Girls on the Run Alums Study: lasting impact of a positive youth development program on social-emotional and physical life skills and wellbeing

Introduction

Organized afterschool activities have the potential to promote social-emotional, physical, and other healthy behaviors among children and adolescents. Programs adopting a positive youth development (PYD) approach are especially well-suited to foster positive participation outcomes, such as enhanced self-perceptions, feelings of belongingness, and a growth mindset (Simpkins, 2015; Deutsch et al., 2017; Pittman, 2017). This is because best practices for PYD programs include, among others: (a) an intentional curriculum of skill building opportunities, (b) adult leaders trained to deliver lessons with fidelity, (c) a focus on promoting caring, supportive, and trusting relationships, and (d) activities implemented within a psychologically safe climate that emphasizes personal mastery and feelings of autonomy and relatedness (Eccles and Gootman, 2002; Roth and Brooks-Gunn, 2003).

In the last two decades, interest has specifically surged regarding afterschool sports and physical activities as contexts for promoting PYD outcomes, including life skills and positive psychosocial behaviors (Petitpas et al., 2005; Gill and Hemphill, 2020; Holt et al., 2020; Weiss et al., in press). Evaluation research assessing the effectiveness of several physical activity-based PYD programs (PA-PYD) show improvements in and retention of life skills learning and transfer over time, such as managing emotions, goal setting, and resolving conflicts, as well as positive change in self-esteem, perceived competence, and social connections (e.g., Walsh et al., 2010; Ullrich-French and McDonough, 2013; Weiss et al., 2013, 2016; McDavid et al., 2019). For example, Walsh et al. conducted an intervention with 9- to 11-year-old underserved youth in an afterschool sports club using the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility model (TPSR; Martinek and Hemphill, 2020), and found that social-emotional skills were learned and transferred to the academic classroom over 2 years. Ongoing evaluation of PA-PYD programs is necessary to assess whether psychosocial behaviors and life skills acquired through participation at younger ages endure over developmental transitions from childhood to adolescence and emerging adulthood (Weiss, 2024; Weiss et al., in press).

Some PYD programs have conducted studies with former participants to assess longer-term impact on psychosocial, academic, and leadership behaviors (e.g., VanGorden et al., 2010; Meléndez and Martinek, 2015; Cunningham et al., 2020; Girl Scout Research Institute, 2021). Petitpas et al. (2004) evaluated Play It Smart, a national program for high school athletes, and found improved academic indicators and community service over 2 years. After graduating, over 1,000 former participants were interviewed about whether and how the program affected their lives academically, athletically, and socially (VanGorden et al., 2010). Respondents credited the academic coaches, team atmosphere, and significant others' recognition as sources of life skills development, academic and social accomplishments, and community service involvement. This study provided a unique retrospective assessment of retention and transfer of social-emotional and academic life skills to domains outside of sport.

Girls on the Run is an afterschool PA-PYD program that uses running as a platform for teaching social, psychological, and physical competencies and healthy behaviors to third- to fifth-grade girls (Riley and Britt, 2017)¹. The mission, “we inspire girls to be joyful, healthy and confident using a fun, experience-based curriculum which creatively integrates running,” is accompanied by an intentional life skills curriculum based on the Five Cs PYD framework (Lerner and Lerner, 2006) that identifies competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring as positive developmental outcomes. Specifically, the life skills curriculum is designed to help girls develop social, emotional, and physical competence; feel confident in who they are; create positive connections with adults and peers; develop strength of character; and respond to others and oneself with care and compassion. The intentional curriculum includes activities and strategies that target three age-appropriate goals: Identity (self-care, self-awareness, and knowing self), Connectedness (selecting and keeping healthy relationships), and Empowerment (celebrating and sharing our strengths). The curriculum integrates physical activities and life skills to optimize girls' ability to transfer learned skills to other domains and contexts. Lessons also prepare girls to improve running pace and endurance, set goals and track progress, and build confidence for completing the 5K physical activity goal at season's end (Riley and Britt, 2017).

Studies evaluating the impact of Girls on the Run demonstrate strong evidence of season-long improvements in girls' social, psychological, and physical activity behaviors as well as life skills learning and transfer to domains such as school and family (Weiss et al., 2019, 2020; Jones et al., 2021). Elementary-age girls showed significant gains in confidence (global self-worth, perceived physical appearance) and connection (perceived peer support) from pre- to post-season, with scores retained 3 months after season's end (Weiss et al., 2019). These improvements as well as elevated perceptions of physical and social competence and physical activity level were stronger for girls who started the season scoring below the sample mean, suggesting the program may be especially beneficial for girls who need it the most. In addition, participants in Girls on the Run compared favorably on life skills transfer to girls involved in organized youth sports, indicating a stronger ability to manage emotions, resolve peer conflict, help others, and make intentional decisions because of participating in Girls on the Run. The processes explaining impact on psychosocial outcomes and life skills transfer point to the intentional curriculum and national coach training to implement lessons as intended, which emphasizes coaching behaviors that optimize supportive relationships; a positive, inclusive environment; and a mastery motivational climate (Weiss, 2024).

These initial studies evaluating Girls on the Run were a critical step in demonstrating season-long and 3-month follow-up effects on psychosocial development, physical activity level, and social-emotional life skills. But how enduring are these effects across the developmental life course? That is, to what extent are behaviors, skills, and strategies learned as elementary-age participants sustained and successfully transferred to social contexts in the transition to and across adolescence (Weiss, 2024; Weiss et al., in press)? Exploring the lasting impact of participation on life skills learning and psychosocial development is important for determining whether Girls on the Run (or any PYD program) is making a difference in the lives of young people as they transition from childhood to adolescence, across the adolescent years, and beyond. To examine the long-term impact of Girls on the Run across key developmental periods, we designed a multifaceted, longitudinal project that follows a group of girls who participated in the program as fourth graders. These alums will be assessed at key developmental time points to determine the degree to which Girls on the Run is having a lasting impact on retention and transfer of life skills and psychosocial behaviors spanning childhood to emerging adulthood.

The current manuscript focuses on data obtained in the first wave of our longitudinal project, in which 8th grade middle school girls who participated in Girls on the Run as 4th graders were assessed on recall and application of skills and strategies learned in the program. Selecting 8th grade middle school Alums to initiate the project was purposeful from a developmental perspective. Adolescence is a period of considerable change—physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally—that can affect global self-worth, domain-specific confidence, peer relationships, and affective responses. First, age differences occur for self-perceptions, including the contribution that domain-specific confidence (e.g., academic, social) makes to self-esteem, and the cognitive processes for judging one's abilities (Horn, 2004; Harter, 2012; Horn and Newton, 2019). Second, social and cognitive changes influence emotional capabilities and behaviors over childhood and adolescence, including ability to integrate self and others' emotions, information processing capabilities, and perspective-taking abilities (Harter and Whitesell, 1996; Crocker et al., 2004). Third, sources of social influence used for judging one's competencies shift from primary reliance on parental feedback and reinforcement in early and middle childhood to peer comparison and evaluation and teacher/coach feedback in later childhood and adolescence (Horn and Horn, 2007; Harter, 2012; Horn and Newton, 2019). Fourth, changes in physical maturation influence self-perceptions, emotions, and motivation, as well as how significant others treat adolescents (Malina, 2002; Horn, 2015; Kipp, 2017). These changes influence young people's perceptions and behaviors across childhood and adolescence (Weiss and Williams, 2004; Malina, 2008; Horn and Newton, 2019). Thus, evaluating PA-PYD program impact is strengthened by adopting a developmental lens in designing studies and analyzing findings that guide best professional practices.

