Cancer Control and Society
Frontiers in Cancer Control and Society ·
Volume 3 - 2025 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fcacs.2025.1572317
Global population-based childhood cancer survival in the 21st century: a scoping review
- Charles A. Stiller*corresponding author
Abstract
The development of effective treatment for many childhood cancers has led to dramatic increases in survival rates at the population level, at least in affluent industrialized countries. Studies of survival in numerous populations have been published, but population-based survival estimates that are essential for monitoring and planning are still lacking in many countries. There is no comprehensive account of the type and extent of available information on this topic. A scoping review of population-based studies of childhood cancer in the 21st century was carried out with the aim of repairing this omission. The electronic databases PubMed and Web of Science were searched, supplemented by the author's bibliographic files. The searches produced 5,490 references, of which 303 reported population-based studies containing at least one estimate of 5-year survival for children with cancer diagnosed during a period whose central year was 2001 or later. Overall, 75% of high-income countries with a child population ≥50,000 were represented in these studies, compared with 47% of upper middle income countries, 16% of lower middle income countries and 8% of low income countries. Among countries that were represented in population-based studies, 29% of high income countries were only represented in studies involving multiple countries compared with 75% of those in lower income categories. Similar contrasts were found between countries with very high Human Development Index and those in lower categories of Human Development Index. Wider availability of robust information on survival at population level will be essential for monitoring progress toward the goal set by the World Health Organization's Global Initiative for Childhood Cancer of 60% survival globally for children and adolescents with cancer by the year 2030. Increasing the coverage and quality of cancer registration and death notification in as many lower-resource countries as possible would in turn increase the volume and geographic spread of the data from which survival rates can be estimated for those countries. International collaborations whose results are underpinned by uniform procedures for data validation and analysis will continue to play a vital part in enabling comparison of childhood cancer survival between populations.
Keywords
1 Introduction
The development of effective treatments for many childhood cancers over the past 60 years is one of the great success stories of oncology (1, 2). In consequence, there have been dramatic increases in survival rates for childhood cancer at the population level, at least in affluent industrialized countries (3, 4). Some of these increases have been shown to occur concurrently with the adoption of successive trial protocols for particular types of childhood cancer (5, 6).
Impressive results have also been reported from specialist centers in many less well-resourced settings. However, population-based estimates of survival of all patients, including those not treated at specialist centers, are essential for monitoring and planning but are still lacking in many countries. This absence prompted Ward et al. (7) to carry out a simulation study to estimate survival for virtually every country in the world including those for which hard data were missing. In the same year, Girardi et al. (8) published a systematic review of worldwide trends in survival from two principal types of childhood brain tumor. Since then, studies of survival from childhood cancer in numerous populations have continued to be published, but there has apparently been no comprehensive delineation of the type and extent of the available information on this topic. The present scoping review was carried out in order to repair this omission.
2 Materials and methods
Eligible publications were defined as those that provided at least one population-based estimate of survival for children diagnosed with cancer according to the following criteria.
Data had to refer to cases arising in a defined population, usually compiled by a population-based cancer registry (PBCR) and were not restricted to patients receiving any particular treatment modality or modalities.
Following Girardi et al. (8), survival estimates had to be at 5 years after diagnosis. Eligibilty was broadened, however, to include endpoints other than death from any cause, thus papers reporting relative survival, net survival, event-free survival, cancer-specific survival or disease-specific survival could also be included.
Age range at diagnosis: lower bound ≤ 14 years and upper bound <20years.
Calendar period of diagnosis: wholly contained within a period whose central year was 2001 or later (including periods of an even number of years in length whose central years were 2000 and 2001).
Two online databases, PubMed and Web of Science, were searched for publications satisfying the above criteria. The search strategies are presented in the Appendix. The results of these searches were supplemented by review of additional publications from 2001 onwards in the author's bibliography files on descriptive epidemiology of childhood cancer. Eligible papers were restricted to those published in peer-reviewed journals. Conference abstracts were excluded. There were no language restrictions.
Throughout this review, the French West Indies have been treated as a single territory and Hong Kong and Macau have been included with China. For analyses by world region, Mexico, which is geographically in North America but more closely aligned socioeconomically and culturally with Latin America, was included in the category of America (Central and Caribbean); for similar reasons, Cyprus, which is geographically in western Asia, was included in the category of Europe.
3 Results
3.1 Literature searches
The searches of PubMed and Web of Science together yielded 5,490 references, with a further 383 from the author's bibliography files giving a grand total of 5,873 (Figure 1). After elimination of 1,010 duplicates and 574 articles published before 2001, 4,289 records remained for further assessment. On the basis of title and abstract, 3,190 references were excluded because they did not satisfy the eligibility criteria listed above. Full text was unavailable for 32 records. The remaining 1,067 were subjected to full-text review, leading to the exclusion of 764 because of failure to satisfy one or more of the eligibility criteria. There were thus a final total of 303 eligible publications, 29 of which were editions of two series of American annual reports.
3.2 United States annual series
The American Cancer Society “Cancer Statistics” reports for 2009 onwards have reported 5-year relative survival for childhood cancer diagnosed mainly or entirely in the 21st century, based on data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program, thus the 16 reports issued in 2009–2024 were eligible for this review (9–24). The 2009–2016 editions (9–16) documented survival trends from 1975 onwards, with the most recent year of diagnosis being 5 years before the year of publication. Survival data in the editions for 2017 onwards (17–24) have covered a single 7-year period of diagnosis, the most recent year of diagnosis again being 5 years before the year of publication. Diagnoses have been classified according to the International Classification of Childhood Cancer, Third Edition (ICCC-3), in which the categories are defined by ICD-O-3 codes (25). Non-malignant central nervous system (CNS) tumors are excluded with the sole exception of pilocytic astrocytoma, which continued to be defined as malignant for the purposes of SEER when it was downgraded to uncertain behavior in ICD-O-3.
The annual statistical reports of the Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States (CBTRUS) were initially self-published, but from 2012 they have been issued as supplements to Neuro Oncology. Each of these reports has presented 5-year relative survival for children under 15 years of age who were diagnosed during the 5-year period beginning 7 years before the year of publication, thus all 13 of the reports for 2012–2024 were eligible (26–38). Survival data were derived from the SEER-18 registries in the reports for 2012–2018 (26–32), and from NPCR registries in those for 2019 onwards (33–38). Diagnoses have been classified according to a scheme developed by CBTRUS and based on ICD-O-3 codes. Malignant and non-malignant tumors have been included throughout. Additional CBTRUS reports on childhood and adolescent patients that were published in 2022 and 2023 and are considered under “Other publications” below.
3.3 Other publications
Details of the remaining 274 eligible publications are shown in Table 1. Of these, 245 reported survival within a single country or territory, with 44 different countries represented. Data from the United States were analyzed in 93 (38%) of the 245 single-country studies. The great majority of these United States studies (75/93) were based exclusively on data from the SEER Program, though a substantial number of the analyses were conducted in other countries. Other countries represented by at least five single-country studies were the Netherlands (n = 17), Australia (n = 15), the United Kingdom (n = 11), France (Metropolitan) and Spain (n=8 each), Canada, South Korea and Germany (n = 7 each), Thailand (n = 6), Brazil and Sweden (n = 5 each).
Table 1. Studies included in the review. American Cancer Society “Cancer Statistics” annual series and CBTRUS annual statistical reports are excluded.
| 1st Author, year (reference) | Countries | Population coverage | Diagnosis years | Latest follow-up | Age at diagnosis | Sub-populations | Diagnostic classification | Non-mal. CNS included | Skin carcinoma/ NMSC excluded | Outcome measures | Diagnostic groups |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arnett, 2024 (75) | United States | NPCR | 2001–2019 | Unspec. | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic API, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Hepatocellular carcinoma |
| Businge, 2024 (76) | Rwanda | National | 2013–2017 | 2021 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS, RS | ICCC-3 Ia, IIa, IIb, IIc, V, VIa, VIIIa, IXa | |
| Campbell, 2024 (77) | United States | NPCR | 2001–2018 | 2018 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native, non-Hispanic API, Hispanic | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS, RS | ICCC-3 IVa |
| de Sousa, 2024 (78) | Brazil | Mato Grosso | 2001–2017 | 2022 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS, RS | ICCC-3 I, II, and subgroups | |
| Elgenidy, 2024 (79) | United States | SEER-17 | 2000–2019 | Unspec. | 0–14 | White, Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, API | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Wilms tumor |
| Felix, 2024 (80) | French West Indies | National | 2011–2021 | Unspec. | 0–17 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS | Neuroblastoma | |
| Godoy-Casabuenas, 2024 (81) | Colombia | Bucaramanga, Manizales, Pasto | 1998–2018 | Unspec. | 0–18 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS, RS | Leukemia | |
| Hoang, 2024 (82) | United States | Texas | 1995–2017 | Unspec. | 0–19 | Residence < 1 km or >1 km from oil or gas well | ICCC-3 | NK | NA | OS | 21 ICCC-3 subgroups |
| Hoffman, 2024 (83) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2019 | Unspec. | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native, non-Hispanic Asian, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS, CSS | Ewing sarcoma of axial skeleton |
| Hou, 2024 (84) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2018 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Parotid tumors |
| Kristiansen, 2024 (69) | Faroe Islands | National | 1960–2019 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NK | Nk | OS | All cancers | |
| Liao, 2024 (85) | Taiwan | National | 2006–2019 | Unspec. | All ages | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Retinoblastoma | |
| Lin, 2024 (86) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2019 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Other | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Neuroendocrine tumors of digestive tract |
| Mashtoub, 2024 (87) | Australia | Northern Territory and South Australia | 1990–2017 | 2017 | 0–19 | Indigenous, non-Indigenous (Northern Territory only) | ICD-10, ICD-O-3 | NK | NK | OS | Lymphoid leukemia, Medulloblastoma, Neuroblastoma, Retinoblastoma, Wilms tumor, Hepatoblastoma, Osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, Rhabdomyosarcoma |
| Mishra, 2024 (88) | United States | SEER (by race and ethnicity) | 2000–2020 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, API, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | DSS | Burkitt lymphoma |
| Papakonstantinou, 2024 (89) | Greece | National | 2010–2021 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS, EFS | Osteosarcoma | |
| Peirelinck, 2024 (60) | Belgium, Netherlands | National | 2004–2015 | 2021 | 0–17 | ICCC-3 | Yes | BCC excluded | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 groups and selected subgroups | |
| Pinsuwan, 2024 (90) | Thailand | Khon Kaen | 2000–2019 | 2021 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NK | NA | RS | ICCC-3 I, II, III, IV, X | |
| Qi, 2024 (91) | United States | SEER | 2000–2018 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Paratesticular rhabdomyosarcoma |
| Schulpen, 2024 (92) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2018 | 2023 | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Ewing sarcoma | |
| Schulpen, 2024 (93) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2015 | 2021 | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | NHL | |
| Turanzas, 2024 (94) | Denmark | National | 2007–2017 | Unspec. | < 1 | Unspec. | Yes | NA | OS | Brain tumors | |
| Wang, 2024 (95) | China | Tianjin | 2010–2016 | 2021 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NK | NK | OS, RS | All cancers | |
| Wang, 2024 (96) | United States | SEER-17 | 2001–2020 | 2020 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NA | OS | CNS tumors | |
| Wellbrock, 2024 (97) | Germany | National | 2000–2016 | 2021 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | CNS tumors and subgroups | |
| Youlden, 2024 (98) | Australia | National | 2006–2015 | 2020 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS, EFS | All cancers, ICCC-3 Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb, IIc, IIIa1, IIIb, IIIc1, IIId, IVa, V, VIa1, VIIa, VIIIa, VIIIc, IXa, IXb-e, Xc-e, XId | |
| Youlden, 2024 (99) | Australia | National | 2010–2018 | 2020 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | RS | ICCC-3 Ia, Ib, IIb-c, IIIb, IIIc1, IVa, VIa1, IXa | |
| Abdelazeem, 2023 (100) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2018 | Unspec. | All ages | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | Retinoblastoma | |
| Bednarek, 2023 (101) | Canada | National | 2001–2018 | Unspec. | 0–14 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS, EFS | Bilateral Wilms tumor | |
| Castellanos, 2023 (102) | United States | Texas | 1995–2017 | 2018 | 0–19 | Residence in border or non-border census tracts | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL, AML |
| Chiriaque, 2023 (103) | Spain | 11 PBCRs | 1991–2005 | 2010 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | ICCC-3 III and subgroups | |
| Cromie, 2023 (104) | United Kingdom | England: Yorkshire and Humber Region | 1997–2016 | 2020 | 0–14 | South Asian, non-south Asian | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 I, II, III, IV-XII |
| Gera, 2023 (105) | United States | SEER-17 | 2000–2019 | Unspec. | 0–17 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic API, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Erythroleukemia |
| Girardi, 2023 (47) | 61 countries (CONCORD-3) | Various | 2000–2014 | 2014 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | NS | Subgroups and selected other categories within ICCC-3 group III | |
| Goulding, 2023 (106) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2015 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, non-White; Hispanic, non-Hispanic; county-level indicators of socioeconomic status | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma |
| Henau, 2023 (107) | Belgium | National | 2004–2018 | 2020 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Hematological malignancies | |
| Hoogendijk, 2023 (108) | Netherlands | National | 2003–2017 | 2021 | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | OS | High-grade glioma | |
| Kameda-Smith, 2023 (109) | Canada | Ontario | 1996–2017 | 2017 | 0–17 | WHO-2016 | Yes | NA | OS | All CNS tumors and selected subgroups | |
| Karalexi, 2023 (53) | Greece, Slovenia | National | 2009–2018 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS, EFS | Neuroblastoma | |
| Karimi, 2023 (110) | Iran | National | 2008–2014 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Osteosarcoma | |
| Li, 2023 (111) | Australia | New South Wales | 2003–2015 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | DSS | ALL, AML | |
| Liu, 2023 (112) | United States | SEER-18 | 2010–2018 | Unspec. | 0–18 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Neuroblastoma | |
| Liu, 2023 (113) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2018 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Yolk sac tumor | |
| McEvoy, 2023 (114) | United States | NPCR | 2001–2016 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | ICCC-3 IXa | |
| Montes-Rodríguez, 2023 (115) | Puerto Rico | National | 2008–2012 | 2017 | 0–19 | Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | ALL |
| Nissen, 2023 (116) | Denmark | National | 1985–2020 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-10 | NA | NA | OS, EFS | Liver tumors | |
| Ohlsen, 2023 (117) | United States | Washington State | 1992–2013 | 2013 | 0–19 | Area-level categories of rurality and socioeconomic status | ICD-O-3 | No | Yes | OS | All cancers |
| Price, 2023 (118) | United States | NPCR | 2008–2018 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | RS | 12 categories of less common malignant CNS tumor | |
| Pugh, 2023 (119) | New Zealand | National | 2010–2019 | 2021 | 0–14 | Māori, Pacific Peoples, Non-Māori | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups |
| Wang, 2023 (120) | United States | SEER-12 | 1995–2019 | 2019 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native, non-Hispanic API, Hispanic | ICCC-3 | No | NK | CSS | All cancers, ICCC-3 selected groups and subgroups |
| Wellbrock, 2023 (121) | Germany | National | 1991–2016 | 2022 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 groups and selected subgroups | |
| Wu, 2023 (122) | United States | South Texas | 1995–2017 | 2018 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, Black, Hispanic | ICCC-3 | No | No | RS | All cancers, ALL, CNS tumors, bone tumors |
| Wu, 2023 (123) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2018 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black, API | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Malignant mediastinal germ cell tumors |
| Wu, 2023 (124) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2019 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black, Other | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Gastrointestinal NHL |
| Youlden, 2023 (125) | Australia | National | 2007–2016 | 2017 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | RS | All cancers, ICCC-3 groups and selected subgroups | |
| Youlden, 2023 (126) | Australia | National | 2000–2017 | 2020 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS (stage specific) | ICCC-3 Ia, IIb-c, IIIa1, IIIb, IIIc1, IVa, VIa, VIIa, VIII, IXa, IXb-e | |
| Zhao, 2023 (127) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2018 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Renal cell carcinoma | |
| Botta, 2022 (39) | 31 European countries (EUROCARE-6) | Various | 2000–2013 | 2014 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | No | Yes | OS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 groups and subgroups | |
| Caetano dos Santos, 2022 (128) | Poland | National | 1999–2017 | 2020 | 0–15 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia | |
| Cañete, 2022 (129) | Spain | Selected PBCRs | 1999–2011 | 2016 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Neuroblastoma | |
| Castro-Ríos, 2022 (130) | Mexico | Central-South Region | 2006–2012 | 2017 | 0–17 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 groups and subgroups | |
| Cioffi, 2022 (131) | United States | NPCR | 2004–2017 | Unspec. | 0–14 | WHO 2016 | Yes | NA | OS | CNS tumors | |
| Cole, 2022 (132) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2017 | Unspec. | 0–9 | White, Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, API, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Osteosarcoma |
| Hart, 2022 (133) | United States | SEER-18 | 1990–2015 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NA | OS | ICCC-3 III, Xa | |
