How to define and promote flourishing in children in the context of early childhood education and care

Introduction

Positive psychology has garnered the attention of numerous researchers with its intention to study what makes life worth living (e.g., Gable and Haidt, 2005; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Its purpose is to rebalance between psychological illbeing and wellbeing, thriving even in suffering (Kern and Wehmeyer, 2021). In terms of children, introducing positive psychology to child development is also to rebalance between research on reducing social emotional difficulties and promoting optimal functioning (Baker et al., 2017). This perspective of positive psychology focuses not only on promoting social emotional skills but also viewing children with their strengths in emotions (e.g., hope, happiness), personalities (e.g., curiosity, kindness), and environment (e.g., resilience programs, wellbeing curricula). Moreover, research in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) has been focusing on school readiness instead of what makes childhood worth experiencing (Dahlberg et al., 2013). It suggests that there is a need to rebalance also academic preparation in ECEC and children's early childhood strengths and experiences. Furthermore, even though it is well acknowledged in developmental psychology that childhood experiences have a long-term impact on mental health and wellbeing of humans (e.g., Barry and Kochanska, 2010), the focus is on reducing child difficulties and intervening environmental risk factors instead of promoting strengths and creating positive environment (Chaves, 2021). Hence, bringing the perspective of positive psychology into child development is an attempt to draw attention to positive child characteristics and environment, not as a low level of negative functioning, but for its own intrinsic value for flourishing. In the context of ECEC, integrating positive psychology is particularly important as educators are like “gardeners” who must first learn about the characteristics of their seeds and cultivate rich developmental soil in which children can grow and flourish.

Definition of a flourishing child

According to (Seligman 2011), flourishing is not a single latent construct but a multidimensional concept. Flourishing individual is one with high level of perceived happiness, engagement in life, fulfillment of strengths, mental health, and contribution to the community. (Butler and Kern 2016) operationalized and measured flourishing from the five domains proposed by (Seligman 2011): Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment (PERMA). Nonetheless, the operationalized definition and the measure targets adult population and not suitable for children especially in the early childhood.

Drawing on established positive psychology traditions, which conceptualize flourishing through positive emotions, traits, and institutions (Donaldson et al., 2015), and the PERMA framework proposed by (Seligman 2011), child flourishing is understood as a multidimensional construct reflecting optimal development, arising from the interaction between individual-level positive psychological resources, the positive emotions and traits, and children's experiences within ECEC settings. This perspective reflects an ecological and developmental understanding of child wellbeing, in which children's lived experiences and environments are inseparable from their developmental outcomes (see the adapted framework in Figure 1).

(Seligman 2011) conceptualizes positive emotions through a temporal structure, distinguishing between past, present, and future-oriented positive states. Within this framework, subjective wellbeing is associated with past-oriented positive experience and refers to children's overall perception of their quality of life, mental health, daily functioning, and life circumstances. Gratitude, in contrast, is conceptualized as a present-focused positive emotion. It refers to a general sense of appreciation toward one's current relationships, possessions, and surrounding environment (Fredrickson, 2004). Hope is conceptualized as a future-oriented positive emotional state, characterized by a general sense of positive anticipation and trust in uncertain future outcomes (Feldman and Jazaieri, 2024). It involves affective expectations of the future and is closely linked to feelings of optimism and forward-looking emotional orientation (Martin, 2011). Finally, they may be influenced by shared underlying value systems or accumulated life experiences. However, they are conceptually distinct. This distinction is apparent in their temporal orientation, with subjective wellbeing focused on the past, gratitude centered on the present and hope oriented toward the future.

Many previous studies in the ECEC have focused on the development and effects of positive affect. While such affective states are valuable indicators of children's wellbeing, they are often transient and context-dependent, reflecting short-term emotional responses rather than enduring psychological resources. In contrast, constructs such as life satisfaction, gratitude, and hopefulness represent more general and relatively stable positive experiences. As such, they can be more appropriately conceptualized as individual-level positive psychological assets that contribute to children's longer-term development and flourishing.

In the investigation of positive traits, the characteristics of a flourishing individuals are typically conceptualized as enduring, stable, and strength-based attributes, such as character strengths, psychological resilience, and general self-efficacy (Chaves, 2021). Character strengths refer to a classification of 24 distinct positive traits identified by (Peterson and Seligman 2004). These traits represent virtues examined from a psychological perspective rather than from philosophical or religious traditions. As children differ in how these virtues are expressed, they are conceptualized as character strengths, reflecting relatively stable patterns in how they think, feel, and behave (Park and Peterson, 2006b). Common examples include bravery, kindness, and persistence. Psychological resilience is similarly regarded as a positive trait, referring to children's capacity to adapt and recover from adversity. Some children demonstrate a greater ability to “bounce back” from challenges and even thrive in disadvantaged contexts (Seligman et al., 2009). This capacity may be supported by both environmental protective factors and internal adaptive mechanisms (Masten and Reed, 2002). When resilience is observed as relatively stable across contexts and over time, it is often conceptualized as a dispositional trait, referred to as general resilience (Hu et al., 2015). Self-efficacy represents another key positive trait, referring to individuals' beliefs in their capacity to successfully perform tasks, regardless of their actual competence (Seligman et al., 2009). While self-efficacy can be context-specific, it may also manifest as a more generalized and stable disposition (Harvey and Delfabbro, 2004). In this trait-like form, it reflects a pervasive sense of confidence in one's ability to manage a range of life challenges. Overall, positive traits encompass a range of relatively stable individual characteristics that contribute to adaptive functioning and are commonly associated with flourishing.