Developmental changes in the transition to and across adolescence can also affect physical health and wellbeing. The global pandemic of physical inactivity among children and adolescents (Tremblay et al., 2016; United States Department of Health Human Services, 2018) accentuates the need to evaluate PA-PYD programs in promoting physical activity levels (Weiss and Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009; Weiss et al., 2012, in press). This is more important than ever, given evidence that sufficient amounts of daily physical activity are positively related to mental health, cognitive functioning, and social wellbeing (Hillman et al., 2017; United States Department of Health Human Services, 2018; Murthy, 2023). A majority of children and adolescents are not meeting guidelines of at least 60 min daily of moderate physical activity, and levels decline across the childhood and adolescent years (United States Department of Health Human Services, 2018; Centers for Disease Control Prevention, 2025). Traditional youth sport programs are not doing enough to meet physical activity goals, with a priority on performance outcomes that favor more playing opportunities for the most talented youth, whereas those of lower ability experience more sedentary time during practices and games (Brustad et al., 2008; Horn, 2015; Pfeiffer and Wierenga, 2019; Horn et al., 2026). By contrast, PA-PYD programs are well-suited to improve physical activity levels with an intentional curriculum to enhance life skills for all youth participants, regardless of ability level, and taught by trained coaches within a supportive learning climate. Recent reporting from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Centers for Disease Control Prevention, 2025) indicates that adolescents are experiencing greater frequencies of depression, social isolation, and feelings of hopelessness. Studies using the Five Cs model of PYD showed that adolescent students who reported higher levels of confidence and connection scored lower in anxiety, depression, and stress (Onyeka et al., 2022; Marín-Gutiérrez et al., 2024), prompting whether PYD programs can be a valuable source for alleviating these risks, thus enhancing mental and physical health and wellbeing.

In summary, the goal of our broader longitudinal Alums Study is to assess the lasting impact of Girls on the Run on life skills transfer and psychosocial behaviors as former child participants navigate adolescence and beyond. In this manuscript we report data from the first phase of the longitudinal project, in which 8th grade middle school girls were assessed on recall of skills and strategies they learned as 4th grade participants in Girls on the Run and whether and how they continue to use them in their daily lives. Our developmental approach will fill a gap in the PA-PYD literature and lend insight to Alums' ability to sustain and successfully transfer life skills and strategies to many relevant situations encountered during adolescence.

Methods

In our work with Girls on the Run, we adopted Patton's (2012) utilization-focused evaluation as an appropriate and effective method of assessing knowledge about program impact and the processes explaining impact. This approach bridges empirical research and practical application by accentuating collaboration between academics and practitioners to frame the study design, select methods, interpret results, and translate findings to best professional practices. In doing so, utilization-focused evaluation maximizes the likelihood that programmers will be receptive to study findings and find them useful for achieving their goal of providing benefits to youth and families based on their mission and core values.

Utilization-focused evaluation begins with the premise that “… evaluations should be judged by their utility and actual use … use concerns how real people in the real world apply evaluation findings and experience the evaluation process … the focus in utilization-focused evaluation is on intended use by intended users” (p. 4). This principle resonates with youth development research because afterschool programs aim to satisfy the needs of participants by understanding what program aspects are effective, what areas can be improved, and what processes explain findings of impact. Patton (2012) stated that program evaluations answer three questions: What? So What? Now What? What outcomes and impacts result from the program? So What are the implications of the findings? To what degree and in what ways can the program be considered a success? Now What actions emanate from interpretation of the findings? These questions involve four processes—analysis, interpretation, judgment, and recommendations—and intended users should be actively involved in all processes to understand and buy into the findings and their implications. As third-party researchers with Girls on the Run, utilization-focused evaluation provided a clear direction for collaborating with organizational leaders to inform the study procedures and translate findings to evidence of program impact and action strategies aligned with best professional practices.

Participants

Alums included 807 8th grade girls in middle school during the 2023–2024 academic year, who had participated as 4th graders in Girls on the Run during the 2019 season. They completed an online survey assessing study variables. Alums self-identified as White (72.0%), Multi-Racial (11.5%), Black or African-American (7.7%), Hispanic (4.3%), Asian (2.7%), American Indian/Alaska Native (0.9%), Other (0.5%), and 0.4% left this item blank. Alums had participated in Girls on the Run for 2 to 3 seasons on average (M = 2.5, SD = 1.4).

Fifty-two Alums, a subset of the 807, also participated in a virtual interview to provide in-depth information about their experiences in Girls on the Run². The majority self-identified as White (84.6%), followed by Multiracial (5.8%), Hispanic (5.8%), Black/African American (1.9%), and Asian (1.9%). Most interviewees participated in Girls on the Run for 2 or 3 seasons (M = 2.6, SD = 1.5).

Measures

We selected valid and age-appropriate quantitative measures, and created interview questions, aligned with Girls on the Run's intentional life skills curriculum to enhance social, psychological, and physical competencies and promote healthy behaviors. The use of mixed methods enabled quantitative and qualitative data to complement, clarify, and explain emergent findings of Alums' perceptions of lasting impact from 4th to 8th grade³. We first summarize survey measures, procedures, and data analysis, followed by the same processes for the interviews.

Life skills transfer

We used seven subscales and associated items from the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS; Weiss et al., 2014, 2016) to assess girls' perceptions of ability to generalize skills learned in Girls on the Run to broad social contexts. Subscales included three items each for managing emotions, goal setting, resolving conflict, helping others, and making intentional decisions, and four items each for appreciating diversity and one newly-created subscale for this study, standing up for others, a predominant theme in the curriculum.

Instructions stated, “The following items have to do with behaviors and skills you may have learned through participating in Girls on the Run. We are interested in knowing what behaviors and skills you use now as an 8th grader because of what you learned by participating in Girls on the Run. Rate how true each statement is for you because of participating in Girls on the Run.” The stem for each item, “Because of participating in Girls on the Run,” was followed by a behavior exemplifying the life skill (in order of above): “I take a deep breath to calm myself down when I get frustrated,” “I set goals to achieve my personal best in school,” “I listen to my friend when we have a disagreement,” “I comfort a friend when they are upset,” “I stop and think about my choices before making a decision,” “I enjoy learning from people who are different from me,” and “I stand up for others when they need support.” Response options included “really not true for me,” “not true for me,” “sort of true for me,” “true for me,” and “really true for me.” The first six subscales have shown good psychometrics in previous research with adolescents (Weiss et al., 2016, 2020). We report psychometrics for all the scales with the current sample.

Physical activity level

Physical activity level was assessed with one question from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS; Centers for Disease Control Prevention, 2025). Girls were asked, “During the past 7 days, on how many days were you physically active for a total of at least 60 min per day? Add up all the time you spent in any kind of physical activity that increased your heart rate and made you breathe hard some of the time.” Response choices included 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 days.

Survey procedure

We obtained study approval from the university's Institutional Review Board. A pilot study (n = 6) tested survey procedures with Adobe Sign and Qualtrics and determined survey completion time and item revisions. Following pilot testing, we communicated with the Chief Program Officer at Girls on the Run to recruit our purposeful sample of 8th graders who participated in Girls on the Run as 4th graders. We received a list of eligible participants from the database meeting the inclusion criteria and their contact information. We sent parents invitations from a study email address, stating the purpose and requesting study participation of their Alum teenager. Once parents consented using Adobe Sign, we sent a survey link to share with their Alum. Teenager assent was included in the survey, completion time averaged 13 min (M = 13.0, SD = 10.6), and participants received a $20 gift card. Surveys were excluded if completion time was < 5 min., if the survey was incomplete, and if the participant was not in 8th grade or on our original contact list of Girls on the Run alums.

