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Frontiers in Developmental Psychology ·

Volume 4 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fdpys.2026.1861151

Association between parental support from immigrant parents and anxiety/depression of second-generation teenagers

  • Ellice Lim1
  • Talia Dardis1
  • Natalia M. Rojas2
  • Sungwoo Lim3*corresponding author
  • Bonnie D. Kerker2
  1. 1Edgemont Junior Senior High School, Scarsdale, NY, United States
  2. 2Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
  3. 3Department of Oral Health Sciences, Kornberg School of Dentistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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Abstract

Anxiety and depression are growing concerns for teenagers from immigrant families. Parental support may help reduce teenagers' mental health burdens, but evidence among immigrant families is limited. The purpose of this study was to (1) test the hypothesis that parental support is associated with teenagers' mental health in Asian and Latino immigrant families, and (2) assess if this relationship differs by race/ethnicity, gender, age, and parents' education. Surveys were administered among a convenience sample of 101 Asian and Latino teenagers in Westchester County and New York City, New York. Outcomes were depressive and anxiety symptoms, measured by the modified PHQ-9 and GAD-7 for teenagers, respectively. Emotional and informational support from parents were measured by the Perception of Parental Support questions. The association between parental support and teenagers' mental health was assessed using linear regression after accounting for age, gender, parents' education, and household income. Interactions between parental support and potential moderators were also tested. About 15% of teenagers reported moderate or moderately severe depression, while 11% reported moderate or severe anxiety. Both emotional and informational support were negatively associated with teenagers' depression and anxiety (p < 0.01). However, informational support was not associated with mental health among Asian teenagers. The relationship did not significantly differ by gender, age, and parents' education. Higher support from immigrant parents was associated with lower scores of teenagers' depression and anxiety. Moderation by race/ethnicity points to the importance of tailored approaches when developing interventions to promote teenagers' mental health among immigrant households.

Keywords

Introduction

Over the past few decades, the number of immigrant families in the United States (US) has grown rapidly, especially in New York City (NYC) and its surrounding counties. According to the US Census Bureau (Anderson and Hemez, 2022), nearly one in four children in the US has at least one immigrant parent. While these families bring greater cultural diversity to the US, teenagers born in the US with parents born abroad (“second-generation teenagers”; Harris and Chen, 2023) face unique challenges, especially having to straddle their parents' culture with American culture, which may increase their risk of mental health struggles (Abdulhamed et al., 2022). Previous research suggests that teenagers from immigrant parents are more likely to experience higher levels of depression and anxiety than their non-immigrant peers (Abdulhamed et al., 2022). These differences underscore the need to better understand the major drivers for mental health among immigrant teenagers.

Parental support has been shown to positively influence teenagers' mental health (Almedom, 2005). It refers to the resources and assistance that parents offer to teenagers through their relationships, including emotional support (e.g., empathy, listening, being present for the person) and informational support (e.g., advice and resources; Chentsova Dutton et al., 2020). Receiving higher levels of parental support benefits mental health, and specifically, emotional support is suggested to be more strongly associated with lower depressive symptoms than informational support (Camara et al., 2017). In immigrant families, cultural contexts may play an important role in shaping this relationship as different cultural norms may be manifested as different types of parental support. However, little has been studied on this among second-generation teenagers and its moderation by cultural contexts. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to examine if parental support is associated with second-generation Asian and Latino teenagers' depression and anxiety, and if this relationship differs by race/ethnicity, gender, age, and parents' education.

Mental health disparities between immigrant and non-immigrant teenagers

Depression and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) are two of the most common mental health conditions among teenagers (Racine et al., 2021). When teenagers experience disruption in their brain's ability to regulate mood and stress (“depression”) or a chronic state of excessive worry and tension (“GAD”), their daily life routines, such as academics and relationships, are disrupted and negatively impacted (Linan et al., 2026).

Multiple studies have addressed the “immigrant paradox”, the idea that first-generation immigrants often show equal or better mental health outcomes than non-immigrants because immigrants who can migrate tend to be healthier (Lanre Folorunsho et al., 2024). First-generation immigrant teenagers in England performed better academically and psychologically compared to second-generation counterparts and beyond (Bowe, 2017). However, this narrative has contributed to reducing attention to the substantial mental health challenges immigrant teenagers face (Greene and Maggs, 2018).