| Helligsoe, 2022 (134) | Denmark | National | 1997–2019 | 2019 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | ICCC-3 III, Xa and subgroups | |
| Kahla, 2022 (135) | United States | NPCR | 2001–2016 | 2016 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native, non-Hispanic API, Hispanic | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS, RS | ICCC-3 VIIa |
| Klangjorhor, 2022 (136) | Thailand | 5 PBCRs | 2001–2015 | 2019 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Bone sarcomas | |
| Lee, 2022 (137) | South Korea | National | 1999–2017 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Ewing sarcoma | |
| Liu, 2022 (138) | United Kingdom | England | 2013–2019 | 2021 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Langerhans cell histiocytosis | |
| Liu, 2022 (139) | Taiwan | National | 1999–2014 | Unspec. | 0–2 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor | |
| Loap, 2022 (140) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2018 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Plasma cell neoplasms | |
| Lv, 2022 (141) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2019 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Adrenal cancers: Neuroblastoma, Adrenocortical carcinoma, Other | |
| Nakata, 2022 (142) | Japan | Osaka | 2002–2011 | Unspec. | 2014 | Unspec. | No | NK | OS | All cancers | |
| Ravaioli, 2022 (143) | Italy | 12 PBCRs | 2010–2014 | 2018 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 I, Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb, III, VI, VII, VIII, IX, XIb, XId | |
| Reedijk, 2022 (144) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2015 | 2019 | 0–17 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | NHL | |
| Schulpen, 2022 (145) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2014 | 2021 | 0–18 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 VI and subgroups | |
| Schulpen, 2022 (146) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2015 | 2021 | 0–17 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | ICCC-3 Ib | |
| Ssenyonga, 2022 (48) | 61 countries (CONCORD-3) | Various | 2000–2014 | 2014 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | NS | ICCC-3 I and subgroups | |
| van de Bergh, 2022 (147) | Netherlands | National | 2000–2016 | 2021 | 10–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma | |
| van der Linde, 2022 (148) | Netherlands | National | 2004–2013 | 2020 | 10–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL | |
| Wellbrock, 2022 (149) | Germany | National | 1991–2015 | 021 | 0–14 | Former West Germany, Former East Germany | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL, AML |
| Xing, 2022 (150) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2018 | Unspec. | 0–18 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS | Hepatoblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma | |
| Youlden, 2022 (151) | Australia | National | 1997–2016 | 2017 | 0–14 | Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, Other | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | CSS | ICCC-3 I-II, III-XII |
| Zbitou, 2022 (152) | France | National (metropolitan) | 2000–2018 | 2021 | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Thyroid carcinoma | |
| Curry, 2021 (153) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2013 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Rhabdomyosarcoma of head and neck | |
| Di Giuseppe, 2021 (61) | Australia; Canada; United States | National; Ontario; SEER-9 | 2005–2013 | 2015 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | ICCC-3 VII | |
| Ellison, 2021 (154) | Canada | All except Quebec province | 2003–2017 | 2017 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | No | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and selected subgroups | |
| Hoogendijk, 2021 (155) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2017 | 2019 | 0–17 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | ICCC-3 III and subgroups, Xa | ||
| Karalexi, 2021 (156) | Greece | National | 2001–2019 | 2019 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Hepatic tumors | |
| Karalexi, 2021 (157) | Greece | National | 1996–2019 | 2019 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS, EFS | ICCC-3 IIa, IIb-c | |
| Kelm, 2021 (158) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2015 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | CSS | ICCC-3 XId | |
| Loizou, 2021 (159) | Cyprus | South | 1998–2017 | 2018 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | Thyroid carcinoma | |
| Miller, 2021 (160) | United States | NPCR | 2009–2015 | 2016 | 0–19 | CBTRUS | Yes | NA | RS | All CNS tumors and selected subgroups | |
| Nakata, 2021 (161) | Japan | Osaka | 2000–2011 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | All leukemia, ALL, AML, CML | |
| Park, 2021 (162) | South Korea | National | 1999–2017 | 2018 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Ovarian germ cell tumors and subtypes | |
| Person, 2021 (163) | France | National (metropolitan) | 2000–2015 | 2018 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | Head and neck cancers | |
| Poulalhon, 2021 (164) | France | National (metropolitan) | 2000–2015 | 2018 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and selected subgroups | |
| Reedijk, 2021 (165) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2015 | 2019 | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL | |
| Sasaki, 2021 (166) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2017 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL | |
| Schraw, 2021 (167) | United States | Texas | 1995–2011 | 2012 | 0–19 | Hispanic enclave status | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | Precursor B-cell ALL |
| Schulpen, 2021 (168) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2015 | 2020 | 0–17 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and selected subgroups | |
| Soon, 2021 (169) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2011 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NA | OS | Ependymoma, pilocytic astrocytoma, anaplastic astrocytoma, glioblastoma, medulloblastoma, supratentorial embryonal tumor, CNS germinoma | |
| Wang, 2021 (170) | United States | SEER-9 | 2005–2014 | 2014 | < 1 | ICCC-3 | NK | NK | OS, RS | All cancers, ICCC-3 I, II, III, IV, V, VII | |
| Youlden, 2021 (171) | Australia | National | 2006–2016 | 2017 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | RS | ICCC-3 III and subgroups | |
| Chen, 2020 (172) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2013 | Unspec. | 0–16 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Neuroblastoma | |
| de Oliveira, 2020 (173) | Brazil | Goiania | 1996–2012 | 2017 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NK | Yes | RS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 main groups | |
| Desandes, 2020 (174) | France | National (metropolitan) | 2000–2014 | 2018 | < 1 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and selected subgroups | |
| Fineberg, 2020 (175) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2015 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | No | NA | OS | Malignant CNS tumors | |
| Ji, 2020 (176) | China | Pudong | 2002–2015 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NK | Yes | OS | All cancers | |
| Jones, 2020 (177) | Australia | National | 2004–2013 | 2015 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | CSS, EFS | Renal tumors | |
| Krejci, 2020 (178) | Czech Republic | National | 1995–2012 | 2017 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 groups and subgroups | |
| Leong, 2020 (179) | Brunei Darussalam | National | 2002–2017 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NK | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups | |
| Liu, 2020 (180) | China | Hong Kong | 1999–2018 | Unspec. | 0–17 | Unspec. | Yes | NA | OS, PFS | Craniopharyngioma | |
| Liu, 2020 (62) | China; United States | Hong Kong; SEER-18 | 1999–2016 | 2016 | 0–17 | SEER: API | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | OS | All CNS tumors, ependymoma, choroid plexus tumors, glial, and neuronal tumors (incl. astrocytoma, and glioma), medulloblastoma, other embryonal tumors, germinoma, teratoma, other germ cell tumors |
| Martin, 2020 (181) | Netherlands | National | 1989–2017 | Unspec. | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor | |
| Mitchell, 2020 (182) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2015 | 2015 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and subgroups |
| Moreno, 2020 (183) | Argentina | National | 2000–2015 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 VIIa, VIIb | |
| Paapsi, 2020 (184) | Estonia | National | 2000–2016 | 2016 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | No | NK | OS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 groups and subgroups | |
| Siegel, 2020 (185) | United States | NPCR | 2001–2015 | 2015 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native, non-Hispanic API, Hispanic; County-level economic status; US Census Region | ICCC-3 | NK | NK | RS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 groups and subgroups |
| Silva, 2020 (186) | Brazil | São Paulo | 1997–2013 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL | |
| Tas, 2020 (187) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2014 | 2018 | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Neuroblastoma | |
| Wang, 2020 (188) | United States | SEER-18 | 1988–2016 | 2016 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma | |
| Williams, 2020 (189) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2015 | Unspec. | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, Black, API, Hispanic | ICCC-3 | No | NA | OS | Xa, Xb, Xc, all excluding teratomas |
| Youlden, 2020 (190) | Australia | National | 2004–2013 | 2015 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | CSS, EFS | Neuroblastoma | |
| Abrahão, 2019 (191) | United States | California - Greater Bay Area | 2001–2014 | 2014 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, API, Other/Unknown | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma |
| Bidwell, 2019 (192) | Thailand | 5 PBCRs | 1990–2011 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NK | NK | RS | All cancers, ICCC-3 I, Ia, Ib, Ie, II, IIa, IIb, IIc, IIe, III, IIIb, IIIc1–2, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, IXa, IXb-d, X, XI, XII | |
| Chen, 2019 (193) | United States | SEER-9 | 2005–2014 | Unspec. | 0–14 | White, Black, Other | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | AML |
| Doganis, 2019 (54) | Belarus, Greece, Slovenia; Poland | National; Greater Poland region | 1999–2017 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS, EFS | Wilms tumor | |
| Drevinskaite, 2019 (194) | Lithuania | National | 2004–2013 | 2013 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Testicular tumors | |
| Faltermeier, 2019 (195) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2009 | Unspec. | 0–1 | WHO 2016 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NA | OS | Diffuse astrocytic and oligodendroglial tumors, pilocytic astrocytoma, ependymal tumors, embryonal CNS tumors, medulloblastoma, choroid plexus carcinoma | |
| Feng, 2019 (196) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2015 | Unspec. | 0–18 | White, Black, Other | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Hepatoblastoma |
| Janz, 2019 (197) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2014 | 2014 | 0–18 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | DSS | Tonsillar cancers | |
| Kang, 2019 (198) | South Korea | National | 2005–2014 | Unspec. | 0–19 | CBTRUS | Yes | NA | RS | All CNS tumors and CBTRUS subgroups | |
| Ostrom, 2019 (199) | United States | NPCR | 2001–2014 | Unspec. | 0–14 | Appalachian counties, non-Appalachian US | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | RS | Malignant CNS tumors; non-malignant CNS tumors |
| Quinlan, 2019 (200) | Ireland | National | 1994–2015 | Unspec. | 0–16 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS | Melanoma | |
| Reedijk, 2019 (201) | Netherlands | National | 1990–2015 | 2018 | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | AML | |
| Rivas-Vilela, 2019 (202) | Spain | Girona | 1990–2013 | 2015 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | ICCC-3 III | |
| Rostgaard, 2019 (63) | Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden | National | 2000–2013 | 2015 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | RS | ICCC-3 Ia, Ib, IIb, IIIb, IIIc, IIId, IIIe, VIIb-c, VIIIa, VIIIc, IXa, IXb-e | |
| Siegel, 2019 (203) | United States | NPCR | 2001–2008 | 2013 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Other, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NA | RS | Brain tumors |
| Tabash, 2019 (204) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2015 | 2015 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | OS | Pilocytic astrocytoma | |
| Truitt, 2019 (205) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2014 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | RS | 12 categories of less common malignant CNS tumor | |
| Allemani, 2018 (49) | 63 countries (CONCORD-3) | Various | 2000–2014 | 2014 | 0–19 | ICCC-3, ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | NS | ICCC-3 lymphoid leukemia (61 countries), lymphoma (62 countries), brain tumors (60 countries) | |
| Cooney, 2018 (206) | United States | California | 1988–2012 | 2012 | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, Black, API, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | RS | High-grade glioma, Medulloblastoma |
| Deng, 2018 (207) | United States | SEER-18 | 1990–2013 | Unspec. | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Pineoblastoma | |
| Doganis, 2018 (55) | Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Malta, Slovenia, Ukraine; Poland, Portugal, Romania, Turkey; United States | National; Regional; SEER-18 | 1990–2016 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Wilms tumor | |
| Eggen, 2018 (208) | Netherlands | National | 1989–2013 | 2014 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Malignant melanoma | |
| González García, 2018 (209) | Spain | Castilla y Leon | 2003–2014 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 I, II, III, IV-XII | |
| Joko-Fru, 2018 (64) | Kenya; Uganda; Zimbabwe | Nairobi; Kampala; Harare | 1998–2009 | 2011 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS, RS | ICCC-3 Ia, IIb, IIc, V, VIa, IXc | |
| Khalid, 2018 (210) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2014 | Unspec. | 0–17 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | OS | Spinal cord ependymoma | |
| Marcos-Gragera, 2018 (211) | Spain | 10 PBCRs | 2001–2005 | 2010 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 IIa-c+IIe, IIa, IIb, IIc | |
| Mazzucco, 2018 (212) | Italy | Palermo Province | 2003–2012 | 2017 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers | |
| Nakata, 2018 (65) | Japan; United Kingdom | 6 PBCRs; England | 1993–2008 | 2013 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | No | Yes | OS | ICCC-3 main groups and selected subgroups | |
| Panagopoulou, 2018 (56) | Belarus, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Malta, Slovenia, Ukraine; Poland, Portugal, Romania, Turkey; United States | National; Regional; SEER-18 | 1990–2016 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | Neuroblastoma | |
| Parikh, 2018 (213) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2010 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black, Other | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | DSS | Melanoma of extremities |
| Ramirez, 2018 (214) | Colombia | Cali | 2009–2013 | 2015 | 0–18 | ICCC-3 | NK | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups | |
| Smith, 2018 (215) | United Kingdom | England: Yorkshire | 1990–2011 | 2016 | 1–17 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | ICCC-3 Ia | |
| Strahlendorf, 2018 (216) | Canada | National | 2001–2012 | Unspec. | 1–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS, EFS | ALL | |
| Wu, 2018 (217) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2013 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black, Other | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Osteosarcoma |
| Zhao, 2018 (218) | United States | SEER-18 | 1992–2006 | 2011 | 0–14 | Non-Hispanic White, Hispanic White, Black, API | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Leukemia |
| Bergqvist, 2017 (219) | Sweden | Stockholm-Gotland Region | 2001–2013 | 2015 | 0–17 | ICD-10, SNOMED | No | NA | OS | Intracranial tumors: all, high-grade, low-grade | |
| Bonaventure, 2017 (50) | 53 countries (CONCORD-2) | Various | 1995–2009 | 2009 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | NS | ICCC-3 Ia, Ia1, Ia2, Ib, Ie | |
| El-Fattah, 2017 (220) | United States | SEER-18 | 2003–2012 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black, Other | Unspec. | NA | NA | RS | CML |
| Fuentes-Raspall, 2017 (221) | Spain | Girona | 1994–2013 | 2014 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | OS, RS | All CNS tumors, WHO 2017 categories | |
| Gatta, 2017 (40) | 27 European countries (EUROCARE-5) | Various | 2000–2007 | 2008 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | CNS tumors, ICCC-3 III, subgroups, all malignant tumors, all non-malignant tumors | |
| Georgakis, 2017 (57) | Belarus, Croatia, Greece, Malta, Slovenia, Ukraine; Poland, Portugal, Romania, Turkey; United States | National; Regional; SEER-18 | 1990–2012 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | OS | Pilocytic astrocytoma | |
| Jakab, 2017 (222) | Hungary | National | 2001–2010 | 2015 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | Leukemia | |
| Jemal, 2017 (4) | United States | SEER-9 | 2006–2012 | 2013 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | No | NK | RS | All cancers, leukemia, lymphomas, CNS tumors, neuroblastoma, Wilms tumor, bone tumors, soft-tissue sarcomas | |
| Kairiene, 2017 (223) | Lithuania | National | 2000–2013 | Unspec. | 0–17 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS, EFS | AML | |
| Karalexi, 2017 (58) | Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Malta, Serbia, Slovenia, Ukraine; Portugal, Romania, Turkey; United States | National; Regional; SEER-18 | 1990–2014 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | Lymphomas | |
| Khanna, 2017 (224) | United States | SEER-18 | 2001–2013 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black, API | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | RS | Medulloblastoma |
| Lee, 2017 (225) | South Korea | National | 2005–2010 | 2013 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | OS | CNS germ cell tumors | |
| Lins, 2017 (226) | Brazil | Recife | 1998–2007 | 2012 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | ICCC-3 I, Ia, Ib | |
| Marcos-Gragera, 2017 (227) | Spain | 10 PBCRs | 2001–2005 | 2010 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 I and subgroups | |
| Moreno, 2017 (228) | Argentina | National | 2000–2013 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 VIIIa | |
| Mukhtar, 2017 (229) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2013 | 2013 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS, RS | Burkitt lymphoma | |
| Nasioudis, 2017 (230) | United States | SEER-18 | 1988–2013 | 2013 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Ovarian epithelial tumors | |
| Offor, 2017 (231) | United Kingdom | England: Northern Region | 1998–2012 | 2015 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | All renal tumors, Wilms tumor | |
| Paapsi, 2017 (232) | Estonia | National | 2005–2012 | 2014 | 0–17 | ICC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups, ICCC-3 Ia, Ib | |
| Ramiandrisoa, 2017 (233) | France | Réunion and Mayotte (Indian Ocean Territories) | 2005–2011 | 2013 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 categories | |
| Schindler, 2017 (234) | Switzerland | National | 2004–2013 | 2013 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | ICCC-3 groups I-X and selected subgroups | |
| Tai, 2017 (52) | United States | 37 states (CONCORD-2) | 2001–2009 | 2009 | 0–14 | White, Black | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | NS | Precursor-cell ALL and NHL |
| Weil, 2017 (235) | United States | SEER-18 | 1990–2011 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | OS | Medulloblastoma | |
| Ye, 2017 (236) | Canada | Manitoba | 2004–2013 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | Lymphoid leukemia, Hodgkin lymphoma, NHL including Burkitt lymphoma | |
| Acharya, 2016 (237) | United States | Florida, Texas | 1995–2008 | Unspec. | 1–18 | Non-Hispanic-White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL |
| Batista, 2016 (238) | Portugal | North | 2005–2013 | 2014 | 0–18 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | OS | CNS tumors | |
| Brennan, 2016 (239) | United Kingdom | England | 2004–2008 | 2013 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Synovial sarcoma | |
| Desandes, 2016 (240) | France | National (metropolitan) | 2000–2009 | 2013 | 0–28 d | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | ICCC-3 III-XII, III, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, X and subgroups | |
| Donnelly, 2016 (241) | United Kingdom | Northern Ireland | 1993–2008 | 2013 | 0–14 | Unspec. | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, leukemia, lymphomas, tumors of brain/eye/CNS | |