Data analysis: surveys

Scale validity and reliability were assessed using Cronbach's alpha and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Descriptive statistics (response frequencies, means, standard deviations, ranges) were calculated for all study variables. Due to the disparity in race/ethnicity, t-tests explored differences by White and BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Color) groups for life skills transfer, and physical activity.

Interview guide and questions

The interview guide was designed to ask questions about what life skills and strategies Alums recalled learning in Girls on the Run as 4th graders, how they were taught, and whether learned skills and strategies are being used as 8th graders in middle school. Clarity and age-appropriateness of questions and length of the interview were also considerations. Aligned with utilization-focused evaluation, an advisory panel was assembled to provide input on the interview questions, consisting of Girls on the Run board of director members, council administrators, former coaches, academics, and organization leaders. They were presented with a draft of the interview questions and suggested edits were implemented to create the final interview guide (Table 1). This expert review panel consisting of practitioners and academics had the knowledge and background to provide useful feedback on the content and quality of interview questions relevant to evaluating program impact. For example, one expert panelist recommended the interview question, “was participating in Girls on the Run different in any way than participating in other sports and physical activities during elementary school?” Emergent responses were considered some of the strongest findings by organizational leaders, reinforcing the distinct difference between Girls on the Run as a PYD program and traditional youth sport that does not provide life lessons.

Table 1. Interview questions for Girls on the Run alums.

Interview procedure

Participants were recruited through “yes” responses to a question at the end of the survey, “Are you interested in a follow-up virtual interview to gather more in-depth information on your experience?” Alums' parents were sent an email explaining the purpose of the interview and an Adobe Sign link to obtain consent. Once parental consent and Alum assent were received, an email followed to schedule the virtual interview using Zoom. Preparing for conducting the interviews focused on developing rapport and good communication skills to project a safe and welcoming space with teenage Alums. The main steps for the interview process were:

• One author conducted pre-pilot interviews with same-age teenagers not in the study to determine flow of questions, whether to modify questions, and length of the interview.
• The study interviewer was trained using guidelines for effective use of paraphrasing, restating, and probing to encourage Alums to clarify, elaborate, and provide examples. She listened to pre-pilot interviews, conducted practice interviews, debriefed with authors, and conducted two pilot interviews followed by authors' feedback.
• The interviewer scheduled all 52 Alums on a day and time of their choosing using Calendly. The ensuing interviews lasted between 30 and 45 min.
• Each audio file from the Zoom interview was transcribed using the Microsoft Word Transcribe feature and accuracy was verified. Transcripts were then sent to two researchers (co-authors) for coding and analysis.

Data analysis: interviews

Two researchers with knowledge of qualitative methods independently read the 52 interview transcripts and coded the narrative. They used deductive and inductive content analysis to identify words, phrases, and sentences that captured skills and strategies Alums recalled learning and are currently using because of participating in Girls on the Run. Deductive analysis was used for questions driven by content in the life skills curriculum, while inductive analysis allowed for emergent themes. As an example, “What kinds of lessons, skills, and strategies did you learn at Girls on the Run?,” invoked deductive content analysis that mapped responses to existing lessons related to identity, connectedness, and empowerment as well as life skills explicit in the curriculum. By contrast, inductive content analysis was used for emergent skills and strategies not necessarily explicit in curricular lessons.

Data analysis followed guidelines by qualitative sources (Erlandson et al., 1993; Patton, 2002) and procedures used in youth sport research (e.g., Weiss et al., 2013). Researchers met weekly for several hours to share their independent coding, discuss data to include as units of analysis, share perspectives on disparities in coding and thematic analysis, and reach consensus before moving on to each stage of analysis. First, data units with similar meaning were combined to form lower-order themes and labeled to accurately describe their meaning. Next, lower-order themes were synthesized to form more parsimonious higher-order themes, which were labeled for similar meaning, followed by the same process for creating overarching dimensions that synthesized higher-order themes. Compelling quotations were identified to exemplify the meaning of higher-order themes for each question.

Aligned with utilization-focused evaluation of Girls on the Run's lasting impact on social-emotional and physical life skills, we engaged in several practices to ensure the credibility, reliability, and utility of our measures, procedures, analyses, and interpretation of findings. First, as mentioned earlier we enlisted an expert advisory panel, consisting of a diverse group of practitioners and academics with a background in youth development and familiarity with Girls on the Run programming, to provide feedback to the researchers regarding content to be included in the survey and interview measures based on the organization's mission and goals. Second, the Chief Program Officer of Girls on the Run served as a critical peer debriefer in many phases of the study, to ensure that evaluation methods aligned with organizational goals and that findings could be “utilized” for programming efforts. She collaborated with researchers on procedures for accessing the purposive sample and selecting key program outcomes on the survey and questions of interest for the interviews. Mutual discussions of quantitative findings and interview themes were jointly translated to practical implications and evidence of long-term impact on positive youth development. Third, trustworthiness of findings was strengthened through triangulation of lower- and higher-order themes by a third researcher (and co-author) who was not involved in the coding process, and triangulation of methods was achieved by employing quantitative and qualitative assessment of outcomes to complement, clarify, and explain outcomes.

Results

We present findings in an integrated manner to highlight the complementary benefits of using mixed methods. First, we discuss findings for life skills learning and transfer: (a) interview responses for life skills learned in Girls on the Run (Question #1), (b) interview responses for whether and which life skills are being used as 8th graders (Question #2), and (c) survey scores on the LSTS, assessing transfer of life skills because of participating in Girls on the Run.

Second, we report findings for physical activity behavior: (a) interview responses for what Alums learned about the importance of physical activity in Girls on the Run (Question #3), (b) percentage of Alums who participate in sports and physical activities during middle school (interview and survey), (c) interview responses for how Girls on the Run affected their current sports and physical activity involvement (Question #3), and (d) survey scores on the YRBS for physical activity level.

Third, we discuss interview findings regarding Alums' recall of their coaches' impact (Question #4), including interactions and effectiveness in teaching life skills. Fourth, we share Alums' responses to interview Question #5, “Was participating in Girls on the Run different in any way than other sports and physical activities you did in elementary school?” Considering journal space restrictions, our vast amount of interview data are presented in tables of dimensions and higher-order themes. We also selected example quotations to demonstrate evidence of the dimensions and themes, which provide rich detail in the Alums' own words. Tables of all higher- and lower-order themes by question are accessible in the Supplementary file provided.

Life skills learning and transfer

Interview Question #1: What kinds of lessons, skills, and strategies did you learn at *Girls on the Run*? All 52 girls readily identified lessons, skills, and strategies they learned by participating in Girls on the Run. Five dimensions and 13 higher-order themes emerged from hundreds of data units and lower-order themes (Table 2).

Table 2. Dimensions and higher-order themes for question #1: what kinds of lessons, skills, and strategies did you learn at Girls on the Run?

^afrequency of lower-order themes shown in parentheses.

*Improving running and physical activity levels* highlights physical life skills promoted in Girls on the Run, such as pacing, stamina, and breathing, along with staying physically active and eating healthier foods.

“The big thing that I definitely learned was running at my own pace because I was always trying to be the first one to cross the finish line, but they really taught me to just have fun and, as long as you're going at the pace that you want to go and that's comfortable for you, then that's good.” (Nora, age 13)⁴.