Additionally, a few recent studies contradict the immigrant paradox. Studies in Europe and the US reported higher levels of anxiety and depression among immigrant teenagers compared with non-immigrant counterparts (Abdulhamed et al., 2022; Diamantis et al., 2023). In Finland, teenagers with immigrant parents reported higher rates of anxiety and depression compared to thosefrom non-immigrant parents (Abdulhamed et al., 2022). In the US, Kim et al. (2018) found that parental immigrant status predicted greater depressive symptoms among Asian American and Latino teenagers, though not among European American teenagers. These differences have been attributed to various factors, including discrimination, acculturation, and parental support.

There is an inconsistency in the reported relationships between immigrant status and teenagers' mental health, and studies focusing on second-generation teenagers remain limited. This highlights the need for more research on second-generation teenagers.

Parental support and teenagers' mental health

Previous literature has shown that parental support helps create a sense of belonging and trust among teenagers, which has a protective role in teenagers' mental health (Almedom, 2005).

Social support theory provides a theoretical justification for the positive impact of parental support on mental health (Alyahya et al., 2025). In this theory, emotional or informational support offers a sense of belonging and security. It encourages positive adaptive strategies, minimizing symptoms of anxiety and depression by promoting feelings of purpose and connection (Alyahya et al., 2025; Ruihua et al., 2025). Chentsova Dutton et al. (2020) demonstrated that these theoretical and empirical pathways were replicated among teenagers from the US, Japan, South Korea, and China. In their cross-cultural study, they found that higher levels of emotional and informational support from parents were linked with lower distress across four different countries.

Within immigrant samples, some studies have found that only a particular type of parental support was associated with teenagers' mental health. According to the Finnish study (Abdulhamed et al., 2022), higher levels of discussing personal matters with parents, which was a measure of the functional relationships between teenagers and parents, were negatively associated with depression and anxiety among both first- and second-generation teenagers. In a NYC study of low-income Chinese immigrant women, Tian et al. (2024) measured three types of social support, including instrumental, emotional, and informational support. They found that instrumental and emotional support were associated with lower anxiety and depression, but informational support had no significant impact. They further stratified data by pregnant vs. parenting women and found that the impact of social support on mental health was stronger for pregnant women, suggesting that pregnancy-related stress makes emotional and practical assistance even more important.

However, it is unclear whether these findings from various immigrant samples apply to second-generation teenagers.

Contexts that may influence the association between parental support and teenagers' mental health

The association between parental support and mental health may differ by cultural contexts (Yang et al., 2024). For example, Asian parents may emphasize informational support linked to education and achievement (Corwyn and Bradley, 2008), whereas Latino parents may stress emotional closeness within family relationships (Gonzalez-Detrés et al., 2025). In addition, Asian parents are less likely to express positive emotions because of cultural norms promoting emotional suppression (Luo et al., 2022). Consequently, parental support may not be well appreciated by Asian teenagers and is less strongly associated with anxiety and depression. Similar to cultural contexts, the socioeconomic status (SES) of households may influence how parental support is associated with mental health. Higher SES households have been associated with greater parental support, as the availability of resources and motivations from higher educated parents could encourage formal and informal parental involvement (Treviño et al., 2021). These could in turn lead to better teenagers' mental health (Fakhrunnisak and Patria, 2022). In contrast, Diamantis et al. (2023) found that the second-generation teenagers, compared with non-immigrant teenagers, had higher odds of emotional distress if they came from moderate or high SES households (OR = 1.48, 95% CI = 1.05, 2.08). This relationship was no longer statistically significant in the first-generation or the second-generation teenagers from low SES households, implying that SES may shape the relationship in some complex ways that have not been researched.

Gender of teenagers may moderate the relationship between parental support and teenagers' mental health (Khan et al., 2025; Yoon et al., 2023). Prior studies show gender differences in exposure, reactivity to stressors, and social support (Chaplin et al., 2008). Females generally report receiving a higher level of social support than males. It is likely due to gendered societal norms that male socialization focuses more on autonomy and independence, whereas female socialization emphasizes intimacy and verbal expressiveness (Khan et al., 2025). Due to females' appreciation for intimacy, they are more likely to turn to other people for support in stressful situations and are more strongly influenced by the quality of social support relations (Bedrov and Gable, 2022).

Lastly, the ages of teenagers may moderate the relationship between parental support and mental health because of different developmental stages and corresponding needs for parental support (Collier Villaume et al., 2023; Yoon et al., 2023). National survey data show that younger adults ages 18–29 years reported higher levels of anxiety and depression than older adults, with the prevalence of anxiety decreasing by approximately 4% for each decade from the highest prevalence among those ages 18–29 years (Collier Villaume et al., 2023). However, existing studies rarely investigate differences in mental health challenges by age among teenagers. Although cognitive capacities such as logical reasoning and memory continue to grow and mature throughout the teenage years (Mercurio et al., 2020), those ages 13–18 years are often grouped in research as “teenagers,” which may prevent the discovery of age-specific relationships between parental support and mental health.