Empirical research in child development has frequently focused on outcomes such as prosocial behavior, social-emotional competencies, and positive relationships (e.g., Davis and Suveg, 2014; Durlak et al., 2011; Franchin et al., 2019). While these constructs are important indicators of children's positive functioning, they are more appropriately understood as expressions or outcomes of flourishing rather than its underlying characteristics. Similar to positive affect, they tend to capture observable behaviors or competencies that may be context-dependent, rather than enduring psychological resources. A key distinction can be drawn between character strengths theory and social and emotional learning frameworks. Character strengths theory emphasizes individual differences, focusing on strengths that are personally meaningful and expressed according to individual preferences. In contrast, SEL frameworks typically promote a set of standardized competencies considered universally important for development. While both perspectives offer valuable insights, the emphasis on individuality within character strengths theory aligns more closely with the conceptualization of flourishing as rooted in personal values, interests, and authentic self-expression. For this reason, character strengths are included in the present review as a core component of individual-level positive psychological resources.

Finally, the study of positive institutions emphasizes the role of environmental contexts and relationships in shaping individuals' experiences, influencing their thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and the development of values and routines (Seligman et al., 2009). In adult populations, constructs such as organizational wellbeing and mindfulness are commonly examined to promote positive everyday experiences. Extending this perspective to education, (Seligman et al. 2009) argue that flourishing can be taught, positioning contemporary education as a key context for fostering children's strengths and supporting meaningful development. While contextual factors are acknowledged as central to child development, this review focuses specifically on children's experiences within ECEC settings by examining the effectiveness of positive educational programs that target preschool experiences and peer interactions. Broader contextual influences, such as parenting practices and family environment, were excluded to maintain a clear analytical focus and to reduce conceptual and methodological heterogeneity across studies.

In conclusion, the categorization of positive emotions, traits, and experiences provides operationalized definition for a flourishing individual with dimensions: subjective wellbeing (also referred as happiness or life satisfaction), gratitude, hope, character strengths, resilience, self-efficacy, and their learning experiences at school. They are enduring, stable, and underlying mechanisms that explain individual behaviors, affects, cognitive processes.

Broaden-and-built theory and undoing hypotheses

The value of shifting from the traditional deficit-based model to the child flourishing constructs and the strength-based education model can be demonstrated based on the broaden-and-built theory and undoing hypothesis. According to the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001), positive emotions expand individuals' momentary thought–action repertoires and contribute to the accumulation of enduring personal resources. In addition, the undoing hypothesis (Fredrickson et al., 2000) suggests that positive psychological processes can buffer against negative emotions and reduce maladaptive responses. Emerging evidence indicates that constructs such as character strengths, subjective wellbeing, and psychological resilience may exhibit similar broaden-and-build and undoing effects in children (Shoshani, 2019; Tok and Unal, 2020). Building on this theoretical perspective, child flourishing can be understood as arising from psychological resources that both promote adaptive functioning (e.g., social-emotional competence, mental health, and learning) and reduce negative developmental outcomes (e.g., child difficulties, mental or physical disorders, and learning difficulties). Accordingly, this review seeks to address the following question: to what extent do key child flourishing constructs—namely subjective wellbeing, gratitude, hope, character strengths, psychological resilience, self-efficacy, and positive education—demonstrate broaden-and-build and undoing effects in early childhood, particularly in relation to the development of social-emotional and academic skills and the reduction of child difficulties?

Present study

As the ECEC settings play a critical role in fostering positive emotions, supporting the development of positive traits, and providing environments that enable positive experiences, there is a clear need to equip educators with a robust, research-informed knowledge base to support a strength-based approach to education. In response to this need, the present study aims to systematically map the existing literature across key constructs of child flourishing, summarize their conceptualizations and measurement approaches, and identify gaps in the current evidence base. Specifically, this review examines how these constructs are defined, operationalized, and studied, as well as their associated factors and their potential broaden-and-build and undoing effects. In doing so, it seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of the field and to inform future research on child flourishing in early childhood contexts.

Methods

This scoping review was conducted following the guidelines of PRISMA-ScR (Tricco et al., 2018). It is intended to identify the nature and map the evidence of seven flourishing dimensions: subjective wellbeing, gratitude, hope, character strengths, resilience, self-efficacy, and positive education. An initial literature search was conducted via EBSCOhost across the following databases: APA PsycInfo, APA PsycArticles, ERIC, Family and Society Studies Worldwide, and Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. The search for the studies was finalized on October 1st, 2024. A total of seven independent searches were performed, with one search conducted for each concept. The search strings are available in the Appendix. The initial search was restricted to full-text available articles to facilitate efficient screening and in-depth examination of eligible studies. While this may introduce some limitations in comprehensiveness, additional relevant studies identified through forward citation searching and backward reference list screening were subsequently included to enhance coverage. Finally, as searches were conducted across conceptual domains, some records were identified more than once and were removed during deduplication.

All studies were screened and considered here if the following eligibility criteria were met. First, studies should be published in peer-reviewed academic journals from 1970 to 2024. Second, studies should be written in English. Excel sorting and filtering functions were used for identifying duplicates and non-peer-reviewed journal articles. Given that the present study is situated within the ECEC context—where children begin to participate in wellbeing interventions and can, to some extent, articulate experiences such as happiness and gratitude—the population was restricted to children aged three to 6 years. This also helps reduce variability in measurement proximity, as studies involving younger children rely almost exclusively on proxy or observational measures, whereas research in this age group increasingly incorporates more direct and developmentally appropriate assessments, even when multiple informants (e.g., parents, teachers) are used. As a result, search strings included preschool, early childhood, and kindergarten for identifying the relevant studies.