| Fairley, 2016 (242) | United Kingdom | England: Northern and Yorkshire Regions | 1990–2013 | 2014 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | Medulloblastoma, Embryonal CNS tumor NOS | |
| Janitz, 2016 (243) | United States | Oklahoma | 1997–2008 | 2014 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and subgroups | |
| Kaatsch, 2016 (244) | Germany | National | 2002–2006 | 2011 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 VIII, VIIIa, VIIIc | |
| Kahn, 2016 (245) | United States | SEER-13 | 2003–2007 | 2012 | 0–14 | White, Black, non-Hispanic White, Hispanic | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | ALL, AML, Hodgkin lymphoma |
| Karim-Kos, 2016 (246) | Austria | National | 1994–2008 | 2013 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and selected subgroups | |
| Lychou, 2016 (247) | Sweden | National | 2000–2010 | 2013 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS, EFS | Rhabdomyosarcoma | |
| Mogensen, 2016 (248) | Sweden | National | 1991–2010 | 2011 | 1–14 | Parental education levels | ICD-7, ICD-8 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, leukemia, nervous system tumors, other solid tumors |
| Moreno, 2016 (249) | Argentina | National | 2000–2012 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 IVa | |
| Park, 2016 (250) | South Korea | National | 1993–2011 | 2012 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | No | No | RS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and subgroups | |
| Rigaud, 2016 (251) | France | National (metropolitan) | 1998–2012 | 2015 | 0–17 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS | Langerhans cell histiocytosis | |
| Schrøder, 2016 (252) | Denmark | National | 2003–2014 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC | Yes | No | RFS | All cancers | |
| Wang, 2016 (253) | United States | SEER-17 | 1988–2013 | Unspec. | 0–17 | White, Black, Other | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL, AML, CML |
| Abrahão, 2015 (254) | United States | California | 2004–2011 | 2012 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL | |
| Allemani, 2015 (51) | 53 countries (CONCORD-2) | Various | 1995–2009 | 2009 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | NS | ALL | |
| Demanelis, 2015 (66) | Thailand; United States | Sonkhla Province; SEER-19 | 1990–2011 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | ICCC-3 I, Ia, Ib | |
| Dolecek, 2015 (255) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2010 | 2011 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | RS | Meningioma | |
| Dudley, 2015 (256) | United States | SEER-18 | 2004–2010 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | Yes | NA | RS | Low-grade ganglioglioma and gangliocytoma | |
| Foresto, 2015 (257) | Australia | National | 1997–2008 | 2011 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | ICCC-3 Ib | |
| Kaatsch, 2015 (258) | Germany | National | 2002–2006 | 2014 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | ICCC-3 Xa-c and subgroups | |
| Karalexi, 2015 (59) | Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Malta, Slovenia, Ukraine; Portugal, Romania, Turkey | National; Regional | 1995–2014 | 2014 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | ICCC-3 III and subgroups | |
| Katz, 2015 (259) | United States | SEER-18 | 2003–2010 | 2011 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | ALL | |
| Liu, 2015 (260) | China | Hong Kong | 1999–2011 | Unspec. | 0–2 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS, EFS | CNS tumors: ICCC-3 groups III+Xa and selected subgroups | |
| Olsson, 2015 (261) | Sweden | National | 1997–2011 | 2011 | 0–18 | ICD-10 | Yes | NA | OS | Craniopharyngioma | |
| Ostrom, 2015 (262) | United States | SEER-18 | 2002–2011 | 2013 | 0–14 | CBTRUS | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NA | RS | All CNS tumors and subgroups | |
| Truong, 2015 (263) | United States | SEER-18 | 2000–2010 | Unspec. | 0–9 | Non-Hispanic White, Hispanic White, Black, Other | Unspec. | NA | NA | RS | Retinoblastoma |
| Tulla, 2015 (264) | Germany | National | 1991–2010 | 2010 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | Embryonal tumors, ICCC-3 IIIc1, IIIc2, IIIc4, IVa, V, VIa1, VIIa | |
| Vlenterie, 2015 (265) | Netherlands | National | 1989–2013 | Unspec. | 0–17 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS, RS | Localized synovial sarcoma | |
| Wang, 2015 (266) | United States | SEER-9 | 2000–2010 | Unspec. | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, American Indian/Alaska Native, API | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS, DSS | ALL |
| Waxweiler, 2015 (267) | United States | SEER-18 | 1998–2007 | 2010 | 0–18 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma | |
| Wongmas, 2015 (268) | Thailand | Chiang Mai, Khon Kaen, Songkhla | 1990–2009 | 2009 | 0–15 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Retinoblastoma | |
| Youlden, 2015 (269) | Australia | National | 2002–2011 | 2011 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups | |
| Zheng, 2015 (270) | China | 17 PBCRs | 2003–2005 | 2010 | 0–14 | ICD-10 | NK | NK | RS | All cancers, leukemia, lymphomas, brain tumors, hepatic tumors, bone tumors | |
| Desandes, 2014 (271) | France | National (metropolitan) | 2000–2008 | 2011 2013 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | OS | ICCC-3 III, Xa, IX and XId (intracranial and intraspinal sites) | |
| Gatta, 2014 (41) | 29 European countries (EUROCARE-5) | Various | 1995–2007 | 2008 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | No | Yes | OS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 groups and subgroups | |
| Gerth, 2014 (272) | United States | SEER-18 | 1998–2010 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Sinonasal tumors | |
| Golpanian, 2014 (273) | United States | SEER-18 | 1998–2010 | Unspec. | 0–19 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS | Langerhans cell histiocytosis, malignant histiocytosiss | |
| Hassan, 2014 (274) | United States | SEER-18 | 1996–2005 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS, RS | Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma | |
| Ito, 2014 (275) | Japan | 6 PBCRs | 2002–2006 | 2006 | 0–14 | ICD-10, ICD-O-3 | No | NK | OS | All cancers, leukemia, ALL, lymphomas, CNS tumors | |
| Kerkhofs, 2014 (276) | Netherlands | National | 1989–2010 | 2012 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Adrenocortical carcinoma | |
| Lacour, 2014 (277) | France | National (metropolitan) | 2000–2008 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and subgroups | |
| Ma, 2014 (278) | United States | SEER-18 | 2001–2010 | 2010 | 0–14 | Unspec. | NA | NA | RS | ALL | |
| Madanat-Harjuoja, 2014 (3) | Finland | National | 2001–2010 | 2010 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 groups I-VI, VIII, IX, and selected subgroups | |
| Ostrom, 2014 (279) | United States | SEER-18 | 2001–2010 | 2010 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | RS | Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor | |
| Park, 2014 (280) | South Korea | National | 1993–2010 | 2011 | All ages | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS | Retinoblastoma | |
| Vaitkevičiene, 2014 (281) | Lithuania | National | 1992–2008 | 2013 | 0–15 (2003–2008: 0–17) | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS. EFS | ALL | |
| Ward, 2014 (282) | United States | SEER-9 | 2003–2009 | 2010 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | Yes | OS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 subgroups | |
| Wiangnon, 2014 (283) | Thailand | Khon Kaen | 1996–2009 | 2012 | 0–14 | ICCC | NK | NK | OS | ALL, AML | |
| Yang, 2014 (284) | United States | SEER-18 | 1990–2010 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 IXa | |
| AIRTUM Working Group, 2013 (285) | Italy | 31 PBCRs | 2003–2008 | 2008 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | N0 | Yes | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and selected subgroups | |
| Bravo, 2013 (286) | Colombia | Cali | 1992–2011 | 2012 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | ICCC-3 main groups | |
| Njoku, 2013 (287) | United Kingdom | England: Northern Region | 1997–2010 | 2010 | 0–14 | Unspec. | NA | NA | OS | ALL, AML | |
| Pole, 2013 (67) | Canada; United States | Ontario; SEER-18 | 1998–2009 | 2010; 2009 | 1–19 | ICD-O-3, ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL | |
| Rabinowicz, 2013 (288) | Israel | National | 1998–2007 | 2010 | < 1 | Jewish, Arabic | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups |
| Valery, 2013 (289) | Australia | National | 1997–2007 | 2008 | 0–14 | Indigenous, non-Indigenous, Unknown | ICCC-3 | Yes | NA | CSS | All cancers |
| Villano, 2013 (290) | United States | SEER-13 | 1992–2009 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, API | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | RS | Ependymoma |
| Bao, 2012 (291) | China | Shanghai | 2002–2005 | 2010 | 0–14 | ICCC | NK | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC main groups | |
| Crocetti, 2012 (42) | 21 European countries (RARECARE) | Various | 2000–2002 | 2002 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | RS | Malignant brain tumors | |
| Dores, 2012 (292) | United States | SEER-17 | 2001–2006 | 2007 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | AML and subtypes | |
| Goggins, 2012 (293) | United States | SEER-17 | 2002–2008 | Unspec. | 0–19 | Non-Hispanic White, Black, East Asian, Hispanic, American Indian/Alaska Native | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | ALL |
| Jung, 2012 (294) | South Korea | National | 1999–2004 | 2009 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | No | NA | OS | Malignant brain tumors | |
| Kachanov, 2012 (295) | Russia | Moscow Region | 2000–2009 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | OS | ICCC-3 IX, IXa, IXb-e | |
| Pui, 2012 (296) | United States | SEER-17 | 2001–2007 | Unspec. | 0–19 | White, Black | ICD-O-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NA | OS | ALL, AML, Hodgkin lymphoma, NHL, ependymoma, astrocytoma, medulloblastoma, high-grade glioma, other CNS tumors (incl. germ-cell), neuroblastoma, retinoblastoma, Wilms tumor, hepatoblastoma, osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, other soft-tissue sarcoma, non-CNS germ cell tumors, melanoma |
| Rabinowicz, 2012 (297) | Israel | National | 1998–2003 | 2008 | 0–19 | Jewish, Arabic | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups |
| Stiller, 2012 (6) | United Kingdom | Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) | 1997–2005 | 2010 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | No | NA | OS | ICCC-3 Ia1, Ib, IIa, Ia2+IIb-c, IIIc1, IVa, VIa1, VII, VIIIa, VIIIc, IXa, Xa, Xb, Xc | |
| Visser, 2012 (44) | 21 European countries (RARECARE) | Various | 2000–2002 | 2002 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Myeloid malignancies | |
| Wiromrat, 2012 (298) | Thailand | Khon Kaen | 2000–2010 | 2012 | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Osteosarcoma | |
| AIRTUM Working Group, 2011 (299) | Italy | 28 PBCRs | 2000–2004 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | No | Yes | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 main groups and selected subgroups | |
| Gatta, 2012 (43) | 21 European countries (RARECARE) | Various | 2000–2002 | 2002 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Embryonal tumors: neuroblastoma, retinoblastoma, wilms tumor, hepatoblastoma, pancreatoblastoma, pulmonary blastoma, pleuropulmonary blastoma | |
| Feltbower, 2011 (300) | United Kingdom | England: Yorkshire Region | 2000–2004 | 2009 | 13–16 | Birch TYA | No | NA | OS | Germ cell tumors | |
| Kohler, 2011 (301) | United States | SEER-9 | 2000–2006 | 2007 | 0–19 | CBTRUS | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NA | RS | All neuroepithelial tumors and selected subgroups | |
| Ljungman, 2011 (302) | Sweden | National | 1995–2007 | 2009 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NA | Yes | OS | Non-CNS solid cancers | |
| Marcos-Gragera, 2011 (45) | 20 European countries (HAEMACARE) | Various | 2000–2002 | 2003 | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | RS | Lymphoid neoplasms and subgroups | |
| Perez, 2011 (303) | United States | SEER-17 | 1998–2005 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Rhabdomyosarcoma | |
| Walsh, 2011 (304) | Ireland | National | 2000–2005 | 2006 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, leukemia, lymphomas, CNS tumors and selected subgroups | |
| Youlden, 2011 (305) | Australia | National | 1996–2006 | 2006 | 0–14 | Area-level categories of remoteness and socioeconomic status | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | RS | All cancers, ICCC-3 I, Ia, II, III, IV-XII |
| Baade, 2010 (306) | Australia | National | 1997–2006 | 2006 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | RS | All cancers, ICCC-3 groups and selected subgroups | |
| Peris-Bonet, 2010 (307) | Spain | 10 PBCRs | 1999–2002 | 2007 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS, RS | All cancers, hematological cancers, CNS tumors, all other solid tumors | |
| Redaniel, 2010 (68) | Philippines; United States | Manila and Rizal; SEER-17 (White and Asian American only) | 2001–2005 | Unspec. | 0–14 | White, Asian | ICCC-3 | NA | NA | RS | Leukemia, lymphomas, ALL, AML, NHL |
| Smith, 2010 (308) | United States | SEER-9 | 1999–2002 | Unspec. | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | NK | OS | Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb-e, III, IIIc1, III except IIIc1, IVa, VIa1, VIIIa, VIIIc, IXa, Xb-c | |
| Sultan, 2010 (309) | United States | SEER-17 | 2000–2005 | Unspec. | 0–18 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Rhabdoid tumors (all sites) | |
| Ellison, 2009 (310) | Canada | All except Quebec province | 2000–2004 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | NK | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 I, Ia, Ib, II, IIa, IIb, III, IIIb, IIIc, IV, V | |
| Gatta, 2009 (46) | 23 European countries (EUROCARE-4) | Various | 2000–2002 | 2003 | 0–14 | ICCC-3 | Yes (pilocytic astrocytoma only) | Yes | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 groups and subgroups | |
| Juárez-Ocaña, 2009 (311) | Mexico | IMSS | 1996–2005 | Unspec. | 0–14 | ICD-O-3 | NA | NA | OS | Neuroblastoma | |
| Pulte, 2008 (312) | United States | SEER-9 | 2000–2004 | 2004 | 0–14 | Unspec. | NA | NA | RS | All leukemias, ALL, AML, all lymphomas, Hodgkin lymphoma, NHL | |
| Spix, 2008 (313) | Germany | National | 1996–2005 | 2006 | 0–14 | Turkish descent, non-Turkish descent | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, selected ICCC-3 groups and subgroups |
| Ellison, 2007 (314) | Canada | All except Quebec province | 1999–2003 | 2003 | 0–19 | ICCC-3 | Yes | NK | OS | All cancers, ICCC-3 groups and selected subgroups |
IMSS, Instituto Mexicano de Seguro Social (Mexican Social Security Institute); NPCR, National Program of Cancer Registries; PBCR, population-based cancer registry; SEER, Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results; CSS, cancer-specific survival; DSS, disease-specific survival; EFS, event-free survival; NS, net survival; OS, overall survival; RS, relative survival; ALL, Acute lymphoblastic leukemia; AML, Acute myeloid leukemia; CBTRUS, Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States; CML, Chronic myeloid leukemia; CNS, Central nervous system; ICCC-3, International Classification of Childhood Cancer, Third Edition; NHL, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
The other 29 publications were based on data from more than one country and were mostly products of established international collaborations. Eight papers from successive iterations of EUROCARE and its associated studies RARECARE and HAEMACARE have between them covered all types of childhood cancer in a large number of European countries (39–46). Five papers have presented international results from the CONCORD collaboration on population-based cancer survival worldwide (47–51) and a further paper reported detailed analyses of CONCORD data from 37 states in the United States (52). Leukemia was the only childhood cancer included in CONCORD-2 (50–52). CONCORD-3 expanded its coverage of childhood cancers to leukemia, lymphomas and CNS tumors (47–49). A collaboration between varying numbers of population-based cancer registries in Southern and Eastern Europe reported on survival from various childhood cancers in their respective countries in a series of seven papers, four of which also included United States data from the SEER Program (53–59). Finally, nine papers were from one-off studies that compared results between two, three, or four countries (60–68).
The 29 multinational papers included data not only from many countries that were represented by single-country studies, but also from a further 37 countries that did not have any eligible single-country publications in this review. Thus, a total of 80 countries and territories worldwide had their survival data included in at least one eligible paper, but for 37/80 (46%) this only occurred in the context of multinational studies. The proportion of countries that were only represented in multinational papers varied by continent, from zero in North America and Oceania to 12/35 (34%) in Europe, 5/11 (45%) in the Caribbean, Central and South America, 10/18 (56%) in Asia and 10/12 (83%) in Africa. Transferring Mexico and Cyprus to the groups of North American and Asian countries respectively would make little difference to this pattern.
3.4 Disease classifications and outcome measures
Definition and classification of diagnostic categories included in studies was nearly always by ICCC-3, by the CBTRUS classification of CNS tumors, or by ICD-O-3. Studies covering CNS tumors usually stated whether non-malignant CNS tumors were included in the analyses. Inclusion or exclusion of skin carcinomas or non-melanoma skin cancer was less frequently specified. A considerable variety of outcome measures were used. The most frequent were observed survival and relative or net survival, but some studies reported event-free, cancer-specific or disease-specific survival.
3.5 Characteristics of countries and territories represented in included publications
The only territory with an estimated child population below 50,000 to be represented among the eligible studies was the Faroe Islands (69). Table 2 shows, for all countries and territories with a child population of at least 50,000, their representation in studies covered by this review and in major international cancer survival studies, together with information on World Bank Income Group, Human Development Index, the presence of population-based cancer registration, and completeness of death registration.
Table 2. Countries and territories with child population of at least 50,000. Size of child population (315), World Bank per capita income category (316), Human Development Index (HDI) (317), presence of population-based cancer registration for age 0–14 during the study period (PBCR) (72, 318, 319), completeness of death registration (320), inclusion of published results in this review, and participation in CONCORD, EUROCARE, HAEMACARE, and RARECARE.
| Population aged < 15 years (10<sup>6</sup>) | World Bank Income Group (Fiscal Year 2025) | HDI 2022 | PBCR aged < 15 | *Completeness of death registration (%)<sup></sup>** | Publication of survival results included in this review | Childhood data contributed to CONCORD<sup></sup>** | Childhood data contributed to EUROCARE, HAEMACARE, and RARECARE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Africa | ||||||||
| Algeria | 14.474 | UMIC | 0.745 | Regional | 85–89 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Angola | 17.454 | LMIC | 0.591 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Benin | 6.654 | LMIC | 0.504 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Botswana | 0.704 | UMIC | 0.708 | National | 60–64 | |||
| Burkina Faso | 9.596 | LIC | 0.438 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Burundi | 5.744 | LIC | 0.420 | 0 | ||||
| Cameroon | 12.842 | LMIC | 0.587 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Cape Verde | 0.161 | LMIC | 0.661 | National | 95–100 | |||
| Central African Republic | 2.178 | LIC | 0.387 | 0 | ||||
| Chad | 8.752 | LIC | 0.394 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Comoros | 0.293 | LMIC | 0.586 | 0 | ||||
| Democratic Republic of Congo | 52.793 | LIC | 0.481 | 0 | ||||
| Congo | 2.306 | LMIC | 0.593 | Regional | (40–44); CISSA3 | |||
| Côte d'Ivoire | 10.828 | LMIC | 0.534 | Regional | 15–19 | |||
| Djibouti | 0.283 | LMIC | 0.515 | (10–14) | ||||
| Egypt | 37.593 | LMIC | 0.728 | Regional | 95–100 | |||
| Equatorial Guinea | 0.640 | UMIC | 0.650 | 0 | ||||
| Eritrea | 2.262 | LIC | 0.493 | 0 | ||||
| Eswatini | 0.360 | LMIC | 0.610 | National | 65–69 | |||
| Ethiopia | 45.858 | LIC | 0.492 | Regional | 15–19 | |||
| Gabon | 0.850 | UMIC | 0.693 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Gambia | 0.964 | LIC | 0.495 | National | CISSA3 | |||
| Ghana | 12.928 | LMIC | 0.602 | Regional | 30–34 | |||
| Guinea | 5.720 | LMIC | 0.471 | Regional | 1–4 | |||
| Guinea-Bissau | 0.902 | LIC | 0.483 | 0 | ||||
| Kenya | 20.831 | LMIC | 0.601 | Regional | 65–69 | Yes | ||