The current study

Despite evidence linking parental support to mental health, there are only a few studies examining whether there are different associations between the type of parental support and second-generation teenagers' mental health. Moreover, the potential role of important contexts (age, gender, and SES) in shaping parental support and its impact on mental health is not yet explored fully. Lastly, mental health disparities and the role of parental support are rarely compared between different racial and ethnic immigrant groups, leaving a gap in understanding how specific cultural contexts shape this relationship. Without a clearer understanding of these dynamics, interventions for immigrant families may become too general and lack cultural relevance.

Addressing these gaps, the current study targets second-generation teenagers from Asian and Latino households, which are two largest ethnic groups among US immigrants (Portes and Rumbaut, 2024), aiming to test the hypothesis that emotional and informational support from immigrant parents is associated with their teenagers' anxiety and depression. A secondary objective of the study is to test whether the association between parental support and teenagers' mental health differs by race/ethnicity, age, gender, and SES.

Methods

Participants

Data for this cross-sectional and observational study came from convenience samples of second-generation teenagers aged 13–19 years from Asian and Latino families, living in Westchester County, NY, and New York City, NY. From June to September 2025, we sent invitation letters with a link to an online consent form and survey questionnaire to potential participants. There were eligibility criteria to make sure only second-generation teenagers were participating in the study (Appendix I). These materials were sent to students, Asian and Latino heritage school clubs, local churches, local government agencies, and community-based organizations. We also directly reached out to target groups from local shopping malls and invited them to fill out the paper-based consent form and survey questionnaire. As a result, 101 second-generation teenagers responded to the survey with participant consent (those ages 19 years) and parental consent (those ages ≤ 18 years). Given the exploratory nature of studying this unique sample, we did not conduct a prior power calculation based on predetermined effect sizes. To encourage participation, we used a $5 Amazon gift card as an incentive for survey completion during September 2025. The Institutional Review Board at Edgemont Junior-Senior High School reviewed and approved the study protocol.

Measures

To measure two mental health outcomes, depression and anxiety, we used two publicly available, validated survey instruments: the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), a 9-item depression assessment tool; and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), a 7-item initial generalized anxiety disorder screening tool. Both were modified for teenagers. They have been tested for reliability and validated toward Asian and Latino teenagers (Casares et al., 2024; Gao and Liu, 2024). To measure perceived parental informational and emotional support, we used the Perception of Parental Support questions, developed and validated by Choi et al. (2010). These instruments had excellent internal consistency in the study participants (Cronbach's alpha = 0.83 for PHQ-9, 0.82 for GAD-7, 0.90 for emotional support, 0.80 for informational support). We also collected information about age, gender, zip code of residence, parents' education, and household income (see full questionnaire in Appendix II).

Analytic approach

We first described demographic characteristics of the participants. We computed frequencies of categorical variables and mean and standard deviation of continuous variables. We then described perceived emotional and information support from parents by averaging responses from three questions for emotional support and three questions for informational support. For depression, we recorded and combined responses from the 9 PHQ-9 items and calculated the continuous depression score. We then calculated five severity categories (minimal, mild, moderate, moderately severe, and severe; Kroenke et al., 2001). For anxiety, we used the same recording process to convert GAD-7 items into an anxiety score, and calculated four severity categories (Sapra et al., 2020). We tested differences in demographic characteristics, emotional and informational support, and depression and anxiety outcomes between Asian and Latino groups using independent t-tests for continuous variables and chi-squared tests for categorical variables. Lastly, we tested relationships between each of the mental health outcomes and each of the parental support measures using multivariable linear regression models after accounting for demographic variables. To test moderation by race/ethnicity, gender, age, and SES, we stratified data by each of the potential moderators and repeated the regression analyses. We also included and tested an interaction term between each of the potential moderators and each type of the parental support in the regression models.

To address potential bias due to missing household income (n = 45) and parents' education data (n = 9), we performed multiple imputation and generated five imputed datasets using the R MICE package (Azur et al., 2011; Appendix III). Statistical significance was determined using a two-sided p-value < 0.05. All analyses were performed using the R Studio 2025.09.1 version.