“I learned how to run and now my stamina is much better than it was. Now I'll strive to achieve greater goals. All of the encouragement, it felt like it wasn't such a faraway thing that you can actually do it. They set realistic goals where they wanted you to achieve these skills. They knew that would help you later in life.” (Angelica, age 13)

*Developing positive social relationships* emphasized skills and strategies for forming and maintaining friendships, improving group skills, and seeking social support.

“Definitely the importance of camaraderie and supporting each other. Because there were moments where all of us didn't really want to do it. But we all encouraged each other to keep going and keep pushing. It was a lot of focus on working together and being a good friend.” (Peyton, age 14)

“To value relationships and teamwork because we're a community in Girls on the Run, and it's really important because some things you can't do on your own, you need help from other people. Relationship skills with other people are really important to help you grow. It was really fun to do team building.” (Ursula, age 13)

*Promoting positive self-perceptions* focused on skills and strategies for adopting positive self-beliefs, including a strong body image.

“Girls on the Run showed me that I am great the way I am, I don't need to change to have fun in athletic events. They helped me have better self-talk, as in confidence and determination, so I think that definitely helped me a lot into the person I am today, and becoming more confident and determined in all aspects of my life.” (Sami, age 13)

“Girls on the Run gave me opportunities to move my body, but it wasn't just about the active part. It was also about social, emotional learning. I remember one lesson was about how beauty is in the eye of the beholder … how everyone can be beautiful in a different way.” (Giada, age 14)

*Caring and compassionate behaviors and good communication skills* emphasized positive social interaction behaviors and character attributes.

“I learned about being friendly toward other people. I remember doing this one game where it was the difference between when you say thank you and the different tones that you use can portray a different emotion to someone else. We got into groups and each person was assigned a different emotion that they had to say thank you, and we decided which one sounded the best and which one sounded the worst.” (Aja, age 13)

“Probably community, to always be there for your friends and even if they aren't your friends, you should be there no matter what. Some people might not be as active as you and some people are more active than you. It's good to boost people up, it's not like, ‘oh, you can't run as much as me' … you should always be, ‘hey, you got this, maybe tomorrow or maybe later.”' (Jeniya, age 14)

Finally, *fostering personal life skills* included specific skills taught in the curriculum—setting goals, managing emotions, and adopting a positive mindset.

“We did some exercises of what to do when you're angry, like how to walk away or how to calm down when you're feeling overwhelmed or when you're feeling mad … breathing strategies. We learned a lot more about emotions in Girls on the Run than we ever did at school, like the kind of things that could cause you to feel a certain way … like if it's a bad feeling, what you could do to help make yourself feel better.” (Delaney, age 13)

“How to push myself to persevere. They would cheer you on even though it's hard … strategies to remain positive. To keep a positive mindset, not to be like, ‘ugh, I hate running,' keep it more on the positive side. They would have us write down affirmations for ourselves, and then if we got tired they would make us look at the paper and they'd be like, ‘remember you wrote that,' to remind us to keep that in your mind.” (Julie, age 13)

Interview Question #2: do you currently use any skills or strategies learned at *Girls on the Run* for situations at school? at home with parents or siblings? Other situations? Whereas Question #1 tapped Alums' recall of skills and strategies learned at Girls on the Run, Question #2 explored whether they are transferring them at school, home, and other contexts.

Forty-four girls (84.6%) asserted they apply skills and strategies in school, family, and other settings. Three dimensions and 10 higher-order themes emerged from hundreds of data units and lower-order themes describing usage of life skills in multiple aspects of their lives (Table 3).

Table 3. Dimensions and higher-order themes for question #2: do you currently use any skills or strategies learned at Girls on the Run for situations at school? at home with parents or siblings? any other situations?

^afrequency of lower-order themes shown in parentheses.

*Interpersonal skills* revealed that Alums improved social abilities when talking with people and being more outgoing with friends and classmates. In addition, they noted exhibiting more kind and respectful behaviors toward others and being open to differing perspectives.

“When I'm interacting with my siblings, I'm able to use patience and kindness. It can be hard because they're younger and it's harder for them to understand things, and so I just use patience and kindness and try to navigate the situation the best I can. I try and talk to them instead of quickly yelling at them or getting mad. Most of the time it works because the worst thing you can do in that situation is add more contention.” (Marina, age 14)

“Before I talk to someone, I always make sure I'm saying the right thing so that I don't say something and it accidentally hurts them, even if I didn't mean it. Like just making sure I say something in the right way and not make it sound rude. I always jump into their perspective of things and see how they view things.” (Renee, age 13)

The two higher-order themes for *emotion regulation skills* are distinct—one is specific to managing emotions in the school setting for assignments, exams, and public speaking, whereas the second alludes to regulating emotions with siblings and parents.

“I'm a very nervous person to talk to people, but Girls on the Run helped me be less nervous and more confident to talk to people. In this one class I have to talk to a bunch of people I don't know. Girls on the Run made me ready to talk to people and calm myself down. We would get sent home with activities and we had to come back and tell our leaders how it worked out and we would share in front of everyone. It made me confident to talk in front of people because, ‘oh, I've done this before, so I can definitely do this in front of a few classmates.”' (Alicia, age 14)

“My brother makes me angry a lot. We fight sometimes, but I try to take deep breaths and think before I speak so I don't upset him more. Girls on the Run has really helped me with my thinking before I speak because as a younger kid I was pretty impulsive. It works out pretty good. I can be kind of a hot head, so it's nice to take a moment to collect myself before I talk back.” (Hannah, age 13)

*Personal life skills* entailed a host of social-emotional and physical life skills deliberately targeted in the curriculum. Standing Up for Self and Others is accentuated in the life skills curriculum. Nearly one-third of all interviewees discussed applying the concept of standing up for themselves and others (“being a stand-byer”), such as friends and classmates.

“I definitely use some of the tools like making sure to stand up for myself if I'm getting bullied or if another student is getting bullied. I make sure to think before I do something I know isn't right. If it's just me standing up for the person, then more people join me even if it isn't a super big thing, but it makes a difference because that person's getting hurt and that shouldn't really be happening.” (Cordelia, age 14)

Conflict resolution skills are emphasized in the curricular unit on choosing and keeping healthy relationships.

“Girls on the Run techniques were breathe and take a moment and then communicate how you‘re feeling … [re interaction with a friend] I tried to be non-confrontational, which is where Girls on the Run comes in. Instead of getting mad at her, I tried, ‘this is where I am, this is how I'm feeling, take from that what you will, I just want to inform you.' So we talked it out and we're good now. Girls on the Run taught me how to deal with problems without making it into a huge fight.” (Lynn, age 14)

Improved athletic skills, physical fitness, and confidence to do other sports reinforces the physical life skills learned in the program.

“I‘ve been doing more physical sports and I am just so much more confident in them because I've had so much experience running. I know that I can do a 5K; I know that I am capable of this and that's really fueled me in sports and in situations where I don't know if I can, but now I do.” (Danielle, age 14)

Goal setting and a persistence mindset refers to using greater effort, problem-solving, or a different strategy to attain one's goals.

“Perseverance and determination. Whenever the classwork gets a little overwhelming, being determined in my schoolwork was such a big skill I learned from Girls on the Run. Girls on the Run taught me how to never give up and get things done, so that helped me meet the deadline on my assignments. Whenever a project's due the next day, I choose to not sit there on my phone, and I choose to just get it done and persevere through it.” (Tiffany, age 13)

Being a productive, inclusive, and helpful team and group member highlighted group skills and strategies that benefited Alums in middle school.

