strategies, especially appropriate ventilation and roof configuration. The findings reinforce the potential of bamboo-based construction as a socially appropriate and environmentally responsive technology for improving housing conditions in the Rural Amazon.

Metello (2006) identified enclosure and roofing solutions in which timber shingles, locally known as “tabuinhas” or “cavacos”, stand out as a low-cost roofing technology that uses local resources and suits the region’s hot, humid climate. Compared with conventional industrialized roofing, they can contribute to better hygrothermal performance (Figure 19).

3.3 Strategies

Elevation, flotation, and adaptation to water, as well as ventilation, shading, and roofing, appear as the main strategies in six studies. Local materials, reuse, and low-impact solutions lead in two studies, while passive water and sanitation measures lead in one. Seven studies do not explicitly assess bioclimatic strategies. Secondary solutions include verandas, overhangs, high and low openings, orientation, ventilated floors, high-reflectance roofs, rainwater harvesting, and bio digestion.

Mariosa et al. (2017) assessed socioenvironmental sustainability and habitability in riverine housing in the Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve, Amazonas. The houses were predominantly built of timber or mixed timber-and-masonry systems, reflecting local resource availability, simple construction techniques, and the continuity of traditional practices. The study identified an ongoing transition from traditional roof materials, such as thatch and tree bark, to fiber-cement and zinc sheets, driven by perceptions of greater durability and modernization. These substitutions, however, often reduced thermal comfort because of higher heat transmission through the roof. Housing quality in riverine communities depends not only on access to dwellings and construction materials but also on the environmental performance of building systems and adequate sanitation and infrastructure. Housing interventions should strengthen the positive aspects of vernacular construction while addressing deficiencies in thermal comfort, durability, and habitability.

Virgílio (2021) analyzed a self-built riverine dwelling on Ilha das Onças, Barcarena, Pará. Located in Guajará Bay, the island maintains strong socioeconomic connections with nearby urban centers, particularly Belém, where many residents earn income through employment and service activities. Despite this proximity, the dwelling retains several features of riverine vernacular architecture (Figure 20), reflecting close relationships among construction practices, environmental conditions, and local ways of life. Passive design strategies improve environmental performance and reduce dependence on external resources. Timber enclosures incorporate intentional gaps between boards and between the walls and roof, allowing continuous natural ventilation. The raised floor protects against moisture and seasonal flooding, improves airflow beneath the floorboards, and keeps the living space above high-tide levels. Ceramic roof tiles, protected by generous overhangs and surrounding vegetation, reduce solar heat gains and shelter the building from heavy rain.

The study also identified strategies related to resource management and environmental sustainability. Translucent roof elements increase daylight and reduce dependence on generator-produced electricity, while tree shade further improves indoor thermal conditions. Water supply is supplemented by rainwater harvesting and filtration combined with river-water treatment. The dwelling includes a dry toilet, although direct discharge of wastewater into the river remains common in the region. Solid waste is generally burned with biomass waste from açaí processing. Although environmentally problematic, these practices illustrate the infrastructure constraints faced by riverine communities and the adaptive responses they develop. Overall, the dwelling shows how elevated structures, permeable timber envelopes, shaded roofs, and integration with local environmental resources can guide culturally appropriate, environmentally responsive, and technically viable social technologies for improving rural Amazonian housing.

According to Leite, Scalize, and Hora (2022), habitability is the capacity of a dwelling to provide adequate construction conditions and environmental comfort, including thermal, visual, acoustic, and tactile performance, as well as safety, healthfulness, and responsiveness to occupants’ physical, psychological, and sociocultural needs. In rural housing, habitability also protects residents from health and safety risks associated with climate, fire, environmental hazards, and other external threats. It depends on appropriate spatial organization, including room size and number in relation to household occupancy, and on spaces for food preparation and storage, laundry, and other essential domestic functions. Thus, in rural housing, genius loci includes work, culture, surroundings, comfort, health, and services; place emerges as a multiscalar relationship.