Study screening and eligibility

The titles and abstracts of each identified study was examined in detail. Studies focusing primarily on low levels of resilience, vulnerability, or risk were excluded, as they reflect deficit-oriented frameworks. This review adopts a strengths-based perspective, aiming to map constructs that contribute to positive functioning and flourishing in early childhood rather than those associated with maladaptation or adversity. Second, the keywords must be investigated as a psychological construct. Many articles used flourishing concepts in a general or colloquial manner (e.g., “we hope that,” “we express gratitude toward,” “for the wellbeing of our future generation”) rather than being operationalized or investigated as a psychological construct. Those studies were not included for further screening. Third, the studies investigating flourishing in parents or teachers were excluded (especially popular in self-efficacy, wellbeing, and intervention studies in ECE).

Given that the constructs in this research are not technical terminologies, but rather common concepts, the search returned studies with vague and inconsistent definitions of concepts such as life satisfaction and resilience, which required a detailed screening of abstracts and full texts for including the relevant studies. For example, subjective wellbeing is often referred as life satisfaction or perceived happiness, all meaning enduring stable positive sense of children in their schools, family, peers and material possessions. Nevertheless, they are distinct from positive affect, which is a situational reaction to activities or hypothetic situations, often studied together with anger, scared as a short-term reaction. These studies often present happiness as the opposite of fear or sadness, therefore mostly easy to identify in the abstracts. In the present study, abstracts and titles that indicate the research investigating positive affect even though labeled as happiness, they are excluded. In addition, resilience is often studied in situations such as trauma or family risk factors. The keyword was chosen carefully as psychological or emotional resilience to avoid search records that investigates the environment of ECE or past ECE traumas of adults. The search results were examined carefully to make sure children's resilient characteristics were discussed in the studies. The details of studies identified and included for full text screening are given in the PRISMA-ScR flow chart, displayed in Figure 2. The PRISMA was combined for seven concepts search results. Quantitative, qualitative, mixed-method, and reviews studies were included to understand the nature of the concepts with different research methods.

Full text screening

The full text screening focused on verifying availability of the data or descriptions on the flourishing constructs for children aged from three to six. The studies that didn't report information separately for preschool children was excluded. The studies that included both parents/teachers and children while didn't report any child specific characteristics were excluded and coded as parents/teachers focused. The definition and operationalization of the concepts was further evaluated with the measurement used. Constructs measured with questions reflecting general perceptions or including multiple situations and time points to reflect a stable observation were categorized as flourishing constructs. The studies under hope, especially with the keyword positive anticipation, returned results were mainly about child temperament. Even though temperament is an enduring stable characteristic of children, the questions measured positive anticipation as opposite to frustration and anger toward a new or upcoming events (e.g., Deater-Deckard et al., 2010). As this does not meet the criteria of being a positive enduring orientation toward future, they were later excluded and coded as conceptual misalignment. Finally, some studies are included under multiple concepts or reclassified with the consideration of the focus of the study (e.g., studies that investigated the connections between flourishing concepts). The number of studies included under each dimension is presented in Figure 3.

Data extraction and analysis

A total amount of studies included in the review is 68 (references marked with an asterisk in the reference list indicate studies included in the review). A narrative synthesis was conducted to examine patterns in how constructs were defined, measured, and empirically investigated across studies. Particular attention was given to developmental trajectories, associated factors, and evidence supporting broaden-and-build and undoing effects, enabling the identification of key trends and gaps. Six types of data were extracted for each study: the type of studies, the method of analyses, the measurement involved, the characteristics of the sample, the role of the concept, and the associated factors investigated in the paper.

The type of studies includes “Longitudinal,” “Experiments,” “Survey,” “Interview,” “Interventions,” and “Review.” The intervention studies were reported with the implemented country in the parenthesis if available. The method of analyses includes “Quan.” referring to quantitative analyses, “Qual.” for qualitative analyses, or “Mixed” for studies applied both. The measure reports the specific name of the scale or coded as “Original” if it is developed for the specific context of research, with the available language if reported to be other than English. For studies without measuring the construct with an instrumental tool, the method used to obtain data of the concept is coded, such as “Observation” or “Narrative.” Information on the country of studies was not systematically extracted, as the focus of this review was on the conceptualization and measurement of constructs rather than cross-cultural comparisons. Country context was reported only where it was directly relevant to the language or adaptation of measurement instruments, where studies explicitly included cross-country comparisons, or for educational programs, for which the country of origin was noted given the potential relevance of the educational system to the interpretation and application of findings. The sample characteristics indicates with the study targets a general population (coded as “General”) or a specific population. There are studies targeting high/low social economical statues of children, children with special needs, children from certain disadvantaged minority groups. The role of the concept is coded as “Descriptive” for reports, meaning making, and theorizing studies; “Associated factors” if it's associations with other concepts are studied; “Outcome” if it was examined, theorized, or perceived as an outcome; “Mixed” if multiple roles were investigated.

As for associated factor, when variables other than the concept variable was investigated, particularly in relation to the concept variable, they were coded. When there are more than three associated variables, the variables in the summary table are synthesized based on the latent construct intended to measure. Demographic variables were extracted only when they were explicitly analyzed in relation to the constructs of interest. If the associated variable is investigating as an outcome of the child flourishing concept, then whether the flourishing concept's role in child development is broaden-and-built or undoing is also coded. It is coded as broaden-and-built (2B) if the concept is claimed to contribute to the developing of a desired outcome or undoing if it is claimed to reduce an outcome that has negative impact on children.