“I remember learning about teamwork. We did some lessons and worked with others. During school projects, I would ask a friend for help or we would do it together outside of school. We did this video project that you had to do with a partner. If I didn't do Girls on the Run, it would have been difficult to share my ideas and work well with other people and it would have been harder to get the project done with her.” (Yulia, age 13)

The qualitative data presented above provide rich examples of lessons, skills, and strategies that were learned and transferred years later. Compatibly, the following quantitative data demonstrate favorable ratings of life skills transfer for the full sample of 807 Alums. Item analyses and psychometrics are presented first, followed by descriptive statistics.

Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS). A small number of missing data points (< 1%) on life skills transfer subscales were addressed using the harmonic mean, which is recommended if less than 5% of the data are missing (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2019). Item analyses did not reveal any problematic items or subscales and showed that participants used the full range of responses. All LSTS subscales achieved good reliability (Cronbach's α > 0.80) indicating that items within a scale were cohesive (moderately-to-highly correlated) and represented the intended construct. CFA revealed good psychometrics for all subscales of the LSTS, shown by indices of model fit (CFI > 0.95, RMSEA < 0.05) and strong, statistically significant factor loadings (λ = 0.69 – 0.91).

Response frequencies reveal that over 90% reported at least “sort of true” but mostly “true” and “really true” for helping others, standing up for others, resolving conflict, and appreciating diversity, crediting Girls on the Run for ability to transfer these skills (Table 4). Over 85% reported “sort of true” but mostly “true” and “really true” for goal setting and making intentional decisions, and over 80% for managing emotions. Average scores (M, SD) were in the high 3′s and round up to “true” for helping others (3.94, 0.84), appreciating diversity (3.86, 0.76), resolving conflict (3.76, 0.84), standing up for others (3.70, 0.81), and goal setting (3.68, 0.89), while average scores for making intentional decisions (3.48, 0.84) and managing emotions (3.27, 0.89) were just a bit lower. Scale means and percentage of Alums who mostly rated “true” show a favorable attribution to Girls on the Run for their ability to transfer life skills to other social contexts⁵

Table 4. Life skills transfer: percentage of responses.

Physical activity behavior

Interview Question #3: what did you learn about the importance of physical activity in *Girls on the Run*? how did *Girls on the Run* teach you about the importance of physical activity? As a PA-PYD program, Girls on the Run strives to improve physical, not only social-emotional, life skills, such as physical activity level, motor skills, and physical fitness and health. Forty-seven interviewees (90.4%) articulated what and how they learned about the importance of physical activity in Girls on the Run. Hundreds of responses resulted in seven higher-order themes (Table 5).

Table 5. Higher-order themes for question #3: what did you learn in Girls on the Run about the importance of being physically active? how did Girls on the Run teach you about the importance of physical activity?

^afrequency of lower-order themes shown in parentheses.

Interviewees learned that *Physical Activity Can Enhance Physical and Mental Health Now and Throughout Life*. Many alluded to long-term health outcomes and the link between being physically active and mental and physical health.

“It's important to stay active to be healthy, and it can really benefit you in your future and in your present. If you stay active, you can keep building on that and then get better at running or another physical activity. That makes me happy personally, and it's just important to stay active so you can keep doing the things you love.” (Kiki, age 14)

“Girls on the Run shows you how important it is to stay healthy, go outside, and be active as a person because it doesn't just help your physical health, it helps work through problems in your head. I think of it as very therapeutic, to work out and go on these walks. It is such a big lesson that I learned from Girls on the Run.” (Gabriela, age 13)

*Learned How to Adopt a Healthy Lifestyle* focused broadly on the importance of an active lifestyle and healthy nutrition habits.

“It's better to stay healthy and enjoy playing outside, because it's always the better option to go outside and have fun. Even though some people make physical activity seem boring and not fun, Girls on the Run showed me that it can be fun … they let us pick our groups and we went on walks and runs around the playgrounds.” (Bella, age 13)

“It's knowing I need to get 60 min of active time every day and how to get it easily without putting too much strain on my body. That was very eye-opening. Girls on the Run taught me easier ways to get it here in my neighborhood.” (Dana, age 14)

*Physical Activity Makes You Feel Happy and Good About Your Self* revealed the connection between being physically active and feeling happier, better about one's self, and accomplished after running or being physically active.

“Physical activity makes you happier, and that is something I do today. If I have had a day where I stand around and do nothing, I go out for runs, like I go and take a light jog around the block. I know that it could help make your mood a lot better. It's definitely something I learned from Girls on the Run. It also helps me sleep better at night.” (April, age 13)

“Girls on the Run taught me that physical activity is really good for my body, my brain, and my confidence. When I run or do any sort of physical activity, my mind clears completely. I can just focus so much more. I‘ll be exhausted after a long day of school and I'll just start working out and everything simplifies in my head and makes it so much easier to think through. It makes me feel empowered, like I can do anything.” (Eliza, age 14)

*Strategies to Improve and Maintain Physical Activity Level and Good Body Condition* refers to how Alums learned the importance of physical activity, such as techniques for maintaining a physically active lifestyle, breathing correctly, and keeping your body moving.

“I know that you have to stretch a lot after you do stuff, because you can't just go do stuff and then be completely fine because you're going to be aching. Like your bones are going to be aching after a while. I'm still doing that at home after track practice because I feel like that just stuck with me.” (Gia, age 13)

“I learned the importance of how to breathe correctly, what you're doing correctly, and stretching. I'm an athlete, I play basketball and volleyball and I do run cross country. I feel like it was very important that they taught how to stretch correctly and how to use your body correctly, like your breathing or your technique on how you run.” (Reese, age 13)

*Physical Activity Helps to Get and Keep You Fit, Balanced, and in Good Shape* highlights the value of physical activity for becoming physically fit, such as getting and staying in shape, and keeping your body moving and in good condition.

“I learned that was the first time I've ever been in shape for running, and by the end I was, ‘hey, this is actually awesome, and running isn't as bad as I thought it was.' Because when you first start running, it's horrible, but once you‘re in shape it gets easier, and after that I was, ‘well if I just keep doing that, I can get faster and continue running.”' (Teresa, age 14)

“I learned that it is important to stay physically active, even if it's not running, whether it's going for a walk each day or being in another sport. Whether it's just keeping yourself physically fit and making sure that you're not letting your body just sit there all the time. Girls on the Run taught me that it's important to keep being active.” (Amy, age 14)

*Physical Activity Enhances Social Connections with Friends and Peers* highlights the sense of belongingness from hanging out with friends by being physically active.

“I know physical activity was our main thing … come to Girls on the Run, make friends, and stay active. Girls on the Run really helped me with that, now that I'm an athlete. At soccer, I‘ll try to talk to people and then I'll make friends and it works out like Girls on the Run did … how you‘re having fun and still playing sport when you're having friends.” (Franny, age 13)

*I Learned More About Myself as a Person* refers to personal insights from learning about the importance of physical activity.

“Girls on the Run definitely showed me that I like to be active. They showed me how important it is to stay active and healthy and maintain health goals. I'll carry those habits through the rest of my life, because I value being active, whether it's running, taking a walk, or just going to the pool. I think that's so valuable, and it really does help you mentally and physically.” (Inez, age 13)

Percentage of Alums Participating in Sports and Physical Activities. An open-ended survey question asked, “Name any programs or activities in which you currently participate (e.g., sports, clubs).” Of the 758 Alums who responded, 665 (87.7%) stated they currently participate on sports and physical activity teams or clubs. This high percentage indicates a commitment to remaining physically active as adolescents. The most frequent activities named were track/running, volleyball, soccer, basketball, and swimming/diving.