Callejas et al. (2024) analyzed habitability in agrarian-reform settlements in the Amazonian region of Mato Grosso as a strategy for assessing minimum housing conditions. They considered built area per resident and found that the minimum criterion of 18 m² was met in the settlements studied. Access to water and sanitation, however, remained gaps with major environmental impacts. Asymmetries among the indicators show that genius loci is related to territory and that habitability depends on water, sanitation, energy, and road access; the absence of this infrastructure may characterize housing deprivation.

Sakatauskas (2020) argues that housing deprivation in the riverine Amazon requires critical reconsideration. Many dwellings classified as precarious are built with locally abundant materials such as timber and palm thatch, which historically enabled occupation of the region. Rather than merely temporary or deficient solutions, these forms reflect long-term adaptation to Amazonian conditions and the development of a distinctive riverine architectural culture. Traditional systems, including stilt houses and elevated walkways (estivas), accommodate seasonal floods, facilitate mobility, and enable occupation of flood-prone landscapes. Widespread timber use should not itself be interpreted as housing inadequacy; vulnerability is often more closely associated with environmental exposure, lack of infrastructure, and limited public services. Riverine ways of life are expressed directly in housing architecture, which combines different cultural traditions and locally available materials. Floodplain houses are typically raised on stilts, while houses on firm ground often retain similar spatial and architectural features but benefit from greater stability and durability. This continuity demonstrates vernacular knowledge that evolved in response to local ecological conditions. Housing policy must move beyond standardized solutions and recognize the environmental, cultural, and social specificities of riverine communities. Appropriate interventions should preserve environmental resources, protect residents’ health and wellbeing, maintain river and groundwater quality, and incorporate design strategies compatible with regional climate and traditional ways of dwelling. These considerations reinforce the potential of riverine vernacular construction to guide culturally appropriate, environmentally responsive social technologies adapted to Amazonian communities.

Barbosa (2019) reports that, although housing in southern Amazonas provided basic shelter and minimum comfort, it had substantial sanitation deficiencies. Human waste was managed mainly through dry pits (65%) and rudimentary cesspits (30%), while only 5% of families used alternative systems. Solid waste was commonly burned in backyards, as often occurs in rural Amazonian settlements without formal collection services. In response, a biodigester septic system was developed with the Federal University of Amazonas. Designed as a low-cost and adaptable sanitation technology, it can be sized according to the number of users and offers a more environmentally appropriate wastewater-treatment alternative for dispersed rural communities. Improvements in rural housing depend not only on materials and construction systems but also on sanitation technologies compatible with local socioeconomic and environmental realities. The biodigester is therefore a relevant social technology that complements vernacular housing while improving habitability, environmental quality, and public health.

Sarri (2018) proposed a biodigester septic-drum system for the Amazon floodplain to treat sewage and conserve water resources. Using accessible components, this decentralized system responds to long distances, difficulty in accessing centralized infrastructure, and the risk of sewage discharge into floodplain waters.

Fernandes (1997) reported improved living conditions after the Rio Cajari Extractive Reserve was established. Progress nevertheless remained limited, suggesting that housing and infrastructure improvements were insufficient to overcome persistent sanitation, health, and environmental-management challenges. Although the study provides little information on envelope configurations or construction techniques, it demonstrates that habitability in rural Amazonian communities extends beyond the physical dwelling. Housing quality is closely linked to water, sanitation, waste management, and environmental resources, reinforcing the need for integrated strategies combining improvements to the built environment with broader public-health and community wellbeing interventions. The reserve and its extractive ways of life guide the understanding of wellbeing and the local genius loci.

Nascimento (2015) notes that a central feature of the soil-cement brick proposal is its compatibility with participatory construction as a strategy for social organization. The simple production system allows community members to manufacture components and build their own homes, strengthening local capacities, ownership, and attachment to the built environment. Participation can also improve housing programs by incorporating local needs and preferences into design and reducing the likelihood of post-occupancy alterations. In addition to construction flexibility and ease of implementation, soil-cement offers favorable thermal performance in hot climates and can be adapted to different housing configurations. It therefore has potential as a social technology that integrates environmental sustainability, local participation, and technical suitability, offering an alternative to standardized housing solutions commonly adopted in the Amazon.