| Lesotho | 0.712 | LMIC | 0.521 | National | 45–49 | Yes | 2 | |
| Liberia | 2.117 | LIC | 0.487 | 0 | ||||
| Libya | 2.377 | UMIC | 0.746 | Regional | 90–94 | Yes | 2 | |
| Madagascar | 10.908 | LIC | 0.487 | 0 | ||||
| Malawi | 8.213 | LIC | 0.508 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Mali | 10.290 | LIC | 0.410 | Regional | CISSA3 | |||
| Mauritania | 1.546 | LMIC | 0.540 | 0 | ||||
| Mauritius | 0.198 | UMIC | 0.796 | National | 95–100 | Yes | (3) | |
| Morocco | 9.600 | LMIC | 0.698 | Regional | 30–34 | |||
| Mozambique | 14.898 | LIC | 0.461 | Regional | CISSA3 | |||
| Namibia | 0.956 | UMIC | 0.610 | National | 95–100 | |||
| Niger | 13.031 | LIC | 0.394 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Nigeria | 95.627 | LMIC | 0.548 | Regional | 0 | Yes | 3 | |
| Réunion and Mayotte | National | WHODB | Yes | |||||
| Rwanda | 5.070 | LIC | 0.548 | National | 30–34 | Yes | ||
| São Tomé and Principe | 0.081 | LMIC | 0.613 | 90–94 | ||||
| Senegal | 7.669 | LMIC | 0.517 | 0 | ||||
| Sierra Leone | 3.656 | LIC | 0.458 | 0 | ||||
| Somalia | 5.383 | LIC | 0.380 | 0 | ||||
| South Africa | 16.422 | UMIC | 0.717 | Regional | 80–84 | Yes | 3 | |
| South Sudan | 5.345 | LIC | 0.381 | 0 | ||||
| Sudan | 20.228 | LIC | 0.516 | Regional | 0 | |||
| Tanzania | 27.780 | LMIC | 0.532 | Regional | 15–19 | |||
| Togo | 3.449 | LIC | 0.547 | 0 | ||||
| Tunisia | 2.943 | LMIC | 0.732 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2 | |
| Uganda | 23.176 | LIC | 0.550 | Regional | 10–14 | Yes | ||
| Zambia | 8.756 | LMIC | 0.569 | Regional | 35–39 | |||
| Zimbabwe | 6.570 | LMIC | 0.550 | Regional | 30–34 | Yes | ||
| America (Central and Caribbean) | ||||||||
| Bahamas | 0.088 | HIC | 0.820 | (90–94) | ||||
| Barbados | 0.051 | HIC | 0.809 | (95–99) | ||||
| Belize | 0.115 | UMIC | 0.700 | 95–100 | ||||
| Costa Rica | 0.989 | UMIC | 0.806 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 3 | |
| Cuba | 1.785 | UMIC | 0.764 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 3 | |
| Dominican Republic | 2.762 | UMIC | 0.766 | 65–69 | ||||
| El Salvador | 1.674 | UMIC | 0.674 | 90–94 | ||||
| French West Indies | National | WHODB | Yes | 3 | ||||
| Guatemala | 5.745 | UMIC | 0.629 | 90–94 | ||||
| Haiti | 3.584 | LMIC | 0.552 | 0 | ||||
| Honduras | 2.731 | LMIC | 0.624 | Regional | (25–29) | |||
| Jamaica | 0.672 | UMIC | 0.706 | Regional | 90–94 | |||
| Mexico | 30.402 | UMIC | 0.781 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 3 | |
| Netherlands Antilles | 0.059 | HIC | WHODB | |||||
| Nicaragua | 1.674 | LMIC | 0.669 | 85–89 | ||||
| Panama | 1.119 | HIC | 0.820 | 90–94 | ||||
| Puerto Rico | 0.376 | HIC | National | WHODB | Yes | 2, 3 | ||
| Trinidad and Tobago | 0.264 | HIC | 0.814 | 90–94 | ||||
| America (North) | ||||||||
| Canada | 6.028 | HIC | 0.935 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| United States | 61.873 | HIC | 0.927 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| America (South) | ||||||||
| Argentina | 10.935 | UMIC | 0.849 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Bolivia | 3.511 | LMIC | 0.698 | 75–79 | ||||
| Brazil | 43.114 | UMIC | 0.760 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Chile | 3.574 | HIC | 0.860 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Colombia | 11.038 | UMIC | 0.758 | Regional | 85–89 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Ecuador | 4.901 | UMIC | 0.765 | Regional | 85–89 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| French Guiana | National | WHODB | ||||||
| Guyana | 0.186 | HIC | 0.742 | 85–89 | ||||
| Paraguay | 1.671 | UMIC | 0.731 | 80–84 | ||||
| Peru | 8.412 | UMIC | 0.762 | Regional | 75–79 | Yes | 3 | |
| Suriname | 0.145 | UMIC | 0.690 | 90–94 | ||||
| Uruguay | 0.647 | HIC | 0.830 | National | 95–100 | |||
| Venezuela | 7.799 | HIC | 0.699 | 95–100 | ||||
| Asia | ||||||||
| Afghanistan | 15.881 | LIC | 0.462 | 10–14 | ||||
| Armenia | 0.526 | UMIC | 0.786 | 95–100 | ||||
| Azerbaijan | 2.374 | UMIC | 0.760 | 85–89 | ||||
| Bahrain | 0.183 | HIC | 0.888 | National | 75–79 | |||
| Bangladesh | 42.341 | LMIC | 0.670 | 25–29 | ||||
| Bhutan | 0.205 | LMIC | 0.681 | 80–84 | ||||
| Brunei | 0.107 | HIC | 0.823 | National | 90–94 | Yes | ||
| Cambodia | 4.934 | LMIC | 0.600 | 40–44 | ||||
| China | 231.629 | UMIC | 0.788 | Regional | 75–79 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| India | 344.762 | LMIC | 0.644 | Regional | 80–84 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Indonesia | 66.949 | UMIC | 0.713 | Regional | 25–29 | Yes | 2 | |
| Iran | 20.553 | UMIC | 0.780 | Regional | 90–94 | Yes | ||
| Iraq | 14.578 | UMIC | 0.673 | Regional | 70–74 | |||
| Israel | 2.582 | HIC | 0.915 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Japan | 14.941 | HIC | 0.920 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Jordan | 3.450 | LMIC | 0.736 | National | 75–79 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Kazakhstan | 5.596 | UMIC | 0.802 | National | 95–100 | |||
| North Korea | 5.213 | LIC | 0 | |||||
| South Korea | 5.898 | HIC | 0.929 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Kuwait | 0.723 | HIC | 0.847 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 3 | |
| Kyrgyzstan | 1.795 | LMIC | 0.701 | 90–94 | ||||
| Laos | 2.396 | LMIC | 0.620 | 45–49 | ||||
| Lebanon | 1.015 | LMIC | 0.723 | National | 90–94 | |||
| Malaysia | 7.678 | UMIC | 0.807 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Maldives | 0.087 | UMIC | 0.762 | 95–100 | ||||
| Mongolia | 0.843 | UMIC | 0.741 | National | 90–94 | Yes | 2 | |
| Myanmar | 14.041 | LMIC | 0.608 | 50–54 | ||||
| Nepal | 8.034 | LMIC | 0.601 | 70–74 | ||||
| Oman | 1.162 | HIC | 0.819 | National | 70–74 | |||
| Pakistan | 86.860 | LMIC | 0.540 | Regional | 40–44 | |||
| Philippines | 35.697 | LMIC | 0.710 | Regional | 85–89 | Yes | ||
| Qatar | 0.335 | HIC | 0.875 | National | 75–79 | Yes | 3 | |
| Saudi Arabia | 8.364 | HIC | 0.875 | Regional | 75–79 | |||
| Singapore | 0.881 | HIC | 0.949 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 3 | |
| Sri Lanka | 5.962 | LMIC | 0.780 | Regional | 95–100 | |||
| Syria | 7.866 | LIC | 0.557 | 0 | ||||
| Taiwan | 2.863 | HIC | National | Yes | 2, 3 | |||
| Tajikistan | 3.831 | LMIC | 0.679 | 65–69 | ||||
| Thailand | 11.064 | UMIC | 0.803 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Timor-Leste | 0.583 | LMIC | 0.566 | 0 | ||||
| Turkey | 18.292 | UMIC | 0.855 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Turkmenistan | 1.405 | UMIC | 0.744 | 95–100 | ||||
| United Arab Emirates | 1.645 | HIC | 0.937 | National | 75–79 | |||
| Uzbekistan | 10.811 | LMIC | 0.727 | 90–94 | ||||
| Vietnam | 24.533 | LMIC | 0.726 | Regional | 90–94 | |||
| West Bank and Gaza | 2.020 | LMIC | 0.716 | WHODB | ||||
| Yemen | 11.053 | LIC | 0.424 | Regional | 15–19 | |||
| Europe | ||||||||
| Albania | 0.559 | UMIC | 0.789 | National | 95–100 | |||
| Austria | 1.265 | HIC | 0.926 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Belarus | 1.529 | UMIC | 0.801 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Belgium | 2.029 | HIC | 0.942 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, R |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 0.498 | UMIC | 0.779 | Regional | 95–100 | |||
| Bulgaria | 0.933 | HIC | 0.799 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E5, E6 |
| Croatia | 0.575 | HIC | 0.878 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E5, E6 |
| Cyprus | 0.206 | HIC | 0.907 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E6 |
| Czech Republic | 1.698 | HIC | 0.895 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 3 | E4, E6, H |
| Denmark | 0.968 | HIC | 0.950 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6 |
| Estonia | 0.182 | HIC | 0.899 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E5, E6 |
| Finland | 0.910 | HIC | 0.942 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6 |
| France | 11.853 | HIC | 0.910 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Georgia | 1.010 | UMIC | 0.814 | 95–100 | ||||
| Germany | 11.614 | HIC | 0.950 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Greece | 1.441 | HIC | 0.893 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 3 | E6 |
| Hungary | 1.438 | HIC | 0.851 | National | 95–100 | Yes | E5, E6 | |
| Iceland | 0.072 | HIC | 0.959 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Ireland | 0.976 | HIC | 0.950 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Italy | 7.231 | HIC | 0.906 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Kosovo | 0.449 | UMIC | ||||||
| Latvia | 0.265 | HIC | 0.879 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E5, E6 |
| Lithuania | 0.400 | HIC | 0.879 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E5, E6 |
| Luxembourg | 0.112 | HIC | 0.927 | National | 95–100 | |||
| Malta | 0.068 | HIC | 0.915 | National | 90–94 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Moldova | 0.533 | UMIC | 0.763 | 85–89 | ||||
| Montenegro | 0.106 | UMIC | 0.844 | National | 95–100 | |||
| Netherlands | 2.697 | HIC | 0.946 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| North Macedonia | 0.341 | UMIC | 0.765 | 95–100 | ||||
| Norway | 0.900 | HIC | 0.966 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Poland | 5.506 | HIC | 0.881 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Portugal | 1.294 | HIC | 0.874 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Romania | 2.804 | HIC | 0.827 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | (2), 3 | |
| Russia | 23.270 | HIC | 0.821 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Serbia | 0.957 | UMIC | 0.805 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | ||
| Slovakia | 0.853 | HIC | 0.855 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E5, E6, R |
| Slovenia | 0.301 | HIC | 0.926 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Spain | 6.160 | HIC | 0.911 | Regional | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Sweden | 1.815 | HIC | 0.952 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, H, R |
| Switzerland | 1.336 | HIC | 0.967 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Ukraine | 4.401 | UMIC | 0.734 | National | 95–100 | Yes | ||
| United Kingdom | 11.466 | HIC | 0.940 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | E4, E5, E6, H, R |
| Oceania | ||||||||
| Australia | 4.896 | HIC | 0.946 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Fiji | 0.235 | UMIC | 0.729 | 90–94 | ||||
| French Polynesia | 0.062 | HIC | National | |||||
| New Caledonia | 0.063 | HIC | National | |||||
| New Zealand | 0.979 | HIC | 0.939 | National | 95–100 | Yes | 2, 3 | |
| Papua New Guinea | 3.728 | LMIC | 0.568 | 10–14 | ||||
| Samoa | 0.056 | LMIC | 0.702 | 85–89 | ||||
| Solomon Islands | 0.222 | LMIC | 0.562 | 40–44 | ||||
| Vanuatu | 0.099 | LMIC | 0.614 | 10–14 |
HIC, High-income country; UMIC, Upper-middle-income country; LMIC, Lower-middle-income country; LIC, Low-income country; En, EUROCARE-n; H, HAEMACARE; R, RARECARE.
*Entries in parentheses for countries where latest data are pre 2015.
CISSA3, existence of death certificates mentioned in Cancer in Sub-Saharan Africa, Vol. III (319), but not always used by the cancer registry.
WHODB, no estimate given by Adair et al. (320), but data included in WHO Mortality Databank.
**Entries in parentheses where registration data were contributed but survival results for the country were not published for age 0–14.
Countries were more likely to be represented in population-based studies of childhood cancer included in this review if they were in higher categories of World Bank income classification and Human Development Index (HDI; Table 3). Overall, 75% of high-income countries (HIC) were represented, compared with 47% of upper-middle-income countries (UMIC), 16% of lower-middle-income countries (LMIC) and 8% of low-income countries (LIC). Similarly, 79% of countries with Very High HDI were represented, compared with 45% of those with High HDI, 11% of those with Medium HDI and 9% of those with Low HDI. This pattern was repeated across all continents except the Caribbean, Central and South America, where there was a marked preponderance of very small countries among those in the highest categories of each of the two indices.
Table 3. Publication of survival results included in this review for countries in each continent with child population of at least 50,000 by World Bank per capita income category and Human Development Index (HDI).
| Africa | America (Central and Caribbean) | America (North) | Asia | Europe | Oceania | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| World Bank Income Group (Fiscal Year 2025) | |||||||
| High-income countries | – | 2/10 | 2/2 | 8/12 | 31/32 | 2/4 | 45/60 |
| Upper-middle-income countries | 4/8 | 8/15 | – | 7/13 | 3/10 | 0/1 | 22/47 |
| Lower-middle-income countries | 5/23 | 0/4 | – | 3/18 | – | 0/4 | 8/49 |
| Low-income countries | 2/22 | – | – | 0/4 | – | – | 2/26 |
| HDI 2022 | |||||||
| Very high (0.800+) | – | 3/8 | 2/2 | 10/15 | 32/35 | 2/2 | 49/62 |
| High (0.700–0.799) | 5/7 | 6/11 | – | 6/16 | 2/6 | 0/2 | 19/42 |
| Medium (0.550–0.699) | 3/16 | 0/8 | – | 1/11 | – | 0/3 | 4/38 |
| Low (< 0.550) | 3/30 | – | – | 0/3 | – | – | 3/33 |
Among countries that were represented in population-based studies, 29% of HICs and 35% of countries with Very High HDI were only represented in multinational papers compared with 75% of those in lower World Bank income categories and 77% of those in the three lower ranges of HDI.
3.6 Coverage of cancer types in included publications
Among all 303 included publications, 84 (28%) covered all cancer types, 60 (20%) were devoted to leukemia and lymphomas, 63 (21%) were devoted to CNS tumors, 74 (24%) were restricted to all or part of a single ICCC-3 main group of non-CNS solid tumors, and 22 (7%) covered a wide range of combinations of cancers, sometimes defined by primary site rather than morphology.
4 Discussion
This review confirms that population-based survival estimates of childhood cancer in the 21st century are available for many affluent countries, although quite often not for all of the principal diagnostic groups. Information is relatively scarce for less well-resourced countries. In many countries it has only been possible to estimate survival for some regions, which may not be representative of the whole country.
The first requisite for calculating cancer survival at the population level is population-based case ascertainment, virtually always by a PBCR. Institutional (including multi-institutional) series often contain richer clinical information than is found in most PBCRs and can yield much valuable information about cancer within a defined population, especially when they contain large numbers of cases (70). However, they necessarily exclude patients from that population who are diagnosed and treated (or remain untreated) outside the participating institutions, and survival estimated from their data will likely be biased upwards compared with the true result in the entire target population.
The second requisite is knowledge of the vital status of individual patients at given time intervals since diagnosis. A large number of countries, predominantly those in the lower categories of per capita income and HDI, are without population-based cancer registration even at sub-national level (Table 2). But even when there is population-based registration of incident cases, follow-up for vital status is not always straightforward. The most efficient method of obtaining this information is passive follow-up by linkage to death registrations, but an acceptable level of accuracy is only achievable if there is a high percentage completeness of death registration in the population. Moreover, for follow-up by a sub-national cancer registry, death registration should ideally be complete not merely within the registry's own territory but nationally, to allow for internal migration. The absence of complete death registration is also more often a feature of less well-resourced countries (Table 2), and follow- up by active tracing of patients becomes necessary. In a recent study of cancer in adults, for example, passive follow-up by linkage with national death registration was possible in only one out of 13 participating PBCRs from Sub-Saharan Africa (71). Active follow-up not only has varying degrees of success, it is also labor intensive, straining already scarce resources. Presumably for this reason, in a study of childhood cancer survival from three PBCRs in Sub-Saharan Africa, active follow-up was carried out by one of the participating registries only for a random sample of patients rather than for the entire patient population (64).
The numerous single-country studies included in this review have made substantial contributions to knowledge concerning population-level survival of children with cancer within their own countries. Multinational studies, however, whether the product of ad hoc collaborations involving a few countries or established consortia of much larger numbers of countries, have several important advantages. They pool data processing and analytical resources which may be scarce in some participating countries. The use of common definitions, data validation standards and procedures, outcome measures, and analytical methods enhances comparability between results for individual countries or for larger groups of countries based on factors including geography, socioeconomic indicators and characteristics of healthcare systems. The contrasts in the proportions of countries represented only in multinational studies between HICs and those in lower income categories and between countries with Very High HDI and those with a lower HDI show that multinational studies present especially valuable opportunities to less well-resourced countries for their results to be made visible and available for comparison.
There should generally be a high degree of comparability of ostensibly similar diagnostic categories between studies because of the widespread use of ICCC-3, other systems defined in terms of ICD-O-3, and ICD-O-3 itself. There are, however, two points on which there may be systematic differences between datasets. The first is uncertainty in most instances as to whether the overall category of all cancers includes skin carcinomas or non-melanoma skin cancer, but this is unlikely to have a substantial influence on survival rates for all cancers combined because these tumors are rare among children (72). More problematic is the continuing exclusion of CNS tumors with non-malignant behavior codes by some PBCRs, although increasing numbers of registries do include non-malignant intracranial and intraspinal tumors. The effect of excluding non-malignant tumors of these sites became more severe when pilocytic astrocytoma, the most frequent of childhood CNS tumors, was downgraded to uncertain behavior in ICD-O-3, having been regarded as malignant in earlier editions of ICD-O. Survival rates could in principle be compared between registries that include non-malignant CNS tumors and those that exclude them by restricting the comparison to malignant tumors, but such comparisons could still be unreliable because astrocytoma, not otherwise specified, is still assigned a malignant behavior code and it is impossible to know how many astrocytomas of unspecified subtype are in fact pilocytic (40, 73). International comparison of survival rates for CNS tumors, whose overall frequency is second only to that of leukemias, would be greatly simplified if non-malignant tumors of intracranial and intraspinal sites were routinely ascertained and followed up by all PBCRs.
The World Health Organization's Global Initiative for Childhood Cancer has the target of achieving 60% survival globally for children and adolescents with cancer by the year 2030, and wider availability of robust information on survival at population level will be essential for monitoring progress toward this goal (74). Reliable population-based information is available and extensively published from a large proportion of the most affluent countries, where 5-year survival is already well above 60%. Increasing the coverage and quality of cancer registration and death notification in as many lower-resource countries as possible would in turn increase the volume and geographic spread of the raw data from which survival rates can be estimated for those countries. International collaborations will continue to play a vital part in enabling comparison of childhood cancer survival between populations with confidence that the results are underpinned by uniform procedures for data validation and analysis.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Statements
- Conflict of interest
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
- Funding
The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.
- Data availability
Publicly available datasets were analyzed in this study. This data can be found at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, https://clarivate.com/academia-government/scientific-and-academic-research/research-discovery-and-referencing/web-of-science/, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/age-structure, https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups, and Human Development Reports. Human Development Index. (2022) https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI.