Similarly, interviewees were asked: “Do you currently participate in sports and/or physical activities during middle school?” followed by, “Did participating in Girls on the Run affect your current involvement in physical activities?” Forty-eight Alums (92.3%) participated as 8th graders in organized or lifetime sports and physical activities. Of these 48 girls, 43 (89.6%) stated that Girls on the Run influenced their continued interest and participation in sports and physical activities. Twenty girls (42%) ran track and/or cross-country, and other prevalent activities included soccer, basketball, dance, swimming, volleyball, gymnastics, and tennis. Table 6 depicts a sampling of Alums' responses for how Girls on the Run influenced their continued participation in sports and physical activities. Specificity of examples demonstrate recognition of Girls on the Run's influence on their commitment to remaining physically active.

Table 6. Sample responses for question #3b: how did participating in Girls on the Run affect your current involvement in physical activities?

Physical Activity: YRBS Findings. The 807 Alums (and subsample of 52 interviewees) reported an average of 4.3 days/week (SD = 1.8) of being physically active for at least 60 min at moderate intensity, with 5 days being most frequent (Table 7). Nearly half (45%) were active at least 5 days/week, but only 13% marked 7 days of at least 60 min daily, the national physical activity guideline for adolescents. Comparison by White and BIPOC Alums showed a statistically significant difference (t = 2.06, p < 0.04), with girls who self-identified as White (M = 4.41, SD = 1.83) scoring higher than those identifying as BIPOC (M = 4.10, SD = 1.82). Both means similarly round to 4 days/week and the effect size was negligible (Cohen's d = 0.17).

Table 7. Physical activity: frequency and percentage of responses.

Impact of Girls on the Run coaches

Interview Question #4: What do you remember about your coaches in *Girls on the Run*? What do you remember most about your coaches' interactions with you and your teammates? How did your coaches make you and your teammates feel during the lessons?

All 52 girls readily responded with very favorable recollections of their coaches, describing coaching qualities, behaviors, and interactions that made a positive impact on their experiences. Three dimensions and eight higher-order themes (see Supplementary Table 4) were derived from hundreds of data units and lower-order themes (Table 8).

Table 8. Dimensions and higher-order themes for question #5: what do you remember about your coaches in Girls on the Run?

^afrequency of lower-order themes shown in parentheses

*Coaching behaviors related to girls' running skills, effort, enjoyment, and confidence* highlight coaches as positive, motivating, and skilled leaders for specifically enhancing girls' running competence, sustained effort, enjoyment of, and confidence to be better runners. This dimension was comprised of two higher-order themes: (a) helped us develop running skills and always encouraged our efforts, and (b) enhanced our enjoyment of running and confidence to get better.

“I definitely felt confident when I was running. They made us feel like it's okay, you can do this. You can exercise in front of people and no one's gonna judge you, and that really made me and my peers feel a little bit more confident in what we were doing. I feel like they were always cheering us on and helping us feel better and more confident.” (Rinny, age 14)

“They would do the practice with us, and that's a big thing that they would not just watch us do stuff, but they'd explain it and show us how to do it. It made me feel like they were actually a good coach and that it wasn't just some PE class. It was fun that they were doing it, too, so it made me feel more comfortable.” (Brigitte, age 13)

*Coaching behaviors to improve social-emotional skills and enhance positive self-perceptions* emphasized interactions that enabled life skills learning, such as perseverance, goal setting, determination, and kindness, as well as coaches' behaviors that promoted positive self-perceptions, such as self-confidence, self-acceptance, and self-worth. This dimension was comprised of two higher-order themes: (a) taught us important social-emotional life skills, and (b) enhanced our self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-image.

“They incorporated things in daily life to the lessons. They would put in a real-life situation, like if somebody's being mean to you, you don't be mean right back. You treat them with respect and tell them that it's not okay to be treating other people that way.” (Olivia, age 14)

“She would do so many things extra than a normal coach I've had, who wouldn't really care about us to spend that much time. She pursued how we dealt with difficulties in running but also in our personal experiences with life. I remember she made sure we have compassion … that it would help us in some way during the future, or if we come across a situation in school during that season.” (Paige, age 14)

*Coaches' attributes, behaviors, and personalities* represent responses entailing coaches' personal qualities such as their kind and respectful interactions, open communication style, and motivating and energizing personalities. This dimension was comprised of three higher-order themes: (a) exhibited kindness, caring, and respect in their individual interactions with us, (b) were good communicators and always open to our questions, and (c) were motivated and energetic leaders who planned fun and helpful learning activities.

“I remember my coaches being very strong women that I'm very happy I grew up with around me. I'm glad they were my coaches because they showed me how to be independent, determined, and encouraging to other people. It was definitely such an impact to have a strong female to look up to. When I was younger it showed me that I can be independent and I can be the person I want to be, so they had a very big impact.” (Cynthia, age 13)

“I remember there was no favoritism, they treated us all as equals no matter how terrible or how amazing you were at running. They tried to get to know everyone on an individual level so that they knew how to best support you, like casually asking some questions to get to know you. They would try to interact with us to better help us progress through the program.” (Jessie, age 13)

*Created an inclusive, supportive, and positive group climate* was a higher-order theme reflecting coaching behaviors that created motivating qualities of the learning environment. Girls described coaches as supportive, joyful, helpful, and inclusive of all participants. The environment was portrayed as positive and comfortable, one in which coaches developed a welcoming environment for teaching life skills and strategies.

“They always made us feel included. They made you feel like everybody was friends. You have activities to learn everybody's names, and we have random partners, so we get to know each other better. They also made sure we weren't always with the same group of people and made sure everybody has someone to be with.” (Caitlin, age 14)

“All the conversations were two-way streets and they were very open. There was always a time to respond to what they were saying, and there was open discussion. Each girl would make a comment about what personal experience they had to the lesson, and it made for a very trusting environment. They made us feel a part of something, and that's really important for young girls to feel like they matter and that they can make a change.” (Rebecca, age 14)

We asked a follow-up question to further probe girls' appraisals of their coaches and seek potential disconfirming responses, “Could they have done anything differently to make your experience even better?” Forty-three of 52 interviewees (83%) replied “no,” “not really,” or “I can't think of anything,” followed by comments such as, “They were really good leaders … I feel like it was one of the best afterschool activities I was ever in,” and “They were really supportive and kind all the time and I don't think they could have done anything better.” Nine girls (17%) offered ideas for how experiences could be even better, such as more running (“I personally really enjoyed the running, so the only thing I could have made mine better was running more),” more hands-on activities (“More hands-on activities … I know we did a bunch, but some weren't always like that),” and hearing about coaches' personal experiences of dealing with challenges (“They definitely could have maybe dug a little bit deeper on the topics. I wish they would have given personal experiences. I don't know if as a kid I would understand, but now it would be very helpful. Like if it was on the topic of bullying, I would want to hear stories that happened to them … and how they solved it).” One girl jokingly responded, “One of the coaches had a dog and everybody loved the dog, but she only brought the dog in once. She should have brought her in more.”

Was Participating in Girls on the Run Different in Any Way than Other Sports and Physical Activities You Did in Elementary School?

A specific interview question, informed by the peer debriefer, sought to determine whether Alums viewed Girls on the Run differently than participating in traditional sports and physical activities during elementary school. Forty-four of 46 girls (95.7%) who were able to make comparisons provided examples distinguishing Girls on the Run from their other sports and physical activities (6 girls could not compare because they did not participate in sports in elementary school). Their examples highlight the PYD nature of Girls on the Run compared to traditional, competitive youth sports. Distinct differences point to Girls on the Run's inclusion of life lessons, social-emotional learning, non-competitive emphasis, and welcoming learning climate (Table 9).