3.4 Reading through the lens of genius loci

In this analysis, genius loci is understood not merely as the traditional appearance of housing, the use of timber, thatch, bamboo, or stilts, but as a system of correspondences among environment, culture, construction techniques, productive activities, memory, comfort, and forms of territorial occupation (Norberg-Schulz, 1980; Barda, 2007). Few studies explicitly use the expression genius loci. Its application to the corpus is therefore a cross-cutting interpretation based on territorial, typological, material, environmental, and social descriptions in the publications’ results and conclusions. The absence of a dimension from a text does not mean that it is absent from the place. It only indicates that the study did not demonstrate it.

The analysis of the 22 studies enabled the identification of the key attributes of the genius loci, which were organized into five dimensions: (a) hydro-territorial: water cycles, floods and low-water periods, topography, floodplain or firm-ground conditions, river access, mobility, and elevated or floating siting; (b) climatic: heat and humidity, rainfall, radiation, wind, thermal perception, and passive responses such as ventilation, shading, and roofing; (c) material and ecological: local materials, extraction and reuse chains, environmental impact, durability, repairability, and the relationship between technique and ecosystem; (d) socio-spatial and productive: spatial organization, work, care, sociability, self-building, infrastructure, participation, and incremental transformation; and (e) symbolic and identity-related: memory, tradition, belonging, appropriation, values attributed to the dwelling, stigma, and aspirations of modernity. These dimensions are described below. The coding scheme used for the analyzed articles is presented in Table 4.

3.4.1 Hydro-territorial dimension

In riverine studies, the river and water cycle are not merely the surroundings of the building. They determine elevation, foundations, access, mobility, anchoring, sanitation, permanence, and the relationship between dwelling and work. The built form is thus part of a territory that changes seasonally.

The hydro-territorial dimension is supported by E03, E05, E11, E17, E19, E20, and E21 studies. Stilt structures, ventilated floors, elevated walkways, and floating systems respond to high- and low-water cycles. E03 shows that ground-level houses in flood-prone areas break the correspondence between dwelling and territory; E17 shows that stilt housing should not automatically be equated with deprivation; E19 integrates housing, circulation, production, and sanitation in an aquatic habitat; and E20 adapts sanitation infrastructure to floodplain conditions.

In E22, ground-level, stilt, and floating typologies locate housing within the territory of water even though hydrological conditions were not monitored. The study reinforces that comfort and siting must be analyzed together: a thermally favorable solution may be unfeasible if it disregards flooding, river access, erosion, or water-level fluctuations.

3.4.2 Climatic dimension

Amazonian housing responds to the hot, humid climate through combined passive strategies. The most recurrent are raised and ventilated floors; opposing openings and cross-ventilation; gaps, louvers, and perforated elements; verandas and shaded intermediate spaces; broad overhangs and protected openings; sloped, light-colored, ventilated, or lined roofs; ridge ventilation and stack effect; and vegetation shading and reduced direct radiation.

The climatic dimension is supported by E05, E06, E08, E11, E12, E19, E21, and E22 studies. E05 uses measurements and simulation to demonstrate the effects of roof reflectance, overhangs, openings, and stack ventilation. E12 shows that bamboo did not compensate for insufficient ventilation and an unlined fiber-cement roof. E21 connects natural ventilation, fans, air conditioning, income, energy consumption, and bodily practices. E22 relates measured climate to thermal perception and habits of opening the house during the day and closing it at night.

The recurrent use of unlined metal or fiber-cement roofs without a ventilated cavity, shading, or protected openings is the principal bioclimatic rupture identified. The acclimatization observed in E22 explains greater heat tolerance but should not be confused with satisfactory performance or an absence of preference for cooler environments.