Under the concept of positive education, wellbeing programs, resilience programs, and character educations were included as they intend to provide positive learning experiences for children especially focusing on the flourishing constructs such as resilience and character strengths (Campbell and Løkken, 2022). They are qualified to be positive educational programs if they are long-term, embedded in curricula, investigated without targeting one specific outcome. Otherwise, they are reclassified under their target concept as an intervention. For example, the study of (Ashdown and Bernard 2012) was originally listed under resilience. However, the resilience concept was embedded in an intervention which was not directly analyzed. Nevertheless, it is a long-term program merged into regular curricula of schools. It is qualified as a program while not an intervention targeting resilience. Thus, it was moved to positive education session. To sum up, where discrepancies were identified, constructs were reclassified to reflect their underlying conceptual alignment. A formal risk-of-bias assessment was not undertaken, as this review followed a scoping methodology aimed at mapping the extent, range, and characteristics of the evidence base rather than critically appraising study quality. This approach is consistent with established guidance for scoping reviews (Tricco et al., 2018), where quality assessment is not a mandatory component.

Results

Subjective wellbeing (SWB)

A total of 15 studies examining SWB were included in the final review, the majority of which were published after 2015, suggesting relatively recent and increasing scholarly attention to this construct. Most studies conceptualized SWB using either multidimensional or unidimensional approaches. Multidimensional measures typically incorporated domains such as interpersonal relationships, emotional experiences, material conditions, and school-related factors, reflecting a holistic understanding of wellbeing. In contrast, unidimensional approaches focused on general or global evaluation of wellbeing, which might better capture children's general perception of life (e.g., Dinh and Robinson, 2023). However, this led to a considerable variability in both measurement approaches and study designs. Moreover, measurement strategies were often tailored to specific research designs, further contributing to heterogeneity and limiting direct comparability across studies. As a result, there is limited evidence to suggest a standardized definition of the subject wellbeing and provide comprehensive knowledge on its development in the ECEC context.

Across studies, SWB was predominantly examined as an outcome variable in relation to a range of associated factors that suggest causality, with comparatively less emphasis on its determinants. A smaller subset of longitudinal and quasi-experimental intervention studies provided evidence suggestive of directional relationships. Longitudinal studies indicate a degree of stability in SWB over time, with early childhood levels associated with later outcomes. Evidence from one longitudinal study indicates that school attendance is associated with later SWB, a relationship further supported by qualitative accounts, though not sufficient to establish causality. Peer relationships were identified as contributing to SWB in qualitative accounts, suggesting a potential causal role. In contrast, there is a relative lack of quantitative research to empirically test and validate these relationships, indicating a gap in the literature. Other associated factors are summarized in Table 1. Regarding the effects of demographic variables such as age and gender were reported inconsistently across studies, suggesting a lack of consensus regarding their role in shaping children's SWB. However, questions such as how SWB influences children's experience of gratitude, their expression of character strengths and resilience, their engagement and interest in school activities are unanswered. Finally, some studies focused on specific populations, including children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and children on the autism spectrum. While this indicates emerging attention to contextual and developmental differences, such groups remain relatively underrepresented in the literature. This inconsistency, alongside the variability in measurement approaches, highlights the need for more standardized frameworks and robust empirical investigation in future research.

Table 1. Summary of studies under subjective wellbeing (SWB).

^aU, undoing effect of the construct; 2B, the broaden and built effect of the construct.

^b“+” indicates significant positive associations between the construct and the associated factors, “−” for significant negative ones, indicated in bold for better visualizations.

PedsQL 4.0, the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory 4.0 Generic; BMSLSS, Brief Multidimensional Students' Life Satisfaction Scale; CS, character strengths; SES, social economical statues.

Gratitude

A total of seven studies examining gratitude were included in the final review (see details in Table 2), the majority of which were published after 2015, indicating relatively recent and increasing scholarly attention to this construct. In contrast to the literature SWB, they included studies demonstrated a higher degree of methodological consistency, with most employing longitudinal or experimental designs and relying predominantly on quantitative analyses. This relative homogeneity has contributed to a more consistent understanding of the developmental stages of gratitude in early childhood. Across studies, there is general agreement that children's expressions of gratitude develop rapidly between the ages of three and five. Moreover, there is consistent evidence of a positive association between age and gratitude (supported by longitudinal studies), suggesting a stable developmental trajectory and highlighting the importance of supporting gratitude development within ECEC. Lastly, the effects of gender were reported consistently, with most studies indicating no significant differences.

Table 2. Summary of studies under gratitude.

^aU, undoing effect of the construct; 2B, the broaden and built effect of the construct.

^b“+” indicates significant positive associations between the construct and the associated factors, “−” for significant negative ones, indicated in bold.

DGSC, parent-report of Child's Daily Gratitude Scale in Chinese; GQ-6, The Gratitude Questionnaire-Six Item Form; ToM, theory of mind, SES, social economical states.

Despite this consistency, limitations are evident in both methodological and conceptual scope. The predominance of quantitative approaches restricts insight into children's subjective experiences of gratitude, highlighting a need for greater use of qualitative and mixed methods designs. In addition, measurement approaches tend to focus primarily on the socialization aspects of gratitude, with relatively few studies adopting broader or more generalized conceptualisations (e.g., global expressions of thankfulness). This suggests that gratitude is currently operationalized within a relatively narrow conceptual framework, potentially limiting the scope of findings.