Table 9. Sample responses for: was participating in Girls on the Run different in any way than other sports or physical activities you did in elementary school?

Discussion

The overall aim of our broader longitudinal project is to determine whether Girls on the Run, a PA-PYD program, is having a lasting impact on Alums' retention and transfer of life skills and psychosocial behaviors as they navigate critical developmental periods of their lives—middle school, transition to high school, and across the adolescent years. At a time when many social, emotional, and physical changes occur, it is important to know whether an intentional life skills curriculum taught by trained and supportive coaches during the elementary years can reduce potential risks to academic confidence, self-esteem, peer relationships, physical activity level, and other psychosocial and behavioral indices during adolescence (Horn, 2004; Malina, 2008; Harter, 2012). In this first phase of our longitudinal, developmental project, findings with 8th grade middle school Alums show that they not only recall skills and strategies learned as 4th graders, but they are also effectively applying them in situations encountered at school, at home, and in extracurricular activities with peers, siblings, and parents.

Using qualitative and quantitative methods enabled in-depth description from interviews alongside numerical data from surveys to determine Girls on the Run's long-term impact on social-emotional life skills. Information emerging from interviews for life skills learning (Question 1) and transfer (Question 2) revealed several consistent themes. Alums articulated learning altruistic behaviors toward others such as caring, compassion, and respect as elementary-age participants, and detailed using interpersonal skills learned in Girls on the Run as middle schoolers, such as treating others with kindness, respect, and empathy; improved social interaction and communication skills; and showing an openness toward others' perspectives. Similarly, Alums gave examples of learning how to manage and express emotions as 4th graders and transferring emotion regulation and conflict resolution skills with peers, family, and others in their lives as middle schoolers. Corresponding findings for learning and transferring life skills also emerged for setting goals, adopting a positive mindset, and teamwork and group interaction skills. Ability to generalize interpersonal, self-management, goal setting, and conflict resolution skills to situations at school, with family members, and in other social contexts add to the literature on life skills transfer based on similar findings with other PA-PYD programs such as Sport Hartford (e.g., Bruening et al., 2009; Fuller et al., 2013), TPSR (e.g., Walsh et al., 2010; Wright et al., 2020), and The First Tee (Weiss et al., 2013, 2016). Overall, 85% of the interviewees in the current study answered affirmatively that they currently use life skills learned in Girls on the Run for situations at school, at home, in extracurricular activities, and in other situations. This percentage represents a very positive finding given that Alums were 4–5 years removed from participating in Girls on the Run and because young people learn life skills from individuals in many different social contexts, such as parents, teachers, and community leaders.

The common themes in our study for learning life skills in 4th grade and transferring life skills in 8th grade differed in the specificity of contexts and examples for how life skills are being applied. For example, Alums stated they use emotion regulation skills in two particular social contexts: reducing anxiety and stress in academic settings, such as taking exams and speaking in front of classmates, and in family situations such as calming down before speaking and taking deep breaths when arguing with a parent or sibling. These examples illustrate the developmental significance of life skills learning and transfer for adolescents, when academic challenges and demands take on greater meaning and parent and sibling interactions can become contentious (Weiss et al., 2013; Horn and Newton, 2019). Because adolescents experience many psychosocial and cognitive changes in the transition to and across adolescence, being knowledgeable and having ability to apply social-emotional life skills is important for navigating the challenges, expectations, and demands that come with growing older (Petitpas et al., 2005; Kipp, 2017; Weiss, 2019). Interview findings highlight how 8th grade middle schoolers are successfully using life skills learned in Girls on the Run to manage emotions relative to school demands; resolve conflict with peers and siblings; set realistic goals and persevere to achieve them; and adopt good interpersonal behaviors to form and maintain strong friendships. For instance, Alums described using a persistent mindset to meet assignment deadlines, using teamwork skills for group projects, and standing up for others when they are getting bullied. These findings align with other PA-PYD programs showing positive impact on forming and maintaining supportive relationships, regulating negative emotions, problem-solving to achieve goals, and adopting effective strategies to solve disagreements (e.g., VanGorden et al., 2010; Walsh et al., 2010; Weiss et al., 2013, 2016; McDonough et al., 2018).

Survey responses on the LSTS reinforced strong evidence from interviews for life skills transfer over time, specifically for managing emotions, resolving conflict, helping others, goal setting, standing up for others, and appreciating diversity. Between 85% and 92% of Alums responded at least “sort of true” but mostly “true” that they use these life skills because of participating in Girls on the Run. Scores crediting Girls on the Run for at least partially applying learned life skills as middle schoolers are positive signs of lasting impact, again considering their distance from having participated in the program and that adolescents learn life skills from individuals in many social contexts. Complementary findings from interviews and surveys offer evidence of lasting program impact on life skills learning and transfer from elementary to middle school years. Findings attributing positive change in personal and interpersonal life skills to their PA-PYD program are compatible with research conducted with former participants (e.g., VanGorden et al., 2010; Meléndez and Martinek, 2015; Weiss et al., 2016; McDonough et al., 2018; Cunningham et al., 2020).

As a PA-PYD program, running is not only a vehicle for teaching social-emotional skills, but also a platform for improving physical life skills such as motor abilities, physical fitness, knowledge of physical activity benefits, and physical activity levels. Because PA-PYD programs are defined as those that concurrently teach physical and psychosocial life skills (Petitpas et al., 2005), it is important to measure both in assessing program impact (Weiss and Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009; Weiss et al., in press). However, few studies have included physical competencies (e.g., physical activity level, improved sport skills) as evidence of successful PA-PYD outcomes (e.g., Bruening et al., 2009; Fuller et al., 2013; Weiss et al., 2019). In the current study, interview and survey methods assessed the lasting impact of Girls on the Run on Alums' learning and transfer of physical life skills. Interview responses of what physical life skills were learned (Question #1) and transferred (Question #2) elicited themes such as running-specific skills (technique, breathing, endurance), physical activity level, physical fitness, athletic body image, and confidence to do other sports. In addition, 90% of Alums stated that they learned about the importance of physical activity in Girls on the Run, with the predominant theme of “physical activity can enhance physical and mental health now and throughout life.” Other examples highlight learning the connection between physical activity and cognitive, emotional, and social benefits.

The majority of Alums (80% full sample, 92% interviewees) indicated they are still involved in sports and physical activities as 8th graders. These percentages compare favorably to the 48% national sample of female adolescents who played on a sports team during the past year (Centers for Disease Control Prevention, 2025). When prompted whether Girls on the Run affected their interest and participation in sports and physical activities, 90% of Alum interviewees confirmed with specific examples—by improving running-specific abilities (transferring to other sports requiring running), physical fitness, desire to stay active, and confidence to try out for a team. Collectively, interview findings for learning physical skills, importance of physical activity, percentage still involved in sports, and attribution to Girls on the Run for continued participation, provide evidence of lasting impact on physical life skills.