3.4.3 Material and ecological dimension

Timber, paxiúba, bamboo, lianas, thatch, soil, and plant fibers form a material vocabulary of place. These resources are associated with knowledge of selection, cutting, drying, treatment, joining, transport, replacement, and maintenance. A material’s local relevance therefore depends on the technical and ecological chain that enables its safe use.

The material and ecological dimension is supported by 13 studies. E06 and E11 connect timber and construction knowledge; E07 discusses bamboo as a regional resource; E13 transforms sawmill and veneer waste into panels; E16 investigates soil-cement bricks containing manganese waste; and E20 uses accessible components, bamboo, and açaí seeds in a sanitation system. E21 and E22 show timber, thatch, and lianas coexisting with masonry, PVC, zinc, fiber cement, and partial ceilings.

Using a regional resource does not in itself guarantee genius loci. Origin, durability, moisture, fire, toxicity, repairability, and technical mastery determine whether a component strengthens or weakens the dwelling. The corpus supports critical hybridization: contemporary materials can improve safety and healthfulness provided they do not compromise ventilation, increase heat gain, eliminate repair capacity, or create dependence on inaccessible supply chains.

3.4.4 Socio-spatial and productive dimension

The socio-spatial and productive dimension appears in all 22 studies and is central in 17. Housing is more than shelter: it integrates food preparation, processing and storage of production, rest, sociability, care, circulation, sanitation, and connections with the river, yard, forest, or productive plot.

Verandas, walkways, large kitchens, yards, and semi-covered spaces are fundamental to this integration. E01 interprets connection patterns among house, veranda, and walkway. E03, E06, E11, E19, and E21 show housing, mobility, work, and everyday practices as inseparable systems. In E22, room use and daily operation of openings connect thermal performance to residents’ actions.

Public-policy studies reveal conflict between standardized programs and ways of life. E02 and E04 record demands for appropriate kitchens and yards, ventilation, and expansion capacity. E14 shows how a financed unit becomes a home through appropriation and family modifications. E09, E10, E15, and E18 extend the issue to infrastructure, services, sanitation, income, and quality of life. Expansion and adaptation should therefore not be read only as loss of original character, but as attempts to restore the relationship between dwelling and place.

3.4.5 Symbolic and identity-related dimension

The symbolic and identity-related dimension is supported by E01, E03, E06, E10, E11, E14, E17, E19, and E21 studies. It is expressed through construction memory, recognition of local knowledge, belonging, authorship, stigma attached to stilt housing, and aspirations associated with masonry, metal roofing, or air conditioning.

The title of E14 “This house does not belong to INCRA; this house is mine” summarizes symbolic appropriation: a building effectively becomes a home when it can be modified and related to family practices. E17 shows that an environmentally intelligent typology may be socially stigmatized. E21 demonstrates that comfort and modernity also operate as symbolic values. And, E22 records a preference for cooler environments without exploring memory or identity in depth.

Preserving genius loci does not mean freezing a vernacular image or romanticizing deprivation. The criterion is to maintain residents’ ability to understand, choose, adapt, and repair the house, incorporating desired changes without losing climatic safety, territorial connection, or authorship.

The most integrative studies are E11, E19, and E21, in which all five dimensions are central. E22 is predominantly climatic but relates perception, behavior, materiality, and riverine typology. Merely reproducing the image of a stilt house or using timber as a finish would be a formal appropriation; working with genius loci requires preserving the relationships that gave rise and meaning to the built form.

The results do not justify romanticizing vernacular architecture. E17 shows that stilt housing may be environmentally appropriate and simultaneously precarious when associated with deteriorated timber, structural insecurity, inequality, and lack of sanitation. Technical contributions should improve performance, safety, and healthfulness without destroying the existing territorial logic. Table 5 presents the relational matrix between the selected studies and the interpretation of the genius loci.

TABLE 5. Relational matrix for interpreting genius loci.