Gratitude has been examined both as an outcome and as a contributing factor. Consistent with the broaden-and-build theory, studies have identified positive associations between gratitude and developmental outcomes, including prosocial behavior and inhibitory control (supported by longitudinal evidence), as well as perceived happiness (examined cross-sectionally but theoretically framed as directional). Notably, none of the included studies examined potential “undoing effects” of gratitude, such as its role in reducing maladaptive or problem behaviors. This absence may reflect the field's primary focus on the interpersonal processes. Factors associated with the development of gratitude have been explored to varying degrees, with particular emphasis on children's cognitive functioning. There are also few mentioning of parenting practices, emotional knowledge, and sociocultural context. However, the included studies largely focused on general populations, with limited attention to groups with distinct contextual or developmental characteristics. As a result, the generalizability of findings remains constrained, indicating a need for future research to examine gratitude across more diverse populations. Overall, the literature demonstrates a high degree of methodological and conceptual homogeneity which, while supporting consistency in findings, may also limit the breadth of current understanding.

Hopefulness

Only two studies met the inclusion criteria for hopefulness in early childhood, reflecting a notably underdeveloped area of research. One of the studies is a case study of how a child might use the concept and discusses the meaning of hope in the ECE (Montgomery, 2017) and the other is a survey study comparing children with and without developmental coordination disorder (Liberman et al., 2013). These two studies provide different definitions of hope, as (Liberman et al. 2013) focuses on agency related emotion whereas Montgomery proposes hope to be a multidimensional emotion. This limited evidence base restricts meaningful synthesis and precludes firm conclusions regarding the conceptualization, measurement, and developmental patterns of hopefulness in this population.

Character strengths (CS)

A total of 16 studies examining CS were included in the final review (see Table 3), the majority of which were published after 2010, indicating increasing scholarly attention to strength-based approaches to child development within ECE. The included studies were predominantly descriptive and intervention-based, with a primary focus on the meaning making of the virtues and implementation of strength-based programs. In contrast, comparatively less attention has been given to the developmental trajectories and underlying mechanisms of CS in early childhood.

Table 3. Summary of studies under character strengths (CS).

^aU, undoing effect of the construct; 2B, the broaden and built effect of the construct.

^b“+” indicates significant positive associations between the construct and the associated factors, “−” for significant negative ones, indicated in bold.

CSI-EC, Character Strengths Inventory for Early Childhood; SES, social economical states.

Only one study focused on scale development, suggesting a lack of standardized operationalization and measurement within the field. This limitation may have contributed to the relative scarcity of developmental research, as inconsistent or underdeveloped measurement tools constrain systematic investigation. Consistent with this, many studies relied on qualitative analyses, particularly to capture feedback following interventions and to explore perceived outcomes. While these approaches provide valuable contextual insights into how CS may be expressed and supported in early childhood, they would benefit from complementary quantitative analyses to enable more rigorous testing and generalization of findings. In terms of sample characteristics, most studies focused on general populations, with only one study examining children on the autism spectrum. This indicates limited attention to children with diverse developmental or contextual needs, highlighting a gap in the literature.

Strength-based interventions have been associated with improvements in outcomes such as second language learning, and higher levels of observed CS were linked to greater positive emotional experiences, SWB, and prosocial behaviors. Additionally, CS were associated with fewer social-emotional difficulties. These findings are broadly consistent with the broaden-and-built theory and the undoing hypothesis, suggesting their potential applicability to CS in child development. Relatively few studies examined the association with demographic factors such as age and gender. Where investigated, findings suggest a generally positive association between age and the development of CS, indicating potential developmental growth across the early childhood period. In contrast, evidence regarding gender differences was inconsistent and limited, precluding firm conclusions.

Psychological resilience

A total of 10 studies examining psychological resilience were included in the final review (see Table 4 for details). The Devereux Early Childhood Assessment for Early Childhood (DECA) was commonly used across the studies. According to this measure, child resilience is a multidimensional construct comprising initiative, self-regulation, and attachment. Notably, studies conducted in China frequently focused on the resilience of “left behind” children in rural areas, whose parents migrate to urban centers for work. While this body of research provides valuable insights into resilience within a specific sociocultural context, it also limits the generalizability of findings to broader populations. Such factors may constrain its broader adoption across different research contexts. Similar to the literature on positive emotions and character strengths, most studies were published within the last decade, indicating that resilience research in early childhood remains a developing field. In contrast to some other constructs, however, resilience appears to be more consistently operationalized, with studies largely focusing on its underlying developmental mechanisms. Nevertheless, most studies employed cross-sectional survey designs which is not sufficient for casual inference.

Table 4. Summary of studies under resilience.

^aU, undoing effect of the construct; 2B, the broaden and built effect of the construct.

^b“+” indicates significant positive associations between the construct and the associated factors, “−” for negative ones, indicated in bold.

DECA-P2, The Devereux Early Childhood Assessment for Preschoolers Second Edition; DECA-C, The Devereux Early Childhood Assessment for Clinical; ECRS, Early Childhood Resilience Scale; SSWR-PC, Scale of Socio-emotional Wellbeing and Resilience in Preschool Children.

The included studies examined resilience both as an outcome and as associated factor, as reported in Table 4. Resilience was positively associated with a range of developmental outcomes, including mathematics and science skills, prosocial behaviors, and healthier dietary habits. In addition, resilience demonstrated stronger support for the undoing hypothesis compared to other constructs, with evidence linking it to reductions in sleep problems and other behavioral difficulties. A range of relevant factors for resilience were identified, including family factors and children's social emotional and cognitive competences. These findings suggest potential connection between resilience and certain CS (e.g., social intelligence, persistence, love of learning), indicating avenues for further integrative research. Most studies also included demographic variables such as age, gender, and number of siblings as covariates. Findings consistently indicated no significant effect of gender on resilience, while the effects of age and sibling number were mixed and inconclusive. Overall, although the existing literature provides important insights into the mechanisms and outcomes of resilience in early childhood, the evidence base remains limited to cross-sectional studies. Further research is needed to examine the casual relationships between resilience and child outcomes such as mental health and child difficulties and its relation to other flourishing constructs such as SWB and CS.