Strong interview evidence of learning and transferring physical life skills was not corroborated by survey findings showing lower physical activity levels than recommended. Nearly 50% of Alums indicated at least 5 days/week of at least 60 min of moderate physical activity, but only 13% were physically active daily for at least 60 min, the national guideline for promoting health and wellbeing (United States Department of Health Human Services, 2018). These findings are not exclusive to Alums, as national data from the Centers for Disease Control Prevention (2025) report that only 17% of adolescent girls are meeting the physical activity guidelines. The relatively low percentage of Alums who met the physical activity guidelines coupled with the high percentage participating in sports and physical activities suggest that multiple pathways are needed to meet the daily physical activity requirement. School and community sports are not sufficiently contributing to physical activity levels, and elimination and downsizing of school physical education and recess means that adequate physical activity must be sought from out-of-school-time contexts. National trends show that adolescent girls of color are less physically active than White girls (Centers for Disease Control Prevention, 2025), although Alums of color in this study scored nearly identical to White Alums in reporting an average of 4 days/week of moderate-intensity physical activity. Girls on the Run emphasizes creating inclusive and accessible experiences for all participants, and a diverse group of stakeholders favorably appraise the organization's commitment to and follow-through on related policies and opportunities (Weiss et al., 2023).

Whereas Girls on the Run's intentional life skills curriculum is the foundation helping to explain lasting impact on transferring social-emotional skills in adolescence, ultimately the trained, volunteer coaches are responsible for effectively teaching lessons, skills, and strategies to achieve these goals. All 52 girls expressed very positive and precise memories of their coaches' attributes, interactions, and impact on their experiences. Alums described coaches as competent, caring, and compassionate role models, who framed life skills lessons within a positive, welcoming, respectful, and enjoyable environment. Girls on the Run's national coach training is purposefully structured to prepare coaches for delivering life skills lessons as intended, along with emphasis on three behavioral strategies: (a) building supportive and trusting relationships; (b) creating a positive, inclusive environment; and (c) fostering a mastery motivational climate that emphasizes self-referenced, not social comparison, goals. These coaching behaviors are consistently associated with children's and adolescents' self-perceptions, positive affect, and motivational behaviors (Horn, 2015; Horn et al., 2026). In addition, Horn (2019) provided robust evidence of the ways in which coaches' feedback patterns influence young people's psychosocial health and wellbeing. This includes providing feedback that is positive and informationally-based, given in an autonomy-supportive manner, nurtures a growth mindset, and maintains an environment free from bias. The themes emerging from Alums' responses indicate a recollection of their coaches as engaging in these feedback patterns. These findings provide support for the effectiveness of Girls on the Run's national coach training by showing the link between coaching behaviors and psychosocial outcomes, as illustrated by such quotes such as: “helped us develop running skills and always encouraged our efforts,” “enhanced our enjoyment of running and confidence to get better,” “enhanced our self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-image,” “exhibited kindness, caring, and respect in their interactions with us,” and “created an inclusive, supportive, and positive group climate.”

Together, the intentional life skills curriculum and systematic coach training that optimizes fidelity of lesson delivery and promotes developmentally-appropriate and effective coach-participant relationships are the underlying processes explaining initial evidence of Girls on the Run's lasting impact on Alums' retention and transfer of life skills. These findings add to evidence from previous research with Girls on the Run showing season-long improvement in psychosocial behaviors and physical activity level that was retained 3 months after season's end (Weiss et al., 2019, 2020). Further support for the intentional curriculum and coach training as processes explaining program impact comes from responses to the question, “was participating in Girls on the Run different in any way than other sports or physical activities that you did in elementary school?” An overwhelming number of Alum interviewees (96%) provided examples distinguishing Girls on the Run from other sports and physical activities. Although Alums were years removed from participating in the program, they contrasted Girls on the Run's focus on teaching life lessons within a welcoming, supportive environment to the focus of traditional youth sports on competition, performance outcome, and social comparison. Many Alums referenced the long-term relevance of life skills lessons to their current and future lives. Differences for the two settings are not surprising given that most youth sports programs are not grounded in a PYD philosophy. That is, they do not include an intentional life skills curriculum and explicit training of coaches to deliver life skills with fidelity. The number of and precise examples by Alums discerning differences between Girls on the Run and other sports and physical activities is testament to the developmental philosophy of Girls on the Run.

Our innovative retrospective design was a strength of the first study phase of our broader longitudinal project of Girls on the Run alums. By first tapping into Alums who were 4–5 years distanced from participating, we determined how much they remembered about life skill lessons and strategies, followed by questioning whether and how they are using learned life skills in their present lives as 8th grade middle school adolescents. In addition, using mixed methods provided the complementary benefits of quantitative data from a large sample size and the in-depth examples from a purposive sub-sample of Alums. Assessing retention and transfer from 4th to 8th grade using both surveys and interviews was a novel way of gauging lasting program impact. In future waves of our longitudinal project, in which we assess Alums in the transition to high school, as seniors in high school, and beyond, we will employ more traditional ways of comparing change and stability over time on life skills transfer, self-perceptions, social connections, and physical activity behavior.

We acknowledge the main limitation of this first study phase, in that we did not have an appropriate comparison group of 8th grade girls who did not participate in Girls on the Run. Our efforts to find and recruit a comparable group were unsuccessful. We initially employed a novel strategy that involved recruiting from Alums' same-age friends, but the number of steps required for obtaining data virtually across 41 states with under-18-year-olds was not a feasible way to obtain a comparison sample (i.e., Alums referred a friend, Alums sent a QR code to friend, friend had to request their parent's consent, researchers emailed the parent a survey link to pass on to their daughter, who needed to access and complete the survey). We also tried to recruit an 8th grade comparison sample from middle schools and from an online research panel, resulting in little cooperation from principals and online panelists that were not comparable to the Alums sample. For future phases of our longitudinal project, we are exploring alternative ways of securing a comparable group of non-Girls on the Run participants to enable a stronger test of Girls on the Run's lasting impact on social-emotional and physical life skills.

A second limitation to the current study is that we had a relatively homogenous group of Alums who agreed to be surveyed and interviewed. This group was comprised of 13- and 14-year-olds who primarily identified as White and participated for 2–3 years. In addition, Alums who assented to participate may have been those with the most positive recollections of their experiences. Thus, future PYD research is needed to examine these same issues in a broader, and more diverse, sample of individuals.

In conclusion, Alums displayed remarkable recall, enthusiastic memories, and detailed examples of lessons, skills, and strategies they learned—and now use—from competent, caring, and compassionate coaches. Findings from 8th grade middle school Alums show that Girls on the Run has had a lasting positive impact on social-emotional life skills that are transferred to situations adolescents face at school, in peer interactions, and with family members. Long-term impact also extends to social, psychological, and physical attributes, such as improved communication skills; increased perceptions of competence and self-worth; and better physical skills and confidence to try other activities. Interview evidence of learning the health benefits of physical activity and percentage still involved in sports and physical activities, however, did not translate to physical activity levels aligned with the recommended guidelines. In future phases of our longitudinal, developmentally-based project, we will explore change and stability in social-emotional and physical life skills and behaviors as 8th grade Alums transition to 9th grade in high school and beyond. Our overall goal is to assess Girls on the Run's enduring impact on perceptions, behaviors, and life skills during these critical periods of academic challenges, peer pressure and conflict, and age-related expectations and demands.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fdpys.2026.1838056/full#supplementary-material

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Footnotes

Edited by: Andrea Ettekal, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX, United States

Reviewed by: Travis Scheadler, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC, United States

Kristina Moore, Boston University, United States

Footnotes

A program is also offered for 6th to 8th grade girls; over 90% of participants in Girls on the Run are enrolled in the elementary-age program, which was the focus of our longitudinal study.

We sought a large sample of interviewees for the first phase of our longitudinal study to maximize retaining a sufficient number of interviewees at subsequent phases of our project, given the potential for attrition over time.

Our subsequent use of “impact” should, therefore, be understood as Alums' perceptions of impact.

Pseudonyms are used for all quotations.

Comparisons by White-BIPOC groups revealed no statistically significant differences and similar mean scores for all life skills transfer scales.