Source: Authors.

4 Discussion

The synthesis of the 22 studies indicates that a social technology grounded in the Amazonian genius loci should simultaneously be hydro-territorial, bioclimatic, material-ecological, socio-spatial-productive, and symbolic-identity-related (Figure 21). Rather than reproducing traditional architecture as a static model, it should reinterpret vernacular knowledge through hybrid systems that integrate the adaptive intelligence of local building traditions with contemporary technical requirements for structural safety, environmental performance, sanitation, flexibility, and residents’ evolving aspirations. (Norberg-Schulz, 1980; Oliver, 1997; Rapoport, 1969; Guimarães and Perdigão, 2025).

The principal guideline emerging from the corpus is that technical knowledge should improve and engage in dialogue with local knowledge rather than replace it. Genius loci ceases to be merely an interpretive concept when it guides verifiable choices concerning siting, envelope, materials, spaces, infrastructure, participation, and the dwelling’s capacity for transformation.

Based on the systematic literature review and the locations of the studies, social technologies may be applied according to building environment. In floodplains and riverine communities, priority should be given to lightweight, elevated, or floating systems with replaceable components, verandas, walkways, protected ventilation, and decentralized sanitation. Siting should consider: maximum flood elevation and duration; water speed and direction; bank erosion and soil stability; orientation relative to the river, winds, and solar radiation; material transport, access, and the relationship with boats; potential disassembly, repair, or relocation; and integration among housing, sanitation, and productive activities. These findings are consistent with the principles advocated by the United Nations, UNESCO, and recent studies on climate-adaptive architecture (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2020; UNESCO, 2020; Gorzka et al., 2026).

On firm ground and in rural settlements, hybrid timber, bamboo, soil-cement, or masonry systems may be used when combined with ventilated roofs, shading, cross-ventilation, and expansion capacity. The initial design should be treated as an evolutionary core rather than a finished product, allowing each family to add a kitchen, veranda, storage space, work area, and social spaces without compromising structural integrity or comfort. In extractive communities, technologies should prioritize low impact, simple transport, repairable components, and compatibility with productive cycles and management rules. Timber, fibers, and bamboo may be used where selection, treatment, planned replacement, and participation by holders of local knowledge are ensured. Water and sanitation infrastructure should be conceived as part of the territorial system rather than as isolated equipment. These recommendations are consistent with the principles advocated by Oliver (2003), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2022), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2018) and UN-Habitat (2020), which emphasizes climate-responsive design, the sustainable use of local resources, and context-specific housing solutions integrated with environmental and community needs.

Drawing on the evidence synthesized from the 22 reviewed studies, Table 6 proposes a set of potential social technologies grounded in the Amazonian genius loci, together with their conceptual basis, supporting studies, and recommendations for application.

TABLE 6. Potential social technologies derived from genius loci principles.

Source: Authors.

The implementation of these social technologies may follow five stages coordinated with territorial action and community participation: (1) participatory territorial reading, including a calendar of water cycles, winds, rainfall, solar exposure, materials, work, mobility, risks, and comfort practices; (2) an inventory of vernacular techniques, recording typologies, joints, dimensions, construction stages, maintenance, repairs, and criteria used by local builders; (3) co-creation of the construction system, developing alternatives with residents, carpenters, artisans, community leaders, and technicians, with explicit costs, responsibilities, and expansion possibilities; (4) full-scale prototyping for structural, hygrothermal, daylighting, sanitation, environmental, and constructability assessment, followed by corrections before replication; and (5) post-occupancy evaluation and learning through monitoring of temperature, humidity, ventilation, water, energy, maintenance, costs, satisfaction, and residents’ transformations. The proposed implementation framework is consistent with established approaches to participatory housing and social technology development, which emphasize integrating territorial diagnosis, local knowledge, co-design, prototyping, and post-occupancy evaluation to ensure that housing solutions remain context-specific, technically sound, and responsive to community needs (Turner, 1976; Oliver, 2003; Preiser and Vischer, 2005; UN-Habitat, 2020).