Self-efficacy

A total of 13 studies examining self-efficacy were included in the final review (see details in Table 5). The included studies employed a range of research designs (majority being interventions and cross-sectional research), incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches. In terms of sample characteristics, most studies focused on general populations, although a small number examined disadvantaged groups, including children from low socioeconomic backgrounds and those with mild motor disabilities. Compared to other flourishing-related constructs, this has resulted in a relatively comprehensive body of knowledge on self-efficacy in early childhood. However, studies aiming to identify associated factors of self-efficacy were predominantly qualitative, which, while offering valuable contextual insights, provides limited empirical evidence for establishing robust relationships. Moreover, considerable variability exists in how self-efficacy is measured, with each study employing distinct instruments. This lack of standardization limits comparability across studies and constrains the accumulation of consistent evidence.

Table 5. Summary of studies under self-efficacy.

^aU, undoing effect of the construct; 2B, the broaden and built effect of the construct.

^b“+” indicates significant positive associations between the construct and the associated factors, “−” for negative ones, indicated in bold.

GSE, General Self-Efficacy Scale; S-EDI, Short Early Development Instrument; SPSCS, Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children; CSEAQ, The Children's Self-Efficacy Assessment Questionnaire; STEM, Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math Subjects; SES, social economical statues.

Across studies, self-efficacy has been investigated as both an outcome and a variable associated with other constructs. Overall, findings provide preliminarily support for both the broaden-and-build theory and the undoing hypothesis through observed associations consistent with its predictions. However, research has primarily focused on the role of self-efficacy in academic performance, with less attention given to other developmental domains. Evidence suggests that higher levels of self-efficacy are associated with greater participation in a range of activities across both general and special populations. These activities may, in turn, serve as important resources for learning, health, and broader development. Among the associated factors examined, family-related factors emerged as the most consistently identified, although the longitudinal study didn't find significant result, suggesting a potential importance role for supportive relationships and attachment in the development of children's self-efficacy. In contrast, studies generally reported no significant association between emotional regulation and self-efficacy, suggesting that self-efficacy may represent a more complex construct that is not solely determined by emotional or cognitive processes. Furthermore, there is limited evidence regarding the impact of demographic variables such as gender, age, and socioeconomic status, with findings remaining sparse and inconclusive. Overall, although the literature provides valuable insights into the role and development of self-efficacy, further research is needed to establish more consistent measurement approaches and to strengthen the empirical evidence base across diverse populations and contexts.

Positive education

A total of 17 studies examining positive education were included in the final review (see Table 6). The majority of these studies focused on school-based programs implemented across various international contexts, aimed at promoting children's wellbeing and positive development. Intervention activities commonly included reading, teamwork, problem-solving, community service, and music, suggesting that positive education programs frequently utilize interactive and creative approaches to engage children. The full names of the programs and the implemented countries are provided in the Table 6.

Table 6. Summary of studies under positive education.

^aU, undoing effect of the construct; 2B, the broaden and built effect of the construct, “+” indicates significant positive associations, “−” for negative ones, in bold.

The included studies primarily evaluated the effectiveness of these interventions on a range of positive psychological assets, as well as related outcomes such as social skills, prosocial behaviors, and communication abilities. Overall, findings are consistent with both the broaden-and-build theory and the undoing hypothesis, indicating that Quasi-experimental positive education interventions suggest improvements in developmental outcomes and reductions in certain behavioral or emotional difficulties. These results suggest the potential value of strength-based educational approaches in providing children flourishing experiences.

In terms of sample characteristics, most studies were conducted in developed countries and focused on general populations. Only a limited number of studies examined more diverse or disadvantaged contexts, including one study conducted in a low socioeconomic setting and another focusing on children with elevated anxiety levels. This suggests that the current evidence base may have limited generalizability across different populations and sociocultural contexts. Few studies examined the interaction between intervention effects and demographic variables such as gender. Where investigated, findings generally indicated no significant differences; however, the available evidence remains limited and inconclusive. In conclusion, despite promising findings, further research is needed to strengthen the evidence base, particularly across more diverse populations and contexts.

Discussions

The present article has provided a conceptualization of child flourishing in early childhood education and care context (ECEC) from the perspective of positive psychology and mapped empirical studies in the corresponded seven flourishing dimensions: subjective wellbeing, gratitude, character strengths, resilience, self-efficacy, and positive education. An important characteristic of the current review is its focused examination of positive ECEC experiences as they are operationalized through practices and interventions targeting individual psychological resources. We identified interventions that aim to support child flourishing through activities that target themes related to promoting individual psychological resources, such as teamwork, project-based learning, nature, and artistic expression. These activities were linked to improving teacher–child and peer relationships and fostering positive classroom climates. The findings of this review support the conceptualization of child flourishing in ECEC as a multidimensional construct constituted by both individual-level psychological resources and children's flourishing experiences in the ECEC. Across studies, psychological resources showed patterns suggestive of developmental stability and were consistently associated with positive child outcomes, such as prosocial behavior, social-emotional competence, and engagement in learning.