- Author contributions
CS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
References
- 1. Simone JV. History of the treatment of childhood ALL: a paradigm for cancer cure. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. (2006) 19: 353 – 9. doi:10.1016/j.beha.2005.11.003
- 2. D'Angio GJ. The National Wilms Tumor Study: a 40 year perspective. Lifetime Data Anal. (2007) 13: 463 – 70. doi:10.1007/s10985-007-9062-0
- 3. Madanat-Harjuoja LM, Pokhrel A, Kivivuori SM, Saarinen-Pihkala UM. Childhood cancer survival in Finland (1953-2010): a nation-wide population-based study. Int J Cancer. (2014) 135: 2129 – 34. doi:10.1002/ijc.28844
- 4. Jemal A, Ward EM, Johnson CJ, Cronin KA, Ma J, Ryerson B. Annual report to the Nation on the Status of Cancer, 1975-2014, featuring survival. J Natl Cancer Inst. (2017) 109: djx030. doi:10.1093/jnci/djx030
- 5. Pastore G, Viscomi S, Gerov GL, Terracini B, Madon E, Magnani C. Population-based survival after childhood lymphoblastic leukaemia in time periods corresponding to specific clinical trials from 1979 to 1998–a report from the Childhood Cancer Registry of Piedmont (Italy). Eur J Cancer. (2003) 39: 952 – 60. doi:10.1016/S0959-8049(03)00064-9
- 6. Stiller CA, Kroll ME, Pritchard-Jones K. Population survival from childhood cancer in Britain during 1978-2005 by eras of entry to clinical trials. Ann Oncol. (2012) 23: 2464 – 9. doi:10.1093/annonc/mds183
- 7. Ward ZJ, Yeh JM, Bhakta N, Frazier AL, Girardi F, Atun R. Global childhood cancer survival estimates and priority-setting: a simulation-based analysis. Lancet Oncol. (2019) 20: 972 – 83. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(19)30273-6
- 8. Girardi F, Allemani C, Coleman MP. Worldwide trends in survival from common childhood brain tumors: a systematic review. J Glob Oncol. (2019) 5: 1 – 25. doi:10.1200/JGO.19.00140
- 9. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, Hao Y, Xu J, Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2009. CA Cancer J Clin. (2009) 59: 225 – 49. doi:10.3322/caac.20006
- 10. Jemal A, Siegel R, Xu J, Ward E. Cancer statistics, 2010. CA Cancer J Clin. (2010) 60: 277 – 300. doi:10.3322/caac.20073
- 11. Siegel R, Ward E, Brawley O, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2011: the impact of eliminating socioeconomic and racial disparities on premature cancer deaths. CA Cancer J Clin. (2011) 61: 212 – 36. doi:10.3322/caac.20121
- 12. Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. (2012) 62: 10 – 29. doi:10.3322/caac.20138
- 13. Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2013. CA Cancer J Clin. (2013) 63: 11 – 30. doi:10.3322/caac.21166
- 14. Siegel R, Ma J, Zou Z, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin. (2014) 64: 9 – 29. doi:10.3322/caac.21208
- 15. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2015. CA Cancer J Clin. (2015) 65: 5 – 29. doi:10.3322/caac.21254
- 16. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2016. CA Cancer J Clin. (2016) 66: 7 – 30. doi:10.3322/caac.21332
- 17. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer Statistics, 2017. CA Cancer J Clin. (2017) 67: 7 – 30. doi:10.3322/caac.21387
- 18. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2018. CA Cancer J Clin. (2018) 68: 7 – 30. doi:10.3322/caac.21442
- 19. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2019. CA Cancer J Clin. (2019) 69: 7 – 34. doi:10.3322/caac.21551
- 20. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2020. CA Cancer J Clin. (2020) 70: 7 – 30. doi:10.3322/caac.21590
- 21. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Fuchs HE, Jemal A. Cancer Statistics, 2021. CA Cancer J Clin. (2021) 71: 7 – 33. doi:10.3322/caac.21654
- 22. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Fuchs HE, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2022. CA Cancer J Clin. (2022) 72: 7 – 33. doi:10.3322/caac.21708
- 23. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Wagle NS, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2023. CA Cancer J Clin. (2023) 73: 17 – 48. doi:10.3322/caac.21763
- 24. Siegel RL, Giaquinto AN, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2024. CA Cancer J Clin. (2024) 74: 12 – 49. doi:10.3322/caac.21820
- 25. Steliarova-Foucher E, Stiller C, Lacour B, Kaatsch P. International Classification of Childhood Cancer, third edition. Cancer. (2005) 103: 1457 – 67. doi:10.1002/cncr.20910
- 26. Dolecek TA, Propp JM, Stroup NE, Kruchko C. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2005-2009. Neuro Oncol. (2012) 14: v1 – 49. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nos218
- 27. Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Farah P, Ondracek A, Chen Y, Wolinsky Y. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2006-2010. Neuro Oncol. (2013) 15: ii1 – 56. doi:10.1093/neuonc/not151
- 28. Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Liao P, Rouse C, Chen Y, Dowling J. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2007-2011. Neuro Oncol. (2014) 16: iv1 – 63. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nou223
- 29. Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Fulop J, Liu M, Blanda R, Kromer C. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2008-2012. Neuro Oncol. (2015) 17: iv1 – 62. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nov189
- 30. Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Xu J, Kromer C, Wolinsky Y, Kruchko C. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2009-2013. Neuro Oncol. (2016) 18: v1 – 75. doi:10.1093/neuonc/now207
- 31. Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Liao P, Vecchione-Koval T, Wolinsky Y, Kruchko C. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2010-2014. Neuro Oncol. (2017) 19: v1 – 88. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nox158
- 32. Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Truitt G, Boscia A, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan JS. Statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2011-2015. Neuro Oncol. (2018) 20: iv1 – 86. doi:10.1093/neuonc/noy131
- 33. Ostrom QT, Cioffi G, Gittleman H, Patil N, Waite K, Kruchko C. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2012-2016. Neuro Oncol. (2019) 21: v1 – 100. doi:10.1093/neuonc/noz150
- 34. Ostrom QT, Patil N, Cioffi G, Waite K, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan JS. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2013-2017. Neuro Oncol. (2020) 22(12 Suppl 2):iv1–96. doi:10.1093/neuonc/noaa200
- 35. Ostrom QT, Cioffi G, Waite K, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan JS. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2014-2018. Neuro Oncol. (2021) 23 (Suppl 3): iii1 – 105. doi:10.1093/neuonc/noab200
- 36. Ostrom QT, Price M, Neff C, Cioffi G, Waite KA, Kruchko C. CBTRUS Statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2015-2019. Neuro Oncol. (2022) 24: v1 – 95. doi:10.1093/neuonc/noac202
- 37. Ostrom QT, Price M, Neff C, Cioffi G, Waite KA, Kruchko C. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2016-2020. Neuro Oncol. (2023) 25: iv1 – 99. doi:10.1093/neuonc/noad149
- 38. Price M, Ballard C, Benedetti J, Neff C, Cioffi G, Waite KA. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2017-2021. Neuro Oncol. (2024) 26: vi1 – 85. doi:10.1093/neuonc/noae145
- 39. Botta L, Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Stiller C, Cañete A, Dal Maso L. Long-term survival and cure fraction estimates for childhood cancer in Europe (EUROCARE-6): results from a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. (2022) 23: 1525 – 36. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(22)00637-4
- 40. Gatta G, Peris-Bonet R, Visser O, Stiller C, Marcos-Gragera R, Sánchez MJ. Geographical variability in survival of European children with central nervous system tumours. Eur J Cancer. (2017) 82: 137 – 48. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2017.05.028
- 41. Gatta G, Botta L, Rossi S, Aareleid T, Bielska-Lasota M, Clavel J. Childhood cancer survival in Europe 1999-2007: results of EUROCARE-5–a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. (2014) 15: 35 – 47. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70548-5
- 42. Crocetti E, Trama A, Stiller C, Caldarella A, Soffietti R, Jaal J. Epidemiology of glial and non-glial brain tumours in Europe. Eur J Cancer. (2012) 48: 1532 – 42. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2011.12.013
- 43. Gatta G, Ferrari A, Stiller CA, Pastore G, Bisogno G, Trama A. Embryonal cancers in Europe. Eur J Cancer. (2012) 48: 1425 – 33. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2011.12.027
- 44. Visser O, Trama A, Maynadié M, Stiller C, Marcos-Gragera R, De Angelis R. Incidence, survival and prevalence of myeloid malignancies in Europe. Eur J Cancer. (2012) 48: 3257 – 66. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2012.05.024
- 45. Marcos-Gragera R, Allemani C, Tereanu C, De Angelis R, Capocaccia R, Maynadie M. Survival of European patients diagnosed with lymphoid neoplasms in 2000-2002: results of the HAEMACARE project. Haematologica. (2011) 96: 720 – 8. doi:10.3324/haematol.2010.034264
- 46. Gatta G, Zigon G, Capocaccia R, Coebergh JW, Desandes E, Kaatsch P. Survival of European children and young adults with cancer diagnosed 1995-2002. Eur J Cancer. (2009) 45: 992 – 1005. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2008.11.042
- 47. Girardi F, Di Carlo V, Stiller C, Gatta G, Woods RR, Visser O. Global survival trends for brain tumors, by histology: analysis of individual records for 67,776 children diagnosed in 61 countries during 2000-2014 (CONCORD-3). Neuro Oncol. (2023) 25: 593 – 606. doi:10.1093/neuonc/noac232
- 48. Ssenyonga N, Stiller C, Nakata K, Shalkow J, Redmond S, Bulliard JL. Worldwide trends in population-based survival for children, adolescents, and young adults diagnosed with leukaemia, by subtype, during 2000-14 (CONCORD-3): analysis of individual data from 258 cancer registries in 61 countries. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. (2022) 6: 409 – 31. doi:10.1016/S2352-4642(22)00095-5
- 49. Allemani C, Matsuda T, Di Carlo V, Harewood R, Matz M, Nikšić M. Global surveillance of trends in cancer survival 2000-14 (CONCORD-3): analysis of individual records for 37 513 025 patients diagnosed with one of 18 cancers from 322 population-based registries in 71 countries. Lancet. (2018) 391: 1023 – 75. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)33326-3
- 50. Bonaventure A, Harewood R, Stiller CA, Gatta G, Clavel J, Stefan DC. Worldwide comparison of survival from childhood leukaemia for 1995-2009, by subtype, age, and sex (CONCORD-2): a population-based study of individual data for 89 828 children from 198 registries in 53 countries. Lancet Haematol. (2017) 4: e202 – 17. doi:10.1016/S2352-3026(17)30052-2
- 51. Allemani C, Weir HK, Carreira H, Harewood R, Spika D, Wang XS. Global surveillance of cancer survival 1995-2009: analysis of individual data for 25,676,887 patients from 279 population-based registries in 67 countries (CONCORD-2). Lancet. (2015) 385: 977 – 1010. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62038-9
- 52. Tai EW, Ward KC, Bonaventure A, Siegel DA, Coleman MP. Survival among children diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in the United States, by race and age, 2001 to 2009: findings from the CONCORD-2 study. Cancer. (2017) 123 Suppl 24: 5178 – 89. doi:10.1002/cncr.30899
- 53. Karalexi MA, Servitzoglou M, Papadakis V, Kachanov D, Cesen Mazič M, Baka M. Survival patterns of childhood neuroblastoma: an analysis of clinical data from Southern-Eastern European countries. Eur J Cancer Prev. (2023) 32: 254 – 63. doi:10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000614
- 54. Doganis D, Zborovskaya A, Trojanowski M, Zagar T, Bouka P, Baka M. Wilms tumour event-free and overall survival in Southern and Eastern Europe: pooled analyses of clinical data from four childhood cancer registries (1999-2017). Eur J Cancer. (2019) 115: 37 – 46. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2019.04.008
- 55. Doganis D, Panagopoulou P, Tragiannidis A, Vichos T, Moschovi M, Polychronopoulou S. Survival and mortality rates of Wilms tumour in Southern and Eastern European countries: socioeconomic differentials compared with the United States of America. Eur J Cancer. (2018) 101: 38 – 46. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2018.06.012
- 56. Panagopoulou P, Georgakis MK, Baka M, Moschovi M, Papadakis V, Polychronopoulou S. Persisting inequalities in survival patterns of childhood neuroblastoma in Southern and Eastern Europe and the effect of socio-economic development compared with those of the US. Eur J Cancer. (2018) 96: 44 – 53. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2018.03.003
- 57. Georgakis MK, Karalexi MA, Kalogirou EI, Ryzhov A, Zborovskaya A, Dimitrova N. Incidence, time trends and survival patterns of childhood pilocytic astrocytomas in Southern-Eastern Europe and SEER, US. J Neurooncol. (2017) 131: 163 – 75. doi:10.1007/s11060-016-2284-9
- 58. Karalexi MA, Georgakis MK, Dessypris N, Ryzhov A, Zborovskaya A, Dimitrova N. Mortality and survival patterns of childhood lymphomas: geographic and age-specific patterns in Southern-Eastern European and SEER/US registration data. Hematol Oncol. (2017) 35: 608 – 18. doi:10.1002/hon.2347
- 59. Karalexi MA, Papathoma P, Thomopoulos TP, Ryzhov A, Zborovskaya A, Dimitrova N. Childhood central nervous system tumour mortality and survival in Southern and Eastern Europe (1983-2014): gaps persist across 14 cancer registries. Eur J Cancer. (2015) 51: 2665 – 77. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2015.08.018
- 60. Peirelinck H, Schulpen M, Hoogendijk R, Van Damme A, Pieters R, Henau K. Incidence, survival, and mortality of cancer in children and young adolescents in Belgium and the Netherlands in 2004-2015: a comparative population-based study. Int J Cancer. (2024) 155: 226 – 39. doi:10.1002/ijc.34918
- 61. Di Giuseppe G, Youlden DR, Aitken JF, Pole JD. Pediatric hepatic cancer incidence and survival: 30-year trends in Ontario, Canada; the United States; and Australia. Cancer. (2021) 127: 769 – 76. doi:10.1002/cncr.33319
- 62. Liu APY, Liu Q, Shing MMK, Ku DTL, Fu E, Luk CW. Incidence and outcomes of CNS tumors in Chinese children: comparative analysis with the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results program. JCO Glob Oncol. (2020) 6: 704 – 21. doi:10.1200/JGO.19.00378
- 63. Rostgaard K, Hjalgrim H, Madanat-Harjuoja L, Johannesen TB, Collin S, Hjalgrim LL. Survival after cancer in children, adolescents and young adults in the Nordic countries from 1980 to 2013. Br J Cancer. (2019) 121: 1079 – 84. doi:10.1038/s41416-019-0632-1
- 64. Joko-Fru WY, Parkin DM, Borok M, Chokunonga E, Korir A, Nambooze S. Survival from childhood cancers in Eastern Africa: a population-based registry study. Int J Cancer. (2018) 143: 2409 – 15. doi:10.1002/ijc.31723
- 65. Nakata K, Ito Y, Magadi W, Bonaventure A, Stiller CA, Katanoda K. Childhood cancer incidence and survival in Japan and England: a population-based study (1993-2010). Cancer Sci. (2018) 109: 422 – 34. doi:10.1111/cas.13457
- 66. Demanelis K, Sriplung H, Meza R, Wiangnon S, Rozek LS, Scheurer ME. Differences in childhood leukemia incidence and survival between Southern Thailand and the United States: a population-based analysis. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2015) 62: 1790 – 8. doi:10.1002/pbc.25571
- 67. Pole JD, Darmawikarta D, Alibhai SM, Brandwein JM, Sung L. Differential survival improvement for patients 20-29 years of age with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leuk Res. (2013) 37: 1258 – 64. doi:10.1016/j.leukres.2013.05.001
- 68. Redaniel MT, Laudico A, Mirasol-Lumague MR, Alcasabas AP, Pulte D, Brenner H. Geographic and ethnic differences in childhood leukaemia and lymphoma survival: comparisons of Philippine residents, Asian Americans and Caucasians in the United States. Br J Cancer. (2010) 103: 149 – 54. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6605703
- 69. Kristiansen MF, Ósá E, Lyngsie Hjalgrim L, Á Steig B, Andórsdóttir G, Strøm M. Childhood cancer incidence and survival in the Faroe Islands, 1960 to 2019. Acta Oncol. (2024) 63: 4 – 8. doi:10.2340/1651-226X.2024.27110
- 70. Ni X, Li Z, Li X, Zhang X, Bai G, Liu Y. Socioeconomic inequalities in cancer incidence and access to health services among children and adolescents in China: a cross-sectional study. Lancet. (2022) 400: 1020 – 32. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01541-0
- 71. Joko-Fru WY, Bardot A, Bukirwa P, Amidou S, N'da G, Woldetsadik E. Cancer survival in sub-Saharan Africa (SURVCAN-3): a population-based study. Lancet Glob Health. (2024) 12: e947 – 59. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(24)00130-X
- 72. Steliarova-Foucher E, Colombet M, Ries LAG, Hesseling P, Moreno F, Shin HY., editors. International Incidence of Childhood Cancer, Volume III (electronic version). Results. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer. (2017). Available online at: (Accessed February 3, 2025).
- 73. Stiller CA, Bayne AM, Chakrabarty A, Kenny T, Chumas P. Incidence of childhood CNS tumours in Britain and variation in rates by definition of malignant behaviour: population-based study. BMC Cancer. (2019) 19: 139. doi:10.1186/s12885-019-5344-7
- 74. Piñeros M, Mery L, Soerjomataram I, Bray F, Steliarova-Foucher E. Scaling up the surveillance of childhood cancer: a global roadmap. J Natl Cancer Inst. (2021) 113: 9 – 15. doi:10.1093/jnci/djaa069
- 75. Arnett A, Siegel DA Dai S, Thompson TD, Foster J, di Pierro EJ. Incidence and survival of pediatric and adult hepatocellular carcinoma, United States, 2001-2020. Cancer Epidemiol. (2024) 92: 102610. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2024.102610
- 76. Businge L, Hagenimana M, Motlhale M, Bardot A, Liu B, Anastos K. Stage at diagnosis and survival by stage for the leading childhood cancers in Rwanda. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2024) 71: e31020. doi:10.1002/pbc.31020
- 77. Campbell K, Siegel DA, Umaretiya PJ Dai S, Heczey A, Lupo PJ. A comprehensive analysis of neuroblastoma incidence, survival, and racial and ethnic disparities from 2001 to 2019. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2024) 71: e30732. doi:10.1002/pbc.30732
- 78. de Souza PCF, Espinosa MM, Teixeira MTB, de Lima FCDS, Galvão ND. Survival analysis of haematologic neoplasms in children and adolescents: a population-based study in a state of the Brazilian Legal Amazon. Ecancermedicalscience. (2024) 18: 1764. doi:10.3332/ecancer.2024.1764
- 79. Elgenidy A, Afifi AM, Gad EF, Atef Abdelsattar Ibrahim H, Khan U, Alomari O. Survival characteristics of Wilms Tumor, a reference developed from a longitudinal cohort study. Ital J Pediatr. (2024) 50: 141. doi:10.1186/s13052-024-01698-7
- 80. Felix A, Dichamp C, Michaux K, Minard-Colin V, Sarnacki S, Lacour B. Afro-descendant ethnicity does not negatively influence neuroblastoma survival in the French West Indies. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2024) 71: e31037. doi:10.1002/pbc.31037