Participation should not be limited to initial consultation. The community must participate in material selection, plan definition, construction, quality control, operation, evaluation, and maintenance management. Without such continuity, a technically adequate solution risks becoming dependent, abandoned, or incompatible with local ways of life (Sanoff, 2000).

These social technologies can therefore inform future rural housing policies and the incorporation of traditional knowledge into contemporary housing solutions that are more sensitive to the Amazon’s environmental and sociocultural specificities, as well as future housing programs and regional-development strategies.

5 Conclusion

This systematic review investigated construction attributes of rural dwellings in the Amazon and explored how ways of dwelling and building, understood here as genius loci, may contribute to the proposal of socially appropriate housing technologies. Evidence from the selected studies shows that rural Amazonian dwellings are characterized by a notable convergence of adaptive solutions shaped by environmental conditions, local resource availability, and culturally transmitted construction knowledge.

The review demonstrated that the architectural characteristics and vernacular construction systems of the Rural Amazon result not only from material availability or economic constraints, but from a continuous process of adaptation to hydro-territorial, climatic, ecological, productive, and cultural conditions. The 22 studies show that stilt houses, floating dwellings, raised floors, verandas, shaded intermediate spaces, and lightweight envelopes are integrated responses to water cycles, the hot and humid climate, river mobility, and local forms of production and sociability. Timber remains the principal construction material because of regional availability, ease of transport, repairability, self-building practices, and intergenerational transmission of technical knowledge.

Elevated housing systems, including stilt and floating dwellings, predominate in flood-prone environments. Timber is widely used in structural systems, floors, walls, and roof components, while bamboo, palm thatch, timber shingles, adobe, and earth-based materials occur in specific regional contexts. Their persistence is influenced by environmental suitability, local resource accessibility, cost, self-building, and continuity of traditional knowledge. At the same time, traditional roofing and wall systems are increasingly replaced by fiber-cement sheets, metal roofs, and masonry, largely because of perceptions of durability, modernity, and social status.

Replacing vernacular materials with metal roofing, fiber-cement sheets, masonry, and other industrialized components shows that housing transformation is also guided by expectations of durability, lower maintenance, comfort, and modernity. Although these substitutions may provide specific benefits, their context-insensitive adoption may increase heat gain, reduce ventilation, hinder local repair, and increase dependence on external materials and services. Modernization should therefore not simply replace existing systems, but critically combine local knowledge with technical improvements that increase safety, healthfulness, environmental performance, and durability.

Vernacular construction techniques provide a valuable basis for social technologies aimed at improving housing in the Rural Amazon. Rather than obsolete or inherently precarious forms, vernacular systems embody accumulated environmental knowledge and climate-responsive design principles developed over generations. Improved timber roofing, modular panels made from timber waste, bamboo-based construction, soil-cement components incorporating local waste, and biodigester sanitation systems can improve housing quality while remaining compatible with local practices, resources, and cultural values.

Housing quality cannot be understood through materials and construction techniques alone. Habitability is strongly influenced by water supply, sanitation, wastewater treatment, waste management, energy, and other basic infrastructure. Effective interventions must therefore integrate improvements in construction systems with broader investment in environmental health and community infrastructure.

The findings challenge views that associate vernacular housing with technological backwardness or inadequacy. Many traditional Amazonian solutions are sophisticated responses to complex environmental conditions and provide important lessons for climate adaptation, sustainable construction, and rural development. Vernacular architecture should therefore be regarded not as a relic of the past, but as a dynamic source of knowledge capable of guiding future housing innovation.