The findings of this review provide evidence consistent with both the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001) and the undoing hypothesis (Fredrickson et al., 2000) within early childhood contexts. Across several constructs, including character strengths, psychological resilience, gratitude, and self-efficacy, there is consistent evidence that these psychological resources are associated with enhanced positive functioning, such as increased prosocial behaviors, social-emotional competencies, and engagement in learning activities. These patterns align with the broaden-and-build proposition that positive psychological resources expand children's behavioral repertoires and contribute to the accumulation of enduring developmental assets. In addition, a smaller but notable body of evidence supports the undoing hypothesis, with studies indicating that these resources may buffer against negative outcomes, including behavioral difficulties, emotional distress, and maladjustment. This effect appears to be most consistently observed in research on resilience and character strengths, where reductions in child difficulties were more explicitly examined. However, across the broader literature, the undoing effect remains underexplored. Importantly, the evidence base is largely indirect, as most studies examined associations with positive or negative outcomes rather than explicitly testing the theoretical mechanisms proposed by these frameworks. Future research would benefit from more theory-driven longitudinal designs that can provide integrated understanding of how children flourish, meaning “how” positive psychological resources support “which” domains of child development.

Furthermore, few studies have directly examined the relationships among key flourishing constructs, such as gratitude, character strengths, and subjective wellbeing. Some studies have explored these constructs indirectly, for example through links between character strengths and resilience. Notably, although self-efficacy is widely recognized as a protective factor contributing to the development of resilience (Goldstein and Brooks, 2005), we did not identify studies that explicitly examine the relationship between these two constructs in early childhood. This gap may reflect a research focus on situational self-efficacy or on older age groups. Overall, the existing evidence remains limited, fragmented, and lacks coherence. The proposed conceptual framework provides a basis for future research to more systematically investigate these associations.

Some measurement tools identified in the literature demonstrate strong alignment with broader conceptualisations of the construct. For example, instruments such as the Gratitude Questionnaire-6 items (GQ-6) capture multiple dimensions of gratitude beyond immediate social interactions, offering a more comprehensive operationalization. This observation is supported by (Froh et al. 2011) which identified three measures of gratitude that capture a broader conceptualization of the construct. Similar examples include Brief Multidimensional Students' Life Satisfaction Scale (BMSLASS; Shoshani and Slone, 2017) for life satisfaction and General Self-efficacy Scale (GSS; Sticca et al., 2020) for self-efficacy. Despite these strengths, their use in generalizability and diverse cultural contexts remains limited. Future research should prioritize the translation, cultural adaptation, and validation of such measures to enhance their applicability and to support more consistent and comparable findings across studies. Overall, the current evidence base would benefit from further validation of comprehensive measurement tools across diverse populations, as well as from more systematic investigation of multidimensionality in early childhood.

Similarly, across the reviewed studies, samples were predominantly drawn from general populations, with relatively limited representation of children from diverse or disadvantaged backgrounds. While this provides a useful baseline understanding of positive psychological constructs in early childhood, it also restricts the generalizability of findings. Similar findings were reported in the literature review of (Bolier et al. 2013) in adult populations that even though positive psychology interventions showed effectiveness on promoting wellbeing and reducing depression, there was a lack of evidence in the clinical population. Future research would benefit from greater inclusion of diverse samples to ensure a more comprehensive and equitable understanding of child flourishing.

Previous research has brought up critics on the risk of overemphasizing the positivity which might risk overlooking individuals' real difficulties and concrete needs (McNulty and Fincham, 2012). We argue that both perspectives are necessary: understanding challenges remains essential, while recognizing and building on children's resources and positive attributes can enhance developmental support and educational practice. Inspired by the application of positive psychology research in the healthcare field (Aspinwall and Tedeschi, 2010), there is a need for more balanced perspective that provide knowledge on children's psychological and ECEC contextual resources alongside established deficit-oriented frameworks.

Notably, a key distinction across constructs lies in their level of conceptual and methodological maturity. Subjective wellbeing demonstrates considerable conceptual and measurement heterogeneity, reflecting a lack of consensus regarding its definition and operationalization. This finding is in line with the literature review investigating wellbeing in a majority adult population (Donaldson et al., 2015). In contrast, gratitude and psychological resilience exhibit greater consistency in measurement and findings; however, both are limited in scope—gratitude by its narrow conceptualization, mainly focus on social interactions, and resilience by its concentration within cross-sectional studies. Moreover, character strengths and positive education are predominantly intervention-driven, with a strong focus on applied outcomes but comparatively less attention to underlying developmental mechanisms. Especially, the research of character strengths, have heavily relied on qualitative or cross-sectional approaches, particularly when exploring associated factors. Our findings are in line with the literature review of (Campbell and Løkken 2022) on positive psychology research in ECEC suggesting that there is a broad application of programs but limited empirical evidence that support program implementations. While self-efficacy occupies a relatively more developed position, with a broader evidence base, yet is constrained by inconsistent measurement and a predominant focus on academic outcomes. Hopefulness, by comparison, remains significantly underdeveloped, with minimal empirical evidence and limited conceptual clarity. This imbalance suggests that, although there is growing interest in understanding the developmental processes underlying child flourishing, there remains a need for more rigorous and diverse methodological designs to strengthen causal inference and theoretical development.

Finally, the age-related patterns suggest a generally stable and progressive development of positive psychological constructs throughout early childhood, which underscores the importance of ECEC as a critical period for nurturing these foundational assets, as experiences during this stage may shape their developmental trajectory. Most studies reported minimal or no systematic differences between boys and girls, suggesting that these aspects of child flourishing may develop similarly across genders in early childhood. However, the limited and uneven empirical evidence across studies indicates a need for more systematic investigation.