- 81. Godoy-Casasbuenas N, Gil F, Arias N, Pérez CU, Cruz HMC, Goyes LB. Population-based overall and net survival of childhood leukemia at 1-, 5-, and 10-years of follow-up in three regions of Colombia. Ecancermedicalscience. (2024) 18: 1759. doi:10.3332/ecancer.2024.1759
- 82. Hoang TT, Rathod RA, Rosales O, Castellanos MI, Schraw JM, Burgess E. Residential proximity to oil and gas developments and childhood cancer survival. Cancer. (2024) 130: 3724 – 33. doi:10.1002/cncr.35449
- 83. Hoffman BA, Sanford C Jr, Didier AJ, Lassiter E, Lozano-Calderon SA. Pediatric axial Ewing sarcoma: a retrospective population-based survival analysis. J Am Acad Orthop Surg Glob Res Rev. (2024) 8: e24.00130. doi:10.5435/JAAOSGlobal-D-24-00130
- 84. Hou X, Liang F, Lou Y. Clinical features and prognostic factors for malignant parotid tumors in children and adolescents: a population-based study. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg. (2024) 125: 101741. doi:10.1016/j.jormas.2023.101741
- 85. Liao ET, Lin HY, Tsai CY. Updated retinoblastoma incidence and outcome in children in Taiwan from 1980 to 2019: a 40-year nationwide study. Eye. (2024) 38: 1535 – 41. doi:10.1038/s41433-024-02946-0
- 86. Lin W, Zhu Z, Shang Y. Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine carcinoma in children and adolescents: a population-based study. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. (2024) 150: 4. doi:10.1007/s00432-023-05568-3
- 87. Mashtoub S, Ullah S, Collinson A, Singh GR, Clark Adnyamathanha J, Leemaqz S. Childhood cancer incidence and survival in South Australia and the Northern Territory, 1990-2017, with emphasis on Indigenous peoples. Cancers. (2024) 16: 2057. doi:10.3390/cancers16112057
- 88. Mishra A, Mishra A, Taylor MA, Sharma D, Kubesh M. Poor disease-specific survival in Black pediatric patients diagnosed with Burkitt lymphoma: an analysis of the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2024) 71: e31204. doi:10.1002/pbc.31204
- 89. Papakonstantinou E, Athanasiadou KI, Markozannes G, Tzotzola V, Bouka E, Baka M. Prognostic factors in high-grade pediatric osteosarcoma among children and young adults: Greek Nationwide Registry for Childhood Hematological Malignancies and Solid Tumors (NARECHEM-ST) data along with a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. (2024) 90: 102551. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2024.102551
- 90. Pinsuwan C, Santong C, Chainansamit SO, Komvilaisak P, Sirikarn P, Phimha S. Trends in incidence and survival of childhood cancers in Khon Kaen, Thailand (2000-2019): a population-based Khon Kaen Cancer Registry study. BMC Public Health. (2024) 24: 1255. doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18742-0
- 91. Qi X, Zhu D, Xiong Q, Yan X, Li X. Prognostic factors of primary intrascrotal rhabdomyosarcoma in children: a population-based study. Int Urol Nephrol. (2024) 56: 2117 – 23. doi:10.1007/s11255-024-03954-5
- 92. Schulpen M, Haveman LM, van der Heijden L, Kaal SEJ, Bramer JAM, Fajardo RD. The survival disparity between children and adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with Ewing sarcoma in the Netherlands did not change since the 1990s despite improved survival: a population-based study. Eur J Cancer. (2024) 208: 114209. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2024.114209
- 93. Schulpen M, Beishuizen A, Chamuleau MED, Dinmohamed AG, Meyer-Wentrup FAG, Vormoor HJ. Survival disparities between children and adolescents and young adults for the major subtypes of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in the Netherlands: a large population-based study. Haematologica. (2024) 109: 936 – 41. doi:10.3324/haematol.2023.283379
- 94. Turanzas NJ, Mathiasen R, Heegaard S, Schmiegelow K, Sehested A, Holtz JK. Ophthalmic symptoms, clinical signs and diagnostic delay in infants diagnosed with brain tumours in Denmark between 2007 and 2017. Acta Ophthalmol. (2024) 102: 334 – 41. doi:10.1111/aos.15745
- 95. Wang C, Shen CF, Xun LN, Zhang S, Zhang H, Zheng WL. Cancer survival analysis in Tianjin, 2010 to 2016. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi. (2024) 46: 319 – 25. doi:10.3760/cma.j.cn112152-20231024-00236
- 96. Wang H, Yao B, Tang T, Gong M, Ma Y, Wu X. Racial/ethnic disparities in all-cause and cause-specific death among children with malignant central nervous system tumours: a registry-based cohort retrospective analysis. EClinicalMedicine. (2024) 76: 102816. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102816
- 97. Wellbrock M, Voigt M, Ronckers C, Grabow D, Spix C, Erdmann F. Registration, incidence patterns, and survival trends of central nervous system tumors among children in Germany 1980-2019: an analysis of 40 years based on data from the German Childhood Cancer Registry. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2024) 71: e30954. doi:10.1002/pbc.30954
- 98. Youlden DR, Baade PD, Gottardo NG, Moore AS, Valery PC, Pole JD. Population-level 5-year event-free survival for children with cancer in Australia. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2024) 71: e31195. doi:10.1002/pbc.31195
- 99. Youlden DR, Gupta S, Frazier AL, Moore AS, Gottardo NG, Aitken JF. Incidence and survival for childhood cancer by endorsed non-stage prognostic indicators in Australia. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2024) 71: e30889. doi:10.1002/pbc.30889
- 100. Abdelazeem B, Abbas KS, Shehata J, El-Shahat NA, Eltaras MM, Qaddoumi I. Survival trends for patients with retinoblastoma between 2000 and 2018: what has changed? Cancer Med. (2023) 12: 6318 – 24. doi:10.1002/cam4.5406
- 101. Bednarek OL, Seemann N, Brzezinski J, Lorenzo A, Fernandez CV, Romao RLP. Outcomes according to treatment using an established protocol in patients with bilateral Wilms' tumor: a national Canadian population-based study. J Pediatr Surg. (2023) 58: 1014 – 7. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2023.01.016
- 102. Castellanos MI, Oluyomi AO, Chambers TM, Gramatges MM, Winestone LE, Lupo PJ. Ethnic disparities in childhood leukemia survival by border residence: a Texas population-based analysis. Cancer. (2023) 129: 1276 – 86. doi:10.1002/cncr.34636
- 103. Chirlaque MD, Peris-Bonet R, Sánchez A, Cruz O, Marcos-Gragera R, Gutiérrez-Ávila G. Childhood and adolescent central nervous system tumours in Spain: incidence and survival over 20 years: a historical baseline for current assessment. Cancers. (2023) 15: 5889. doi:10.3390/cancers15245889
- 104. Cromie KJ, Hughes NF, Milner S, Crump P, Grinfeld J, Jenkins A. Socio-economic and ethnic disparities in childhood cancer survival, Yorkshire, UK. Br J Cancer. (2023) 128: 1710 – 22. doi:10.1038/s41416-023-02209-x
- 105. Gera K, Martir D, Xue W, Wingard JR. Survival after pure (acute) erythroid leukemia in the United States: a SEER-Based study. Cancers. (2023) 15: 3941. doi:10.3390/cancers15153941
- 106. Goulding D, Arguinchona L, Anderson-Mellies A, Mikkelsen M, Eguchi M, Marinoff H. Sociodemographic disparities in presentation and survival of pediatric bone cancers. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. (2023) 45: e31 – 43. doi:10.1097/MPH.0000000000002531
- 107. Henau K, Tambuyzer T, Van Gool B, Van Eycken L, Poirel HA. Epidemiological trends of haematological malignancies in Belgium 2004-2018: older patients show the greatest improvement in survival. Cancers. (2023) 15: 4388. doi:10.3390/cancers15174388
- 108. Hoogendijk R, van der Lugt J, Baugh J, Kline C, Kranendonk M, Hoving E. Sex-related incidence and survival differences in pediatric high-grade glioma subtypes: a population-based cohort study. iScience. (2023) 26: 107957. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2023.107957
- 109. Kameda-Smith MM, Pond GR, Seow H. Rurality index score and pediatric neuro-oncological outcome in Ontario. J Neurosurg Pediatr. (2023) 31: 275 – 81. doi:10.3171/2022.12.PEDS22446
- 110. Karimi A, Ebrahimpour A, Sadighi M, Chehrassan M, Biglari F, Jafari Kafiabadi M. Descriptive epidemiology and survival rate of osteosarcoma: the first national population-based study in the Middle East (2008-2014). Arch Bone Jt Surg. (2023) 11: 649 – 57. doi:10.22038/ABJS.2023.59676.2945
- 111. Li PY, Kong YJ, Wan L, Guo J, Li WM, Zhang. Overall survival, late mortality, and cancer-directed surgery among children and adolescents with ultra-rare pediatric pancreatoblastoma in the United States, 1975-2018. J Pancreatol. (2023) 6: 61 – 6. doi:10.1097/JP9.0000000000000121
- 112. Liu S, Yin W, Lin Y, Huang S, Xue S, Sun G. Metastasis pattern and prognosis in children with neuroblastoma. World J Surg Oncol. (2023) 21: 130. doi:10.1186/s12957-023-03011-y
- 113. Liu X, Feng S, Zhao L, Luo L. Clinical characteristics and prognostic models of gonadal and extra-gonadal yolk sac tumors: a population-based analysis in children and adolescents. World J Urol. (2023) 41: 3009 – 17. doi:10.1007/s00345-023-04616-4
- 114. McEvoy MT, Siegel DA Dai S, Okcu MF, Zobeck M, Venkatramani R. Pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma incidence and survival in the United States: an assessment of 5656 cases, 2001-2017. Cancer Med. (2023) 12: 3644 – 56. doi:10.1002/cam4.5211
- 115. Montes-Rodríguez IM, Soto-Salgado M, Torres-Cintrón CR, Tomassini-Fernandini JC, Suárez E, Clavell LA. Incidence and mortality rates for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Puerto Rican Hispanics, 2012-2016. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. (2023) 32: 1030 – 7. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-22-1227
- 116. Nissen TN, Rechnitzer C, Albertsen BK, Borgwardt L, Christensen VB, Fallentin E. Epidemiological study of malignant paediatric liver tumours in Denmark 1985-2020. Cancers. (2023) 15: 3355. doi:10.3390/cancers15133355
- 117. Ohlsen TJD, Doody DR, Mueller BA, Desai AD, Chow EJ. Population-based impact of rurality and neighborhood-level socioeconomic disadvantage on pediatric cancer mortality in Washington State. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. (2023) 32: 141 – 8. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-22-0897
- 118. Price M, Neff C, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan JS, Cordeiro BB, Penas-Prado M. Capturing evolving definitions of 12 select rare CNS tumors: a timely report from CBTRUS and NCI-CONNECT. J Neurooncol. (2023) 165: 279 – 90. doi:10.1007/s11060-023-04480-7
- 119. Pugh G, Bradbeer P, Wood A, Hunter S, Cross S, Denton K. Childhood cancer incidence & survival in Aotearoa, New Zealand 2010-2019. Cancer Epidemiol. (2023) 86: 102433. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2023.102433
- 120. Wang X, Brown DS, Cao Y, Ekenga CC, Guo S, Johnson KJ. Disparities in survival improvement for U.S. childhood and adolescent cancer between 1995 and 2019: an analysis of population-based data. Cancer Epidemiol. (2023) 85: 102380. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2023.102380
- 121. Wellbrock M, Spix C, Ronckers CM, Grabow D, Filbert AL, Borkhardt A. Temporal patterns of childhood cancer survival 1991 to 2016: a nationwide register-study based on data from the German Childhood Cancer Registry. Int J Cancer. (2023) 153: 742 – 55. doi:10.1002/ijc.34556
- 122. Wu S, Liu Y, Williams M, Aguilar C, Ramirez AG, Mesa R. Childhood cancer survival in the highly vulnerable population of South Texas: a cohort study. PLoS ONE. (2023) 18: e0278354. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0278354
- 123. Wu P, Yang Y, Yu Z, Zhao L, Feng S. Clinical features and survival outcomes in children and adolescents with malignant mediastinal germ cell tumors based on Surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database analysis. J Surg Res. (2023) 288: 362 – 71. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2023.03.018
- 124. Wu P, Zhu D, Lou Y, Wang X. Clinical characteristics and prognostic factors for primary pediatric and adolescent Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas of the gastrointestinal tract: a population-based study. World J Surg Oncol. (2023) 21: 353. doi:10.1186/s12957-023-03238-9
- 125. Youlden DR, Baade PD, Moore AS, Pole JD, Valery PC, Aitken JF. Childhood cancer survival and avoided deaths in Australia, 1983-2016. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. (2023) 37: 81 – 91. doi:10.1111/ppe.12895
- 126. Youlden DR, Baade PD, Frazier AL, Gupta S, Gottardo NG, Moore AS. Temporal changes in childhood cancer incidence and survival by stage at diagnosis in Australia, 2000-2017. Acta Oncol. (2023) 62: 1256 – 64. doi:10.1080/0284186X.2023.2251668
- 127. Zhao L, Liu W, Chu L, Luo L. Factors associated with survival in paediatric and adolescent renal cell carcinoma: a population-based study. ANZ J Surg. (2023) 93: 2710 – 5. doi:10.1111/ans.18614
- 128. Caetano dos Santos FL, Michalek IM, Wojciechowska U, Didkowska J, Walewski J. Improved survival of Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia patients: observations from Poland, 1999-2020. Ann Hematol. (2022) 101: 1059 – 65. doi:10.1007/s00277-022-04758-2
- 129. Cañete A, Peris-Bonet R, Capocaccia R, Pardo-Romaguera E, Segura V, Muñoz-López A. Neuroblastoma in Spain: linking the national clinical database and epidemiological registries - a study by the Joint Action on Rare Cancers. Cancer Epidemiol. (2022) 78: 102145. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2022.102145
- 130. Castro-Ríos A, Martínez-Valverde S. Childhood cancer survival, 2006-2012 cohorts of Mexican Institute of Social Security beneficiaries at the Central-South Region of Mexico. Front Oncol. (2022) 12: 882501. doi:10.3389/fonc.2022.882501
- 131. Cioffi G, Waite KA, Edelson JL, Kruchko C, Ostrom QT, Barnholtz-Sloan JS. Changes in survival over time for primary brain and other CNS tumors in the United States, 2004-2017. J Neurooncol. (2022) 160: 209 – 19. doi:10.1007/s11060-022-04138-w
- 132. Cole S, Gianferante DM, Zhu B, Mirabello L. Osteosarcoma: a surveillance, epidemiology, and end results program-based analysis from 1975 to 2017. Cancer. (2022) 128: 2107 – 18. doi:10.1002/cncr.34163
- 133. Hart M, Anderson-Mellies A, Beltrami A, Gilani A, Green AL. Population-based analysis of CNS tumor diagnoses, treatment, and survival in congenital and infant age groups. J Neurooncol. (2022) 157: 333 – 44. doi:10.1007/s11060-022-03967-z
- 134. Helligsoe ASL, Kenborg L, Henriksen LT, Udupi A, Hasle H, Winther JF. Incidence and survival of childhood central nervous system tumors in Denmark, 1997-2019. Cancer Med. (2022) 11: 245 – 56. doi:10.1002/cam4.4429
- 135. Kahla JA, Siegel DA Dai S, Lupo PJ, Foster JH, Scheurer ME. Incidence and 5-year survival of children and adolescents with hepatoblastoma in the United States. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2022) 69: e29763. doi:10.1002/pbc.29763
- 136. Klangjorhor J, Pongnikorn D, Phanphaisarn A, Chaiyawat P, Teeyakasem P, Suksakit P. An analysis of the incidence and survival rates of bone sarcoma patients in Thailand: reports from population-based cancer registries 2001-2015. Cancer Epidemiol. (2022) 76: 102056. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2021.102056
- 137. Lee JA, Lim J, Park D, Jin HY, Park M, Park HJ. Incidence patterns and outcomes of Ewing Sarcoma in South Korea (1999-2017): a retrospective analysis using Korea Central Cancer Registry data. Cancer Res Treat. (2022) 54: 590 – 6. doi:10.4143/crt.2021.311
- 138. Liu H, Stiller CA, Crooks CJ, Rous B, Bythell M, Broggio J. Incidence, prevalence and survival in patients with Langerhans cell histiocytosis: a national registry study from England, 2013-2019. Br J Haematol. (2022) 199: 728 – 38. doi:10.1111/bjh.18459
- 139. Liu YL, Tsai ML, Chen CI, Yar N, Tsai CW, Lee HL. Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor in Taiwan: a nationwide, population-based study. Cancers (Basel). (2022) 14: 668. doi:10.3390/cancers14030668
- 140. Loap P, Vignon M, Bouscary D, Kirova Y. Pediatric plasma cell neoplasms: a population-based study. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk. (2022) 22: 841 – 6. doi:10.1016/j.clml.2022.07.003
- 141. Lv Z, Yu Y, Luo Y, Lin S, Xiang X, Mao X. Long-term survival outcomes of pediatric adrenal malignancies: an analysis with the upstaged SEER registry during 2000-2019. Front Endocrinol. (2022) 13: 977105. doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.977105
- 142. Nakata K, Hiyama E, Katanoda K, Matsuda T, Tada Y, Inoue M. Cancer in adolescents and young adults in Japan: epidemiology and cancer strategy. Int J Clin Oncol. (2022) 27: 7 – 15. doi:10.1007/s10147-021-02064-x
- 143. Ravaioli A, Crocetti E, Bucchi L, Guzzinati S, Casella C, Falcini F. Update of survival of cancer patients in Italy: geographical comparisons and focus on patients with cancers targeted by screening programmes, childhood cancers, and smoking-associated cancers. Epidemiol Prev. (2022) 46: 356 – 66. doi:10.19191/EP22.5-6.A489.095
- 144. Reedijk AMJ, Beishuizen A, Coebergh JWW, Hoeben BAW, Kremer LCM, Hebeda KM. Progress against non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in children and young adolescents in the Netherlands since 1990: stable incidence, improved survival and lower mortality. Eur J Cancer. (2022) 163: 140 – 51. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2021.12.010
- 145. Schulpen M, Roy P, Wijnen MHWA, Tytgat GAM, van den Heuvel-Eibrink MM, van Tinteren H. Incidence and survival of paediatric renal tumours in the Netherlands between 1990 and 2014. Eur J Cancer. (2022) 175: 282 – 90. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2022.08.021
- 146. Schulpen M, Goemans BF, Kaspers GJL, Raaijmakers MHGP, Zwaan CM, Karim-Kos HE. Increased survival disparities among children and adolescents & young adults with acute myeloid leukemia: a Dutch population-based study. Int J Cancer. (2022) 150: 1101 – 12. doi:10.1002/ijc.33878
- 147. van de Berg DJ, Kuijpers AMJ, Engelsman AF, Drukker CA, van Santen HM, Terwisscha van Scheltinga SCEJ. Long-term oncological outcomes of papillary thyroid cancer and follicular thyroid cancer in children: a nationwide population-based study. Front Endocrinol. (2022) 13: 899506. doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.899506
- 148. van der Linde M, van Leeuwen N, Eijkenaar F, Rijneveld AW, Pieters R, Karim-Kos HE. Effect of treatment in a specialized pediatric hemato-oncology setting on 5-year survival in acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a quasi-experimental study. Cancers. (2022) 14: 2451. doi:10.3390/cancers14102451
- 149. Wellbrock M, Zeeb H, Spix C, Grabow D, Borkhardt A, Erdmann F. Survival in children below the age of 15 years with leukemia: temporal patterns in Eastern and Western Germany since German reunification. Hemasphere. (2022) 6: e755. doi:10.1097/HS9.0000000000000755
- 150. Xing H, Yang C, Tan B, Zhang M. Incidence trends and predictive model of hepatic malignant tumors in children: a population-based study. Am J Transl Res. (2022) 14: 7268 – 89.