Reading the corpus through genius loci shows that the “spirit of place” cannot be reduced to the appearance of buildings or the use of materials considered traditional. It is formed by correspondences among territory, climate, materiality, organization of daily life, and meanings attributed to the dwelling. These correspondences were organized into five central dimensions: hydro-territorial; climatic; material and ecological; socio-spatial and productive; and symbolic and identity-related. The socio-spatial and productive dimension appeared in all 22 studies and was central in 17, demonstrating that Amazonian housing integrates shelter, work, care, sociability, mobility, sanitation, and production. The material and ecological dimension was central in 13 studies; the symbolic and identity-related dimension in nine; the climatic dimension in eight; and the hydro-territorial dimension in seven. These frequencies do not establish a hierarchy, but show that genius loci results from their articulation and cannot be preserved by reproducing an isolated typology or material.

Preserving genius loci does not mean freezing vernacular architecture or romanticizing precarious conditions. A stilt house may be an appropriate territorial and climatic response while also suffering from structural insecurity, deterioration, lack of sanitation, and exposure to risk. Technical knowledge should improve existing systems without eliminating residents’ capacity to understand, choose, build, adapt, and repair their homes. Authorship, expansion potential, and compatibility with family activities are components of housing quality as relevant as material and envelope performance.

Thirteen potential social technologies were systematized: modular and evolutionary stilt systems; floating housing platforms; residual-timber components; timber-bamboo hybrid systems; bioclimatic solutions for roofs and façades; elevated and decentralized sanitation; rainwater harvesting; soil-cement masonry; expandable housing modules; community production centers; participatory thermal-comfort protocols; and permanent technical assistance. These proposals are neither finished nor universally applicable. Their relevance depends on territorial interpretation, community participation, material availability and origin, local production and maintenance capacity, and validation of structural, hygrothermal, sanitation, environmental, and economic performance.

The principal contribution of this study is to transform genius loci from a predominantly interpretive concept into an analytical framework capable of guiding decisions about siting, typology, envelope, materials, infrastructure, participation, and housing transformation. To become social technologies, these decisions should involve participatory territorial reading, an inventory of vernacular techniques, co-creation, full-scale prototyping, and post-occupancy evaluation. Community participation should extend beyond initial consultation to material choice, spatial definition, construction, quality control, operation, and maintenance.

The findings further show that rural Amazonian housing quality cannot be assessed solely through the building. Water supply, sanitation, energy, mobility, waste management, environmental health, and access to services are inseparable components of habitability. Standardized housing policies disconnected from territorial conditions are consequently less able to respond to community ways of dwelling and production. Future programs should allow differentiated solutions for floodplains, riverine communities, firm-ground areas, rural settlements, and extractive territories, treating housing as an evolutionary system integrated with infrastructure and territory.

From a public-policy perspective, the review highlights the limitations of standardized housing programs that disregard local environmental conditions, productive activities, and cultural practices. Future policies should prioritize participatory design and support hybrid solutions integrating vernacular knowledge with scientific and technological advances. This approach can improve housing quality while strengthening community autonomy, cultural identity, and resilience to environmental and socioeconomic change.

Because the review is based on heterogeneous studies with different territorial scopes and research methods, it has limitations regarding direct performance comparison and generalization to the entire Rural Amazon. In addition, the review corpus includes a substantial proportion of theses and dissertations retrieved from the Brazilian Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (BDTD), reflecting the limited availability of peer-reviewed journal articles addressing rural housing in the region. Although these academic works provide valuable empirical and contextual evidence, their methodological approaches, reporting standards and levels of peer review may differ from those of journal publications, which may affect the comparability and generalizability of the findings. The proposed social technologies were derived from documentary evidence and still require development and evaluation in real settings. Future research should undertake participatory prototypes; structural and durability testing; hygrothermal and environmental assessments; cost and life-cycle analyses; and post-occupancy studies. Housing innovation in the Rural Amazon will be more effective when it recognizes vernacular knowledge as the foundation for co-creating safe, adaptable, environmentally responsible, and socially appropriable solutions rather than replacing it.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Gustavo Henrique Nalon, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Brazil

Reviewed by: Karen Carrer Ruman de Bortoli, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil

Vettorazzi, Egon, Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana, Brazil