Limitations and future directions

Several limitations of the present review should be acknowledged. First, as a scoping review, the aim was to map the breadth of existing literature rather than to critically appraise the quality of included studies or to synthesize effect sizes. As such, the findings provide an overview of the field but do not allow for conclusions regarding the strength or causality of observed relationships. Second, the search strategy was limited to studies with full-text availability and selected databases, which may have resulted in the exclusion of relevant studies. Although additional papers were identified through prior knowledge and citation tracking, the possibility of publication bias and incomplete coverage cannot be ruled out. Third, the review focused on constructs conceptualized as components of child flourishing within ECEC, with particular emphasis on individual-level psychological resources and positive educational experiences. As a result, broader contextual factors, such as teacher-child relationships, classroom climate, parenting practices, and family environment, were not included. While this decision was made to maintain a clear analytical focus, it may limit the comprehensiveness of the conceptualization of child flourishing.

For future studies, several gaps in the literature were identified. First, there is a lack of research on certain constructs, particularly general hopefulness in early childhood, indicating a narrow focus within the field. Second, there is limited representation of diverse populations, with relatively few studies examining children from disadvantaged backgrounds or with developmental differences. Third, measurement inconsistency and limited validation of tools—especially in early childhood contexts—remain a significant challenge. Given that many of the constructs examined reflect children's general tendencies across situations and over time, the issue of dimensionality vs. the use of single global indicators requires further investigation. Greater conceptual clarity is needed to determine whether these constructs should be operationalized as multidimensional frameworks or captured through overarching general measures. Establishing such clarity would enable greater consensus among scholars regarding definitions and facilitate the development of standardized measurement tools.

Conclusions

This scoping review highlights a growing evidence base on child flourishing in early childhood education and care (ECEC). The findings indicate that key psychological constructs—including subjective wellbeing, gratitude, character strengths, resilience, and self-efficacy—demonstrate generally stable developmental patterns across early childhood and are consistently associated with positive outcomes such as social-emotional competence, prosocial behavior, and engagement in learning. At the same time, children's experiences within ECEC settings, with wellbeing focused activities, teamwork, and artistic expressions, emerge as integral components of flourishing, interacting with these psychological resources to support development. From a practical standpoint, this highlights the value of integrating structured collaborative activities, arts-based learning, strengths-spotting based character education, nature-based projects, and relationship-focused practices into everyday pedagogy to foster both children's internal capacities and supportive classroom environments.

Despite these contributions, the field remains fragmented, with inconsistencies in conceptualization and measurement, limited attention to certain constructs, and a lack of diverse populations. Moving forward, greater conceptual clarity, the development of standardized and culturally sensitive measures, and more theory-driven research are needed to advance a coherent and cumulative evidence base. Ultimately, a holistic approach to child flourishing offers a valuable foundation for designing ECEC practices and environments that meaningfully support children's overall development and long-term wellbeing.

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Appendix

Search strings

Subjective wellbeing

(TI (“subjective well-being” OR “life satisfaction” OR “happiness”) OR AB (“subjective well-being” OR “life satisfaction” OR “happiness”))

AND

(TI (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”) OR AB (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”))

AND

(TI (child* OR toddler* OR “preschool child”) OR AB (child OR toddler* OR “preschool child*”))

Gratitude

(TI ((“gratitude” OR “thankfulness” OR “gratefulness”) OR AB ((“gratitude” OR “thankfulness” OR “gratefulness”))

AND

(TI (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”) OR AB (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”))

AND

(TI (child* OR toddler* OR “preschool child”) OR AB (child OR toddler* OR “preschool child*”))

Hope

(TI ((“hope” OR “hopefulness” or “Positive anticipation”) OR AB ((“hope” OR “hopefulness“ OR “positive anticipation”))

AND

(TI (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”) OR AB (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”))

AND

(TI (child* OR toddler* OR “preschool child”) OR AB (child OR toddler* OR “preschool child*”))

Character strengths

(TI (“positive traits” OR “character strengths” OR “signature strengths” OR “character development” OR “virtues”) OR AB (“positive traits” OR “character strengths” OR “signature strengths” OR “character development” OR “virtues”))

AND

(TI (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”) OR AB (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”))

AND

(TI (child* OR toddler* OR “preschool child”) OR AB (child OR toddler* OR “preschool child*”))

Self-efficacy

(TI ((“self-efficacy” OR “general self-efficacy”) OR AB ((“self-efficacy” OR “general self-efficacy”))

AND

(TI (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”) OR AB (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”))

AND

(TI (child* OR toddler* OR “preschool child”) OR AB (child OR toddler* OR “preschool child*”))

Psychological resilience

(TI (““psychological resilience” OR “emotional resilience” OR “personal resilience””) OR AB (“psychological resilience” OR “emotional resilience” OR “personal resilience””))

AND

(TI (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”) OR AB (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR kindergarten OR “early childhood”))

AND

(TI (child* OR toddler* OR “preschool child”) OR AB (child OR toddler* OR “preschool child*”))

Positive education

(TI (“positive psychology program” OR “well-being program” OR “character education” OR “strengths-based program”) OR AB (“positive psychology program” OR “well-being program” OR “character education” OR “resilience program” OR “strengths-based program*”))

AND

(TI (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR “kindergarten” OR “early childhood”) OR AB (“early childhood education and care” OR preschool OR “pre-school” OR “kindergarten” OR “early childhood”))

Footnotes

Edited by: Norbert Zmyj, Technical University Dortmund, Germany

Reviewed by: Konstantinos Petrogiannis, University of West Attica, Greece

Mihaela Luminita Sandu, Ovidius University, Romania

Dragana Bjekić, University of Kragujevac, Serbia