- 151. Youlden DR, Baade PD, McBride CA, Pole JD, Moore AS, Valery PC. Changes in cancer incidence and survival among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in Australia, 1997-2016. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2022) 69: e29492. doi:10.1002/pbc.29492
- 152. Zbitou A, Desandes E, Guissou S, Mallebranche C, Lacour B. Thyroid cancers in children and adolescents in France: incidence, survival and clinical management over the 2000-2018 period. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. (2022) 162: 111325. doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2022.111325
- 153. Curry SD, Jiang ZY, Jain KS. Population-based survival of pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma of the head and neck over four decades. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. (2021) 142: 110599. doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2020.110599
- 154. Ellison LF, Xie L, Sung L. Trends in paediatric cancer survival in Canada, 1992 to 2017. Health Rep. (2021) 32: 3 – 15. doi:10.25318/82-003-x202100200001-eng
- 155. Hoogendijk R, van der Lugt J, van Vuurden D, Kremer L, Wesseling P, Hoving E. Survival rates of children and young adolescents with CNS tumors improved in the Netherlands since 1990: a population-based study. Neurooncol Adv. (2021) 4: vdab183. doi:10.1093/noajnl/vdab183
- 156. Karalexi MA, Servitzoglou M, Moschovi M, Moiseenko R, Bouka P, Ntzani E. Survival and prognostic factors for childhood malignant liver tumors: analysis of harmonized clinical data. Cancer Epidemiol. (2021) 70: 101850. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2020.101850
- 157. Karalexi MA, Pourtsidis A, Panagopoulou P, Moschovi M, Polychronopoulou S, Kourti M. Overall and event-free survival of childhood lymphoma in Greece: analysis of harmonized clinical data over a 24-year active registration period. Leuk Lymphoma. (2021) 62: 2107 – 19. doi:10.1080/10428194.2021.1907376
- 158. Kelm RC, Ali Y, Orrell K, Rangel SM, Kruse L, Wagner AM. Age and sex differences for malignant melanoma in the pediatric population-childhood versus adolescence: analysis of current nationwide data from the National Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program. J Am Acad Dermatol. (2021) 84: 862 – 4. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2020.10.050
- 159. Loizou L, Demetriou A, Erdmann F, Borkhardt A, Brozou T, Sharp L. Increasing incidence and survival of paediatric and adolescent thyroid cancer in Cyprus 1998-2017: a population-based study from the Cyprus Pediatric Oncology Registry. Cancer Epidemiol. (2021) 74: 101979. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2021.101979
- 160. Miller KD, Ostrom QT, Kruchko C, Patil N, Tihan T, Cioffi G. Brain and other central nervous system tumor statistics, 2021. CA Cancer J Clin. (2021) 71: 381 – 406. doi:10.3322/caac.21693
- 161. Nakata K, Okawa S, Fuji S, Sato A, Morishima T, Tada Y. Trends in survival of leukemia among children, adolescents, and young adults: a population-based study in Osaka, Japan. Cancer Sci. (2021) 112: 1150 – 60. doi:10.1111/cas.14808
- 162. Park M, Lim J, Lee JA, Park HJ, Park BK, Lim MC. Incidence and outcomes of malignant ovarian germ cell tumors in Korea, 1999-2017. Gynecol Oncol. (2021) 163: 79 – 84. doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2021.07.037
- 163. Person L, Lacour B, Faure L, Guissou S, Poulalhon C, Orbach D. Childhood head and neck cancer in France: incidence, survival and trends from 2000 to 2015. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. (2021) 150: 110858. doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2021.110858
- 164. Poulalhon C, Goujon S, Marquant F, Faure L, Guissou S, Bonaventure A. Factors associated with 5- and 10-year survival among a recent cohort of childhood cancer survivors (France, 2000-2015). Cancer Epidemiol. (2021) 73: 101950. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2021.101950
- 165. Reedijk AMJ, Coebergh JWW, de Groot-Kruseman HA, van der Sluis IM, Kremer LC, Karim-Kos HE. Progress against childhood and adolescent acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in the Netherlands, 1990-2015. Leukemia. (2021) 35: 1001 – 11. doi:10.1038/s41375-020-01024-0
- 166. Sasaki K, Jabbour E, Short NJ, Jain N, Ravandi F, Pui CH. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a population-based study of outcome in the United States based on the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, 1980-2017. Am J Hematol. (2021) 96: 650 – 8. doi:10.1002/ajh.26156
- 167. Schraw JM, Peckham-Gregory EC, Hughes AE, Scheurer ME, Pruitt SL, Lupo PJ. Residence in a Hispanic enclave is associated with inferior overall survival among children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2021) 18: 9273. doi:10.3390/ijerph18179273
- 168. Schulpen M, Visser O, Reedijk AMJ, Kremer LCM, Zwaan CM, Eggermont AMM. Significant improvement in survival of advanced stage childhood and young adolescent cancer in the Netherlands since the 1990s. Eur J Cancer. (2021) 157: 81 – 93. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2021.08.001
- 169. Soon WC, Goacher E, Solanki S, Hayes J, Kapetanstrataki M, Picton S. The role of sex genotype in paediatric CNS tumour incidence and survival. Childs Nerv Syst. (2021) 37: 2177 – 86. doi:10.1007/s00381-021-05165-0
- 170. Wang H, Mejia MC, Gonzalez SJ, Zoorob RJ, Chai W, Du XL. Cancer incidence and survival trends among infants in the United States from 1975 to 2014. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2021) 68: e28917. doi:10.1002/pbc.28917
- 171. Youlden DR, Henshaw C, Gottardo NG, Hassall T, Aitken JF. Incidence and survival for childhood central nervous system tumours in Australia, 1983-2016. J Neurooncol. (2021) 155: 203 – 13. doi:10.1007/s11060-021-03869-6
- 172. Chen S, Tang W, Yang R, Hu X, Li Z. Pediatric patients with adrenal neuroblastoma: a SEER analysis, 2004-2013. Am Surg. (2020) 86: 127 – 33. doi:10.1177/000313482008600232
- 173. de Oliveira MM, Mendonça e Silva DR, Ramos FR, Curado MP. Children and adolescents cancer incidence, mortality and survival a population-based study in Midwest of Brazil. Cancer Epidemiol. (2020) 68: 101795. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2020.101795
- 174. Desandes E, Faure L, Guissou S, Goujon S, Berger C, Minard-Colin V. Infant cancers in France: incidence and survival (2000-2014). Cancer Epidemiol. (2020) 65: 101697. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2020.101697
- 175. Fineberg R, Zahedi S, Eguchi M, Hart M, Cockburn M, Green AL. Population-based analysis of demographic and socioeconomic disparities in pediatric CNS cancer survival in the United States. Sci Rep. (2020) 10: 4588. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61237-2
- 176. Ji J, Luo Z, Chen Y, Xu X, Li X, Liu S. Characteristics and trends of childhood cancer in Pudong, China, 2002-2015. BMC Public Health. (2020) 20: 1430. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09493-9
- 177. Jones BC, Youlden DR, Cundy TP, O'Callaghan ME, Karpelowsky J, Aitken JF. Renal tumours in Australian children: 30 years of incidence, outcome and second primary malignancy data from the Australian Childhood Cancer Registry. J Paediatr Child Health. (2020) 56: 908 – 16. doi:10.1111/jpc.14774
- 178. Krejci D, Zapletalova M, Svobodova I, Bajciova V, Mudry P, Smelhaus V. Childhood cancer epidemiology in the Czech Republic (1994-2016). Cancer Epidemiol. (2020) 69: 101848. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2020.101848
- 179. Leong E, Ong SK, Jali F, Ramlee N. Childhood cancer survival in Brunei Darussalam. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. (2020) 21: 3259 – 66. doi:10.31557/APJCP.2020.21.11.3259
- 180. Liu AP, Tung JY, Ku DT, Luk CW, Ling AS, Kwong DL. Outcome of Chinese children with craniopharyngioma: a 20-year population-based study by the Hong Kong Pediatric Hematology/Oncology Study Group. Childs Nerv Syst. (2020) 36: 497 – 505. doi:10.1007/s00381-019-04480-x
- 181. Martin E, Coert JH, Flucke UE, Slooff WM, van de Sande MAJ, van Noesel MM. Neurofibromatosis-associated malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors in children have a worse prognosis: a nationwide cohort study. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2020) 67: e28138. doi:10.1002/pbc.28138
- 182. Mitchell HK, Morris M, Ellis L, Abrahão R, Bonaventure A. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic survival disparities for children and adolescents with central nervous system tumours in the United States, 2000-2015. Cancer Epidemiol. (2020) 64: 101644. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2019.101644
- 183. Moreno F, Rose A, Chaplin MA, Cipolla MC, García Lombardi M, Nana M. Childhood liver tumors in Argentina: incidence trend and survival by treatment center. A report from the national pediatric cancer registry, ROHA network 2000-2015. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2020) 67: e28583. doi:10.1002/pbc.28583
- 184. Paapsi K, Baburin A, Mikkel S, Mägi M, Saks K, Innos K. Childhood cancer incidence and survival trends in Estonia (1970-2016): a nationwide population-based study. BMC Cancer. (2020) 20: 30. doi:10.1186/s12885-019-6510-7
- 185. Siegel DA, Richardson LC, Henley SJ, Wilson RJ, Dowling NF, Weir HK. Pediatric cancer mortality and survival in the United States, 2001-2016. Cancer. (2020) 126: 4379 – 89. doi:10.1002/cncr.33080
- 186. Silva FFD, Latorre MDRDO. Survival from acute lymphocytic leukemia in children in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. (2020) 36: e00008019. doi:10.1590/0102-311x00008019
- 187. Tas ML, Reedijk AMJ, Karim-Kos HE, Kremer LCM, van de Ven CP, Dierselhuis MP. Neuroblastoma between 1990 and 2014 in the Netherlands: increased incidence and improved survival of high-risk neuroblastoma. Eur J Cancer. (2020) 124: 47 – 55. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2019.09.025
- 188. Wang X, Feng J, Li Z, Zhang X, Chen J, Feng G. Characteristics and prognosis of embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma in children and adolescents: an analysis of 464 cases from the SEER database. Pediatr Investig. (2020) 4: 242 – 9. doi:10.1002/ped4.12220
- 189. Williams LA, Frazier AL, Poynter JN. Survival differences by race/ethnicity among children and adolescents diagnosed with germ cell tumors. Int J Cancer. (2020) 146: 2433 – 41. doi:10.1002/ijc.32569
- 190. Youlden DR, Jones BC, Cundy TP, Karpelowsky J, Aitken JF, McBride CA. Incidence and outcomes of neuroblastoma in Australian children: a population-based study (1983-2015). J Paediatr Child Health. (2020) 56: 1046 – 52. doi:10.1111/jpc.14810
- 191. Abrahão R, Ribeiro RC, Lichtensztajn DY, Rosenberg AS, Keegan THM. Survival after diffuse large B-cell lymphoma among children, adolescents, and young adults in California, 2001-2014: a population-based study. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2019) 66: e27559. doi:10.1002/pbc.27559
- 192. Bidwell SS, Peterson CC, Demanelis K, Zarins KR, Meza R, Sriplung H. Childhood cancer incidence and survival in Thailand: a comprehensive population-based registry analysis, 1990-2011. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2019) 66: e27428. doi:10.1002/pbc.27428
- 193. Chen X, Pan J, Wang S, Hong S, Hong S, He S. The epidemiological trend of acute myeloid leukemia in childhood: a population-based analysis. J Cancer. (2019) 10: 4824 – 35. doi:10.7150/jca.32326
- 194. Drevinskaite M, Patasius A, Kincius M, Jievaltas M, Smailyte G. A population-based analysis of incidence, mortality, and survival in testicular cancer patients in Lithuania. Medicina. (2019) 55: 552. doi:10.3390/medicina55090552
- 195. Faltermeier C, Chai T, Syed S, Lau N, Elkaim L, Ibrahim G. Survival of infants ≤ 24 months of age with brain tumors: a population-based study using the SEER database. PLoS ONE. (2019) 14: e0223051. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0223051
- 196. Feng J, Polychronidis G, Heger U, Frongia G, Mehrabi A, Hoffmann K. Incidence trends and survival prediction of hepatoblastoma in children: a population-based study. Cancer Commun. (2019) 39: 62. doi:10.1186/s40880-019-0411-7
- 197. Janz TA, Nagasubramanian R, Wei JL. A survival analysis of pediatric tonsillar malignancies and review of a rare case. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. (2019) 118: 160 – 4. doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2018.12.033
- 198. Kang JM, Ha J, Hong EK, Ju HY, Park BK, Shin SH. A nationwide, population-based epidemiologic study of childhood brain tumors in Korea, 2005-2014: a comparison with United States data. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. (2019) 28: 409 – 16. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-18-0634
- 199. Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan JS. Primary brain and other central nervous system tumors in Appalachia: regional differences in incidence, mortality, and survival. J Neurooncol. (2019) 142: 27 – 38. doi:10.1007/s11060-018-03073-z
- 200. Quinlan CS, Capra M, Dempsey M. Paediatric malignant melanoma in Ireland: a population study and review of the literature. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. (2019) 72: 1388 – 95. doi:10.1016/j.bjps.2019.03.041
- 201. Reedijk AMJ, Klein K, Coebergh JWW, Kremer LC, Dinmohamed AG, de Haas V. Improved survival for children and young adolescents with acute myeloid leukemia: a Dutch study on incidence, survival and mortality. Leukemia. (2019) 33: 1349 – 59. doi:10.1038/s41375-018-0314-7
- 202. Rivas-Vilela S, Rubió-Casadevall J, Fàbrega-Ribas A, Joly-Torta C, Vilardell L, Marcos-Gragera R. Incidence and survival of central nervous system tumors in childhood and adolescence in Girona (Spain) 1990-2013: national and international comparisons. Clin Transl Oncol. (2019) 21: 1177 – 85. doi:10.1007/s12094-019-02043-9
- 203. Siegel DA Li J, Ding H, Singh SD, King JB, Pollack LA. Racial and ethnic differences in survival of pediatric patients with brain and central nervous system cancer in the United States. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2019) 66: e27501. doi:10.1002/pbc.27501
- 204. Tabash MA. Characteristics, survival and incidence rates and trends of pilocytic astrocytoma in children in the United States; SEER-based analysis. J Neurol Sci. (2019) 400: 148 – 52. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2019.03.028
- 205. Truitt G, Gittleman H, Leece R, Ostrom QT, Kruchko C, Armstrong TS. Partnership for defining the impact of 12 selected rare CNS tumors: a report from the CBTRUS and the NCI-CONNECT. J Neurooncol. (2019) 144: 53 – 63. doi:10.1007/s11060-019-03215-x
- 206. Cooney T, Fisher PG, Tao L, Clarke CA, Partap S. Pediatric neuro-oncology survival disparities in California. J Neurooncol. (2018) 138: 83 – 97. doi:10.1007/s11060-018-2773-0
- 207. Deng X, Yang Z, Zhang X, Lin D, Xu X, Lu X. Prognosis of pediatric patients with pineoblastoma: a SEER analysis 1990-2013. World Neurosurg. (2018) 118: e871 – 9. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2018.07.079
- 208. Eggen CAM, Durgaram VVL, van Doorn R, Mooi WJ, Pardo LM, Pasmans SGMA. Incidence and relative survival of melanoma in children and adolescents in the Netherlands, 1989-2013. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. (2018) 32: 956 – 61. doi:10.1111/jdv.14665
- 209. González García H, Garrote Molpeceres R, Urbaneja Rodríguez E, Gutiérrez Meléndez P, Herráiz Cristóbal R, Pino Vázquez MA. Differences in incidence and survival to childhood cancer between rural and urban areas in Castilla y León, Spain (2003-2014): a strobe-compliant study. Medicine. (2018) 97: e12797. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000012797
- 210. Khalid SI, Kelly R, Adogwa O, Carlton A, Woodward J, Ahmed S. Pediatric spinal ependymomas: an epidemiologic study. World Neurosurg. (2018) 115: e119 – 28. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2018.03.206
- 211. Marcos-Gragera R, Solans M, Galceran J, Fernández-Delgado R, Fernández-Teijeiro A, Mateos A. Childhood and adolescent lymphoma in Spain: incidence and survival trends over 20 years. Clin Transl Oncol. (2018) 20: 1289 – 301. doi:10.1007/s12094-018-1860-1
- 212. Mazzucco W, Cusimano R, Mazzola S, Rudisi G, Zarcone M, Marotta C. Childhood and adolescence cancers in the Palermo Province (Southern Italy): ten years (2003–2012) of epidemiological surveillance. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2018) 15: 1344. doi:10.3390/ijerph15071344
- 213. Parikh PP, Tashiro J, Rubio GA, Sola JE, Neville HL, Hogan AR. Incidence and outcomes of pediatric extremity melanoma: a propensity score matched SEER study. J Pediatr Surg. (2018) 53: 1753 – 60. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2018.03.006
- 214. Ramirez O, Aristizabal P, Zaidi A, Ribeiro RC, Bravo LE; VIGICANCER Working Group. Implementing a childhood cancer outcomes surveillance system within a population-based cancer registry. J Glob Oncol. (2018) 4: 1 – 11. doi:10.1200/JGO.17.00193
- 215. Smith L, Glaser AW, Kinsey SE, Greenwood DC, Chilton L, Moorman AV. Long-term survival after childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: population-based trends in cure and relapse by clinical characteristics. Br J Haematol. (2018) 182: 851 – 8. doi:10.1111/bjh.15424
- 216. Strahlendorf C, Pole JD, Barber R, Dix D, Kulkarni K, Martineau E. Enrolling children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia on a clinical trial improves event-free survival: a population-based study. Br J Cancer. (2018) 118: 744 – 9. doi:10.1038/bjc.2017.462
- 217. Wu J, Sun H, Li J, Guo Y, Zhang K, Lang C. Increased survival of patients aged 0-29 years with osteosarcoma: a period analysis, 1984-2013. Cancer Med. (2018) 7: 3652 – 61. doi:10.1002/cam4.1659
- 218. Zhao Y, Wang Y, Ma S. Racial differences in four leukemia subtypes: comprehensive descriptive epidemiology. Sci Rep. (2018) 8: 548. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-19081-4
- 219. Bergqvist J, Iderberg H, Mesterton J, Bengtsson N, Wettermark B, Henriksson R. Healthcare resource use, comorbidity, treatment and clinical outcomes for patients with primary intracranial tumors: a Swedish population-based register study. Acta Oncol. (2017) 56: 405 – 14. doi:10.1080/0284186X.2016.1257864
- 220. El-Fattah MA. Survival pattern of chronic myeloid leukemia in a pediatric population in the United States. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. (2017) 39: 159 – 60. doi:10.1097/MPH.0000000000000693
- 221. Fuentes-Raspall R, Solans M, Roca-Barceló A, Vilardell L, Puigdemont M, Del Barco S. Descriptive epidemiology of primary malignant and non-malignant central nervous tumors in Spain: results from the Girona Cancer Registry (1994-2013). Cancer Epidemiol. (2017) 50 (Pt A): 1 – 8. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2017.07.005
- 222. Jakab Z, Juhasz A, Nagy C, Schuler D, Garami M; Hungarian Paediatric Haemato-Oncology Network. Trends and territorial inequalities of incidence and survival of childhood leukaemia and their relations to socioeconomic status in Hungary, 1971-2015. Eur J Cancer Prev. (2017) 26: S183 – 90. doi:10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000386
- 223. Kairiene I, Pasauliene R, Lipunova N, Vaitkeviciene G, Rageliene L, Rascon J. Improved outcome of childhood acute myeloid leukemia in an Eastern European country: Lithuanian experience. Eur J Pediatr. (2017) 176: 1329 – 37. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2978-9
- 224. Khanna V, Achey RL, Ostrom QT, Block-Beach H, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan JS. Incidence and survival trends for medulloblastomas in the United States from 2001 to 2013. J Neurooncol. (2017) 135: 433 – 41. doi:10.1007/s11060-017-2594-6
- 225. Lee SH, Jung KW, Ha J, Oh CM, Kim H, Park HJ. Nationwide population-based incidence and survival rates of malignant central nervous system germ cell tumors in Korea, 2005-2012. Cancer Res Treat. (2017) 49: 494 – 501. doi:10.4143/crt.2016.129
- 226. Lins MM, Santos MO, de Albuquerque MFPM, de Castro CCL, Mello MJG, de Camargo B. Incidence and survival of childhood leukemia in Recife, Brazil: a population-based analysis. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2017) 64: 26391. doi:10.1002/pbc.26391
- 227. Marcos-Gragera R, Galceran J, Martos C, de Munain AL, Vicente-Raneda M, Navarro C. Incidence and survival time trends for Spanish children and adolescents with leukaemia from 1983 to 2007. Clin Transl Oncol. (2017) 19: 301 – 16. doi:10.1007/s12094-016-1531-z
- 228. Moreno F, Cacciavillano W, Cipolla M, Coirini M, Streitenberger P, López Martí J. Childhood osteosarcoma: incidence and survival in Argentina. Report from the National Pediatric Cancer Registry, ROHA Network 2000-2013. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2017) 64: 26533. doi:10.1002/pbc.26533
- 229. Mukhtar F, Boffetta P, Risch HA, Park JY, Bubu OM, Womack L. Survival predictors of Burkitt's lymphoma in children, adults and elderly in the United States during 2000-2013. Int J Cancer. (2017) 140: 1494 – 502. doi:10.1002/ijc.30576
- 230. Nasioudis D, Alevizakos M, Holcomb K, Witkin S. Malignant and borderline epithelial ovarian tumors in the pediatric and adolescent population. Maturitas. (2017) 96: 45 – 50. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2016.11.011
- 231. Offor UT, Basta NO, James PW, McNally RJQ. Is there a socioeconomic variation in survival from renal tumours in children and young people resident in northern England (1968-2012)? Cancer Epidemiol. (2017) 50 (Pt A): 92 – 8. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2017.08.010
- 232. Paapsi K, Mägi M, Mikkel S, Saks K, Aareleid T, Innos K. The impact of under-reporting of cases on the estimates of childhood cancer incidence and survival in Estonia. Eur J Cancer Prev. (2017) 26: S147 – 52. doi:10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000377
- 233. Ramiandrisoa J, Jehanne M, Sauvat F, Reguerre Y, Chamouine A, Chirpaz E. Incidence and survival of childhood cancer in the French islands of Reunion and Mayotte (2005-2011). Cancer Epidemiol. (2017) 49: 61 – 5. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2017.05.009
- 234. Schindler M, Belle FN, Grotzer MA, von der Weid NX, Kuehni CE, Swiss Paediatric Oncology Group (SPOG). Childhood cancer survival in Switzerland (1976-2013): time-trends and predictors. Int J Cancer. (2017) 140: 62 – 74. doi:10.1002/ijc.30434
- 235. Weil AG, Wang AC, Westwick HJ, Ibrahim GM, Ariani RT, Crevier L. Survival in pediatric medulloblastoma: a population-based observational study to improve prognostication. J Neurooncol. (2017) 132: 99 – 107. doi:10.1007/s11060-016-2341-4
- 236. Ye X, Torabi M, Lix LM, Mahmud SM. Time and spatial trends in lymphoid leukemia and lymphoma incidence and survival among children and adolescents in Manitoba, Canada: 1984-2013. PLoS ONE. (2017) 12: e0175701. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175701
- 237. Acharya S, Hsieh S, Shinohara ET, DeWees T, Frangoul H, Perkins SM. Effects of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status on outcome in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. (2016) 38: 350 – 4. doi:10.1097/MPH.0000000000000591
- 238. Batista A, Nogueira-Silva L, Vaz R, Oliveira J. Oncology referral concerning paediatric neurosurgery? Analysis of the situation between 2008-2013 in the North of Portugal. Acta Med Port. (2016) 29: 15 – 23. doi:10.20344/amp.6432
- 239. Brennan B, Stiller C, Grimer R, Dennis N, Broggio J, Francis M. Outcome and the effect of age and socioeconomic status in 1318 patients with synovial sarcoma in the English National Cancer Registry: 1985-2009. Clin Sarcoma Res. (2016) 6: 18. doi:10.1186/s13569-016-0058-y
- 240. Desandes E, Guissou S, Ducassou S, Lacour B. Neonatal solid tumors: incidence and survival in France. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2016) 63: 1375 – 80. doi:10.1002/pbc.26006
- 241. Donnelly DW, Gavin AT. Mortality among children and young people who survive cancer In Northern Ireland. Ulster Med J. (2016) 85: 158 – 63.
- 242. Fairley L, Picton SV, McNally RJ, Bailey S, McCabe MG, Feltbower RG. Incidence and survival of children and young people with central nervous system embryonal tumours in the North of England, 1990-2013. Eur J Cancer. (2016) 61: 36 – 43. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2016.03.083
- 243. Janitz AE, Campbell JE, Pate A, Anderson A, McNall-Knapp R. Racial, ethnic, and age differences in the incidence and survival of childhood cancer in Oklahoma, 1997-2012. J Okla State Med Assoc. (2016) 109: 355 – 65.
- 244. Kaatsch P, Strothotte J, Becker C, Bielack S, Dirksen U, Blettner M. Pediatric bone tumors in Germany from 1987 to 2011: incidence rates, time trends and survival. Acta Oncol. (2016) 55: 1145 – 51. doi:10.1080/0284186X.2016.1195509
- 245. Kahn JM, Keegan TH, Tao L, Abrahão R, Bleyer A, Viny AD. Racial disparities in the survival of American children, adolescents, and young adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia, and Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer. (2016) 122: 2723 – 30. doi:10.1002/cncr.30089
- 246. Karim-Kos HE, Hackl M, Mann G, Urban C, Woehrer A, Slavc I. Trends in incidence, survival and mortality of childhood and adolescent cancer in Austria, 1994-2011. Cancer Epidemiol. (2016) 42: 72 – 81. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2016.03.015
- 247. Lychou SE, Gustafsson GG, Ljungman GE. Higher rates of metastatic disease may explain the declining trend in Swedish paediatric rhabdomyosarcoma survival rates. Acta Paediatr. (2016) 105: 74 – 81. doi:10.1111/apa.13172
- 248. Mogensen H, Modig K, Tettamanti G, Talbäck M, Feychting M. Socioeconomic differences in cancer survival among Swedish children. Br J Cancer. (2016) 114: 118 – 24. doi:10.1038/bjc.2015.449
- 249. Moreno F, Lopez Marti J, Palladino M, Lobos P, Gualtieri A, Cacciavillano W. Childhood neuroblastoma: incidence and survival in Argentina. Report from the National Pediatric Cancer Registry, ROHA Network 2000-2012. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2016) 63: 1362 – 7. doi:10.1002/pbc.25987
- 250. Park HJ, Moon EK, Yoon JY, Oh CM, Jung KW, Park BK. Incidence and survival of childhood cancer in Korea. Cancer Res Treat. (2016) 48: 869 – 82. doi:10.4143/crt.2015.290
- 251. Rigaud C, Barkaoui MA, Thomas C, Bertrand Y, Lambilliotte A, Miron J. Langerhans cell histiocytosis: therapeutic strategy and outcome in a 30-year nationwide cohort of 1478 patients under 18 years of age. Br J Haematol. (2016) 174: 887 – 98. doi:10.1111/bjh.14140
- 252. Schrøder H, Rechnitzer C, Wehner PS, Rosthøj S, Møller JK, Lausen B. Danish childhood cancer registry. Clin Epidemiol. (2016) 8: 461 – 4. doi:10.2147/CLEP.S99508
- 253. Wang Y, Huang J, Rong L, Wu P, Kang M, Zhang X. Impact of age on the survival of pediatric leukemia: an analysis of 15083 children in the SEER database. Oncotarget. (2016) 7: 83767 – 74. doi:10.18632/oncotarget.11765
- 254. Abrahão R, Lichtensztajn DY, Ribeiro RC, Marina NM, Keogh RH, Marcos-Gragera R. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in survival among children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in California, 1988-2011: a population-based observational study. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2015) 62: 1819 – 25. doi:10.1002/pbc.25544
- 255. Dolecek TA, Dressler EV, Thakkar JP, Liu M, Al-Qaisi A, Villano JL. Epidemiology of meningiomas post-Public Law 107-206: the Benign Brain Tumor Cancer Registries Amendment Act. Cancer. (2015) 121: 2400 – 10. doi:10.1002/cncr.29379
- 256. Dudley RW, Torok MR, Gallegos DR, Mulcahy-Levy JM, Hoffman LM, Liu AK. Pediatric low-grade ganglioglioma: epidemiology, treatments, and outcome analysis on 348 children from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database. Neurosurgery. (2015) 76: 313 – 20. doi:10.1227/NEU.0000000000000619
- 257. Foresto SA, Youlden DR, Baade PD, Hallahan AR, Aitken JF, Moore AS. The outcomes and treatment burden of childhood acute myeloid leukaemia in Australia, 1997-2008: a report from the Australian Paediatric Cancer Registry. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2015) 62: 1664 – 166. doi:10.1002/pbc.25517
- 258. Kaatsch P, Häfner C, Calaminus G, Blettner M, Tulla M. Pediatric germ cell tumors from 1987 to 2011: incidence rates, time trends, and survival. Pediatrics. (2015) 135: e136 – 43. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1989
- 259. Katz AJ, Chia VM, Schoonen WM, Kelsh MA. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia: an assessment of international incidence, survival, and disease burden. Cancer Causes Control. (2015) 26: 1627 – 42. doi:10.1007/s10552-015-0657-6
- 260. Liu AP, Shing MM, Yuen HL Li CH, Ling SC, Luk CW. Central nervous system tumors in Chinese children under the age of 3: a population study. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. (2015) 37: 94 – 103. doi:10.1097/MPH.0000000000000128
- 261. Olsson DS, Andersson E, Bryngelsson IL, Nilsson AG, Johannsson G. Excess mortality and morbidity in patients with craniopharyngioma, especially in patients with childhood onset: a population-based study in Sweden. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. (2015) 100: 467 – 74. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-3525
- 262. Ostrom QT, de Blank PM, Kruchko C, Petersen CM, Liao P, Finlay JL. Alex's Lemonade Stand Foundation infant and childhood primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2007-2011. Neuro Oncol. (2015) 16: x1 – 36. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nou327
- 263. Truong B, Green AL, Friedrich P, Ribeiro KB, Rodriguez-Galindo C. Ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic disparities in retinoblastoma. JAMA Pediatr. (2015) 169: 1096 – 104. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.2360
- 264. Tulla M, Berthold F, Graf N, Rutkowski S, von Schweinitz D, Spix C. Incidence, trends, and survival of children with embryonal tumors. Pediatrics. (2015) 136: e623 – 32. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-0224
- 265. Vlenterie M, Ho VK, Kaal SE, Vlenterie R, Haas R, van der Graaf WT. Age as an independent prognostic factor for survival of localised synovial sarcoma patients. Br J Cancer. (2015) 113: 1602 – 6. doi:10.1038/bjc.2015.375
- 266. Wang L, Bhatia S, Gomez SL, Yasui Y. Differential inequality trends over time in survival among US children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia by race/ethnicity, age at diagnosis, and sex. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. (2015) 24: 1781 – 8. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-15-0639
- 267. Waxweiler TV, Rusthoven CG, Proper MS, Cost CR, Cost NG, Donaldson N. Non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas in children: a Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results analysis validating COG risk stratifications. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. (2015) 92: 339 – 48. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2015.02.007
- 268. Wongmas P, Jetsrisuparb A, Komvilaisak P, Suwanrungruang K, Choeyprasert W, Sriplung H. Incidences, trends and long term outcomes of retinoblastoma in three cancer registries, Thailand. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. (2015) 16: 6899 – 902. doi:10.7314/APJCP.2015.16.16.6899
- 269. Youlden DR, Baade PD, Hallahan AR, Valery PC, Green AC, Aitken JF. Conditional survival estimates for childhood cancer in Australia, 2002-2011: a population-based study. Cancer Epidemiol. (2015) 39: 394 – 400. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2015.02.008
- 270. Zheng R, Peng X, Zeng H, Zhang S, Chen T, Wang H. Incidence, mortality and survival of childhood cancer in China during 2000-2010 period: a population-based study. Cancer Lett. (2015) 363: 176 – 80. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2015.04.021
- 271. Desandes E, Guissou S, Chastagner P, Lacour B. Incidence and survival of children with central nervous system primitive tumors in the French National Registry of Childhood Solid Tumors. Neuro Oncol. (2014) 16: 975 – 83. doi:10.1093/neuonc/not309
- 272. Gerth DJ, Tashiro J, Thaller SR. Pediatric sinonasal tumors in the United States: incidence and outcomes. J Surg Res. (2014) 190: 214 – 20. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2014.04.004
- 273. Golpanian S, Tashiro J, Gerth DJ, Thaller SR. Pediatric histiocytoses in the United States: incidence and outcomes. J Surg Res. (2014) 190: 221 – 9. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2014.03.063
- 274. Hassan WM, Alfaar AS, Bakry MS, Ezzat S. Orbital tumors in USA: difference in survival patterns. Cancer Epidemiol. (2014) 38: 515 – 22. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2014.07.001
- 275. Ito Y, Miyashiro I, Ito H, Hosono S, Chihara D, Nakata-Yamada K. Long-term survival and conditional survival of cancer patients in Japan using population-based cancer registry data. Cancer Sci. (2014) 105: 1480 – 6. doi:10.1111/cas.12525
- 276. Kerkhofs TM, Ettaieb MH, Verhoeven RH, Kaspers GJ, Tissing WJ, Loeffen J. Adrenocortical carcinoma in children: first population-based clinicopathological study with long-term follow-up. Oncol Rep. (2014) 32: 2836 – 44. doi:10.3892/or.2014.3506
- 277. Lacour B, Goujon S, Guissou S, Guyot-Goubin A, Desmée S, Désandes E. Childhood cancer survival in France, 2000-2008. Eur J Cancer Prev. (2014) 23: 449 – 57. doi:10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000006
- 278. Ma H, Sun H, Sun X. Survival improvement by decade of patients aged 0-14 years with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a SEER analysis. Sci Rep. (2014) 4: 4227. doi:10.1038/srep04227
- 279. Ostrom QT, Chen Y, M de Blank P, Ondracek A, Farah P, Gittleman H. The descriptive epidemiology of atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors in the United States, 2001-2010. Neuro Oncol. (2014) 16: 1392 – 9. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nou090
- 280. Park SJ, Woo SJ, Park KH. Incidence of retinoblastoma and survival rate of retinoblastoma patients in Korea using the Korean National Cancer Registry database (1993-2010). Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. (2014) 55: 2816 – 21. doi:10.1167/iovs.14-14078
- 281. Vaitkevičiene G, Matuzevičiene R, Stoškus M, Žvirblis T, Rageliene L, Schmiegelow K. Cure rates of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Lithuania and the benefit of joining international treatment protocol. Medicina. (2014) 50: 28 – 36. doi:10.1016/j.medici.2014.05.005
- 282. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, Kohler B, Jemal A. Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin. (2014) 64: 83 – 103. doi:10.3322/caac.21219
- 283. Wiangnon S, Jetsrisuparb A, Komvilaisak P, Suwanrungruang K. Childhood cancer incidence and survival 1985-2009, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. (2014) 15: 7989 – 93. doi:10.7314/APJCP.2014.15.18.7989
- 284. Yang L, Takimoto T, Fujimoto J. Prognostic model for predicting overall survival in children and adolescents with rhabdomyosarcoma. BMC Cancer. (2014) 14: 654. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-14-654
- 285. AIRTUM Working Group, CCM, AIEOP Working Group. Italian cancer figures, report 2012: cancer in children and adolescents. Epidemiol Prev. (2013) 37 (1 Suppl 1): 1 – 225.
- 286. Bravo LE, García LS, Collazos P, Aristizabal P, Ramirez O. Descriptive epidemiology of childhood cancer in Cali: Colombia 1977-2011. Colomb Med. (2013) 44: 155 – 64. doi:10.25100/cm.v44i3.1243
- 287. Njoku K, Basta N, Mann KD, McNally RJ, Pearce MS. Socioeconomic variation in survival from childhood leukaemia in northern England, 1968-2010. Br J Cancer. (2013) 108: 2339 – 45. doi:10.1038/bjc.2013.222
- 288. Rabinowicz R, Barchana M, Liphshiz I, Linn S, Futerman B, Ben-Arush MW. Cancer incidence and survival among infants in Israel, 1998-2007. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. (2013) 30: 646 – 54. doi:10.3109/08880018.2013.813099
- 289. Valery PC, Youlden DR, Baade PD, Ward LJ, Green AC, Aitken JF. Cancer survival in Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian children: what is the difference? Cancer Causes Control. (2013) 24: 2099 – 106. doi:10.1007/s10552-013-0287-9
- 290. Villano JL, Parker CK, Dolecek TA. Descriptive epidemiology of ependymal tumours in the United States. Br J Cancer. (2013) 108: 2367 – 71. doi:10.1038/bjc.2013.221
- 291. Bao PP, Zheng Y, Wu CX, Peng P, Gong YM, Huang ZZ. Population-based survival for childhood cancer patients diagnosed during 2002-2005 in Shanghai, China. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2012) 59: 657 – 61. doi:10.1002/pbc.24043
- 292. Dores GM, Devesa SS, Curtis RE, Linet MS, Morton LM. Acute leukemia incidence and patient survival among children and adults in the United States, 2001-2007. Blood. (2012) 119: 34 – 43. doi:10.1182/blood-2011-04-347872
- 293. Goggins WB, Lo FF. Racial and ethnic disparities in survival of US children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: evidence from the SEER database 1988-2008. Cancer Causes Control. (2012) 23: 737 – 43. doi:10.1007/s10552-012-9943-8
- 294. Jung KW, Yoo H, Kong HJ, Won YJ, Park S, Lee SH. Population-based survival data for brain tumors in Korea. J Neurooncol. (2012) 109: 301 – 7. doi:10.1007/s11060-012-0893-5
- 295. Kachanov DY, Dobrenkov KV, Abdullaev RT, Shamanskaya TV, Varfolomeeva SR. Incidence and survival of pediatric soft tissue sarcomas in Moscow Region, Russian Federation, 2000-2009. Sarcoma. (2012) 2012: 350806. doi:10.1155/2012/350806
- 296. Pui CH, Pei D, Pappo AS, Howard SC, Cheng C, Sandlund JT. Treatment outcomes in black and white children with cancer: results from the SEER database and St Jude Children's Research Hospital, 1992 through 2007. J Clin Oncol. (2012) 30: 2005 – 12. doi:10.1200/JCO.2011.40.8617
- 297. Rabinowicz R, Barchana M, Liphshiz I, Futerman B, Linn S, Weyl-Ben-Arush M. Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents in Israel during the years 1998 to 2007. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. (2012) 34: 421 – 9. doi:10.1097/MPH.0b013e31826157ce
- 298. Wiromrat P, Jetsrisuparb A, Komvilaisak P, Sirichativapee W, Kamsa-Ard S, Wiangnon S. Incidence and survival rates among pediatric osteogenic sarcoma cases in Khon Kaen, Thailand, 1985-2010. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. (2012) 13: 4281 – 4. doi:10.7314/APJCP.2012.13.9.4281
- 299. AIRTUM Working Group. Italian cancer figures, report 2011: survival of cancer patients in Italy. Epidemiol Prev. (2011) 35 (5–6 Suppl 3): 1 – 200.
- 300. Feltbower RG, Siller C, Woodward E, McKinney PA, Picton SV, Joffe J. Treatment and survival patterns for germ cell tumors among 13- to 24-year olds in Yorkshire, UK. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2011) 56: 282 – 8. doi:10.1002/pbc.22794
- 301. Kohler BA, Ward E, McCarthy BJ, Schymura MJ, Ries LA, Eheman C. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2007, featuring tumors of the brain and other nervous system. J Natl Cancer Inst. (2011) 103: 714 – 376. doi:10.1093/jnci/djr077
- 302. Ljungman G, Jakobson A, Behrendtz M, Ek T, Friberg LG, Hjalmars U. Incidence and survival analyses in children with solid tumours diagnosed in Sweden between 1983 and 2007. Acta Paediatr. (2011) 100: 750 – 7. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.02122.x
- 303. Perez EA, Kassira N, Cheung MC, Koniaris LG, Neville HL, Sola JE. Rhabdomyosarcoma in children: a SEER population based study. J Surg Res. (2011) 170: e243 – 51. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2011.03.001
- 304. Walsh PM, Byrne J, Capra M, Comber H. Childhood cancer survival in Ireland: temporal, regional and deprivation-related patterns. Eur J Cancer. (2011) 47: 1852 – 62. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2011.03.021
- 305. Youlden DR, Baade PD, Valery PC, Ward LJ, Green AC, Aitken JF. Differentials in survival for childhood cancer in Australia by remoteness of residence and area disadvantage. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. (2011) 20: 1649 – 56. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-11-0432
- 306. Baade PD, Youlden DR, Valery PC, Hassall T, Ward L, Green AC. Population-based survival estimates for childhood cancer in Australia during the period 1997-2006. Br J Cancer. (2010) 103: 1663 – 70. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6605985
- 307. Peris-Bonet R, Salmerón D, Martínez-Beneito MA, Galceran J, Marcos-Gragera R, Felipe S. Childhood cancer incidence and survival in Spain. Ann Oncol. (2010) 21 (Suppl 3): iii103 – 10. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdq092
- 308. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, Ries LA, Melbert DL, O'Leary M. Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol. (2010) 28: 2625 – 34. doi:10.1200/JCO.2009.27.0421
- 309. Sultan I, Qaddoumi I, Rodríguez-Galindo C, Nassan AA, Ghandour K, Al-Hussaini M. Age, stage, and radiotherapy, but not primary tumor site, affects the outcome of patients with malignant rhabdoid tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer. (2010) 54: 35 – 40. doi:10.1002/pbc.22285
- 310. Ellison LF De P, Mery LS, Grundy PE; Canadian Cancer Society's Steering Committee for Canadian Cancer Statistics. Canadian cancer statistics at a glance: cancer in children. CMAJ. (2009) 180: 422 – 4. doi:10.1503/cmaj.081155
- 311. Juárez-Ocaña S, Palma-Padilla V, González-Miranda G, Siordia-Reyes AG, López-Aguilar E, Aguilar-Martínez M. Epidemiological and some clinical characteristics of neuroblastoma in Mexican children (1996-2005). BMC Cancer. (2009) 9: 266. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-9-266
- 312. Pulte D, Gondos A, Brenner H. Trends in 5- and 10-year survival after diagnosis with childhood hematologic malignancies in the United States, 1990-2004. J Natl Cancer Inst. (2008) 100: 1301 – 9. doi:10.1093/jnci/djn276
- 313. Spix C, Spallek J, Kaatsch P, Razum O, Zeeb H. Cancer survival among children of Turkish descent in Germany 1980-2005: a registry-based analysis. BMC Cancer. (2008) 8: 355. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-8-355
- 314. Ellison LF, Pogany L, Mery LS. Childhood and adolescent cancer survival: a period analysis of data from the Canadian Cancer Registry. Eur J Cancer. (2007) 43: 1967 – 75. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2007.05.014
- 315. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Field Listing - Age Structure. (2025). Available online at: (Accessed January 22, 2025).
- 316. World Bank Data helpdesk. World Bank Country and Lending Groups. (2025). Available online at: (Accessed January 24, 2025).
- 317. Human Development Reports. Human Development Index. (2022). Available online at: (Accessed January 22, 2025).
- 318. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Global Cancer Observatory. Cancer Today. Data & Methods. (2025). Available online at: (Accessed January 24, 2025).
- 319. Parkin DM, Jemal A, Bray F, Korir AR, Kamaté B, Singh E., editors. Ca ncer in Sub-Saharan Africa, Volume III. Geneva: Union for International Cancer Control (2019).
- 320. Adair T, Mikkelsen L, Hooper J, Badr A, Lopez AD. Assessing the policy utility of routine mortality statistics: a global classification of countries. Bull World Health Organ. (2023) 101: 777 – 85. doi:10.2471/BLT.22.289036
Citation
Stiller, C. A. (2025). Global population-based childhood cancer survival in the 21st century: a scoping review. Frontiers in Cancer Control and Society, Volume 3. https://doi.org/
- Received
- Accepted
- Published
- Volume
- 3 - 2025
Copyright
Copyright © 2025 Stiller.
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
*Correspondence: Charles A. Stiller
Article metrics
- Views
- 0
- Downloads
- 0
- Citations
- 0
- Shares
- 0
Related articles
Original ResearchAdvanced stage at diagnosis and aggressive histology dominate prostate cancer presentation in Kenya: a registry analysisCharles Waihenya, Daniel Kinyuru Ojuka, Camille Ragin, Charnita Zeigler-Johnson, Regina Wachuka Mbugua, S. M. ThumbiOriginal ResearchChildhood cancer incidence, survival and mortality patterns in Argentina, 2000–2022: from the Argentine Oncopediatric Registry (ROHA)Florencia Moreno, Maria Agustina Chaplin, Mariana Nana, María Graciela AbriataOriginal ResearchFactors associated with breast self-examination practice among female medical students in selected universities in Borama, SomalilandNafisa Abdihamid Mohamed, Khadar Mowlid Abdi, Vitalis Okoth Odero, Hodo Abdikarim