Results

Of 101 second-generation immigrant teenagers who responded to the survey, 59% were Asian only, 38% were Latino only, and 3% identified their race and ethnicity as both Asian and Latino (Table 1). Their average age was 15 years old [Standard Deviation (SD) = 1.82]. Sixty percent were female. About one-third (31%) of parents reported having a Master's degree, 28% reported a Doctorate or professional degree, and 12% reported a Bachelor's degree. Fifty five percent of teenagers came from families whose annual household income was $100,000 or more, while 9% came from families with an annual household income < $25,000. Lastly, 68% of the respondents came from Westchester County, 19% came from NYC, and the remaining 13% did not provide their zip codes. Compared with Latino teenagers, Asian teenagers were not significantly different in age and gender, but were more likely to have parents with higher educational attainment and higher annual household income.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics, perceived parental support, and mental health of the study participants.

AllAsianLatino
VariablesN%N%N%p-values
Race and ethnicity
Asian only6059%––––
Hispanic/Latino only3838%––––
Both Asian and Hispanic/Latino33%––––
Age (years)0.22
132222%1423%819%
141616%1017%615%
151616%915%717%
162323%1525%819%
1777%47%37%
181212%813%410%
1955%00%512%
Gender0.93
Female6160%3762%2458%
Male3838%2237%1639%
Prefer not to disclose22%11%12%
Annual household income+0.03
Less than $25,00099%610%512%
$25,000–$50,0001212%46%1024%
$50,000–$75,0001010%610%717%
$75,000–$100,00066%35%37%
$100,000 or more5555%4470%1639%
Parents' highest education attainment+< 0.01
No formal education55%12%410%
Some high school88%12%717%
High school diploma or equivalent1111%23%922%
Associate's degree22%23%00%
College11%12%00%
Bachelor's degree1212%711%717%
Master's degree3131%2641%819%
Doctorate or professional degree2828%2336%615%
Depression0.17
Minimal5554%2847%2766%
Mild3131%2135%1024%
Moderate1111%915%25%
Moderately severe44%23%25%
Anxiety0.03
Minimal6160%3558%2663%
Mild2929%1525%1434%
Moderate1010%1017%00%
Severe11%00%12%
M (SD)M (SD)M (SD)
Emotional support3.1 (0.9)3.0 (0.9)3.2 (0.9)0.20
Informational support3.3 (0.8)3.3 (0.8)3.3 (0.8)0.67

M and SD represent mean and standard deviation, respectively. p-values came from independent t-tests and chi-squared tests to compare demographic characteristics, perceived parental support, and mental health between Asian and Latino teenagers.

When Asian and Latino teenagers were compared, those identified as both Asian and Latino were combined with those identified as Latino.

+Pooled estimates from multiple imputation.

Scores on the perceived parental support measures ranged from 0 to 4. Adolescents reported relatively high levels of parental support, with a mean emotional support score of 3.07 (SD = 0.94) and a mean informational support score of 3.28 (SD = 0.80). Depression scores ranged from 0 to 19, with a mean score of 4.80 (SD = 4.17). Anxiety scores ranged from 0 to 15, with a mean score of 4.31 (SD = 3.61). Overall, 15% of participants screened positive for moderate or moderately severe depression, while 11% screened positive for moderate or severe anxiety. As shown in Table 1, levels of perceived emotional and informational parental support did not differ significantly between Asian and Latino adolescents. Mean depression scores were also similar across the two groups (p = 0.17). However, the prevalence of moderate or severe anxiety was significantly higher among Asian adolescents than among Latino adolescents (p = 0.03).

There was a negative relationship between parental support and teenagers' mental health according to the linear regression analysis (Table 2). After accounting for age, gender, parents' education, and household income, the relationships between depression and emotional or informational support were negative and statistically significant (p < 0.01). Similar negative and significant relationships were observed when depression was replaced with anxiety as an outcome.

Table 2. Coefficients and standard errors from the linear regression analyses+.

Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
VariablesB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIp
Emotional support−2.36 (0.44)[−3.23, −1.49]< 0.01––−1.75 (0.37)[−2.49, −1.00]< 0.01––
Informational support––−2.34 (0.60)[−3.53, −1.15]< 0.01––−1.75 (0.49)[−2.73, −0.77]< 0.01
Age (years)
13 (Ref)––––––––
140.03 (1.21)[−2.39, 2.44]0.980.17 (1.29)[−2.40, 2.75]0.890.19 (1.06)[−1.92, 2.30]0.860.29 (1.11)[−1.92, 2.51]0.79
15−0.69 (1.20)[−3.09, 1.70]0.57−0.97 (1.28)[−3.51, 1.57]0.45−0.81 (1.05)[−2.90, 1.29]0.45−1.01 (1.10)[−3.20, 1.17]0.36
160.63 (1.10)[−1.56, 2.81]0.570.88 (1.17)[−1.44, 3.20]0.461.13 (0.97)[−0.81, 3.06]0.251.31 (1.02)[−0.71, 3.34]0.20
171.44 (1.65)[−1.84, 4.71]0.380.33 (1.77)[−3.19, 3.85]0.850.55 (1.44)[−2.31, 3.40]0.70−0.28 (1.52)[−3.31, 2.74]0.85
181.76 (1.30)[−0.83, 4.34]0.180.28 (1.45)[−2.59, 3.16]0.84−0.59 (1.14)[−2.85, 1.66]0.60−1.69 (1.24)[−4.15, 0.76]0.17
191.33 (1.86)[−2.37, 5.03]0.480.64 (2.01)[−3.36, 4.64]0.75−1.70 (1.63)[−4.95, 1.55]0.30−2.22 (1.73)[−5.66, 1.22]0.20
Gender
Female (Ref)––––––––
Male−0.40 (0.80)[−1.98, 1.18]0.62−1.10 (0.83)[−2.75,0.55]0.19−1.18 (0.70)[−2.57, 0.20]0.09−1.70 (0.71)[−3.11, −0.28]0.02
Prefer not to disclose−1.04 (2.80)[−6.62,4.53]0.71−0.63 (2.99)[−6.59, 5.33]0.83−0.36 (2.45)[−5.24, 4.52]0.89−0.07 (2.58)[−5.20, 5.05]0.98
Household income
< $50K (Ref)––––––––
$50K– < $100K−0.15 (1.35)[−2.89, 2.59]0.910.25 (1.49)[−2.77, 3.27]0.870.89 (1.09)[−1.28, 3.06]0.411.20 (1.17)[−1.12, 3.53]0.31
$100K or more−0.76 (1.32)[−3.44, 1.92]0.57−0.59 (1.49)[−3.62, 2.44]0.69−0.52 (1.03)[−2.58, 1.53]0.61−0.38 (1.15)[−2.67, 1.91]0.74
Parents' education
High school degree or lower (Ref)––––––––
Associate or College degree−0.46 (1.33)[−3.11,2.18]0.73−0.35 (1.42)[−3.16, 2.47]0.81−0.86 (1.17)[−3.20, 1.48]0.46−0.78 (1.23)[−3.23, 1.67]0.53
Master's degree or higher0.47 (1.23)[−1.99, 2.92]0.710.28 (1.34)[−2.39, 2.96]0.830.12 (1.07)[−2.01, 2.26]0.91−0.02 (1.15)[−2.31, 2.27]0.99
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.270.170.260.19

B = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval.

Model 1 outcome: depression; Model 2 outcome: depression; Model 3 outcome: anxiety; Model 4 outcome: anxiety.

For household income and parents' education variables, response categories were combined to address small counts.

+Pooled estimates from multiple imputation.

The relationship between depression or anxiety and emotional support was significant for both racial/ethnic groups, but stronger for Latino compared with Asian teenagers (Table 3). However, the relationship between depression or anxiety and informational support was only statistically significant for Latinos. A significant interaction effect between informational support and race/ethnicity supported this moderation effect (Appendix IV).

Table 3. Coefficients and standard errors (SE) from the linear regression analyses by race/ethnicity and age+.

Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
VariablesB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIp
Stratified by race/ethnicity
Asian
Emotional support−1.69 (0.63)[−2.95, −0.43]0.01–––−1.51 (0.58)[−2.67, −0.34]0.01–––
Informational support–––−1.53 (0.87)[−3.30, 0.25]0.09–––−1.08 (0.81)[−2.71, 0.56]0.19
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.150.070.210.13
Latino
Emotional support−3.38 (0.64)[−4.70, −2.05]< 0.01–––−2.04 (0.55)[−3.17, −0.90]< 0.01–––
Informational support–––−2.82 (0.86)[−4.60, −1.04]< 0.01–––−2.68 (0.55)[−3.82, −1.55]< 0.01
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.540.300.310.45
All with interaction
Emotional support × Latino vs. Asian−1.21 (0.83)[−2.86, 0.43]0.15–––−0.51 (0.74)[−1.99, 0.97]0.49–––
Informational support × Latino vs. Asian–––−1.14 (1.01)[−3.15, 0.87]0.26–––−1.86 (0.89)[−3.63, −0.09]0.04
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.280.200.240.22
Stratified by age groups
Ages 13–14 years
Emotional support−1.76 (0.69)[−3.17, −0.35]0.02–––−2.35 (0.66)[−3.70, −0.99]< 0.01–––
Informational support–––−1.70 (0.99)[−3.73, 0.33]0.10–––−2.28 (1.00)[−4.33, −0.23]0.03
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.130.030.240.09
Ages 15–19 years
Emotional support−3.08 (0.54)[−4.17, −1.99]< 0.01–––−1.41 (0.46)[−2.33, −0.49]< 0.01–––
Informational support–––−2.96 (0.65)[−4.27, −1.65]< 0.01–––−1.15 (0.54)[−2.23, −0.07]0.04
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.400.310.290.23
All with interaction
Emotional support × Ages 13–14 years vs. Ages 15–19 years1.29 (0.80)[−0.29, 2.88]0.11–––−0.67 (0.72)[−2.09, 0.75]0.35–––
Informational support × Ages 13–14 years vs. Ages 15–19 years–––1.37 (1.05)[−0.72, 3.46]0.19–––−0.62 (0.95)[−2.50, 1.26]0.52
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.290.200.250.15

B = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error. CI = confidence interval.

Model 1 outcome: depression; Model 2 outcome: depression; Model 3 outcome: anxiety; Model 4 outcome: anxiety.

For household income and parents' education variables, response categories were combined to address small counts.

The models stratified by race/ethnicity included age, gender, parents' education, and household income. The models stratified by age groups included gender, parents' education, and household income. The models with interaction by race/ethnicity for all participants included age, gender, parents' education, household income, and race/ethnicity. The models with interaction by age groups for all participants included age groups, gender, parents' education, and household income.

+Pooled estimates from multiple imputation.

When data were stratified by age groups (13–14 years old vs. 15–19 years old), parental support was more strongly associated with anxiety among the young vs. old age groups (Table 3). When stratified by gender, the relationship between emotional support and anxiety was stronger among girls than boys (Table 4). When stratified by parents' education, informational support was no longer associated with anxiety among those with highly educated parents (Table 4). However, there was no evidence on moderation by age groups, gender, or parents' education, as interaction terms were not statistically significant.

Table 4. Coefficients and standard errors (SE) from the linear regression analyses by gender and parents' education+.

Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
VariablesB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIpB (SE)95% CIp
Stratified by gender
Male
Emotional support−2.01 (0.60)[−3.26, −0.76]< 0.01–––−1.28 (0.53)[−2.37, −0.19]0.02–––
Informational support–––−2.22 (0.79)[−3.86, −0.59]0.01–––−1.41 (0.67)[−2.80, −0.03]0.05
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.340.280.280.25
Female
Emotional support−2.81 (0.54)[−3.90, −1.72]< 0.01–––−2.01 (0.53)[−3.07, −0.95]< 0.01–––
Informational support–––−2.51 (0.83)[−4.18, −0.85]< 0.01–––−2.13 (0.73)[−3.60, −0.66]< 0.01
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.380.190.240.16
All with interaction
Emotional support × Female vs. Male−1.14 (0.81)[−2.76, 0.47]0.16–––−0.68 (0.72)[−2.12, 0.75]0.35–––
Informational support × Female vs. Male–––−0.19 (1.05)[−2.29, 1.90]0.85–––−0.37 (0.92)[−2.21, 1.47]0.69
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.290.170.260.19
Stratified by patents' education
College degree or lower
Emotional support−2.82 (0.68)[−4.21, −1.42]< 0.01–––−1.47 (0.53)[−2.56, −0.38]0.01–––
Informational support–––−3.42 (1.06)[−5.61, −1.22]< 0.01–––−1.99 (0.75)[−3.52, −0.46]0.01
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.380.290.210.20
Master's degree or higher
Emotional support−1.87 (0.57)[−3.03, −0.71]< 0.01–––−1.64 (0.54)[−2.74, −0.54]< 0.01–––
Informational support–––−1.36 (0.67)[−2.71, −0.02]0.05–––−1.27 (0.67)[−2.61, 0.08]0.06
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.310.200.300.23
All with interaction
Emotional support × College degree or lower vs. Master's degree or higher−1.09 (0.83)[−2.74,0.57]0.19–––−0.05 (0.70)[−1.43,1.34]0.95–––
Informational support × College degree or lower vs. Master's degree or higher–––−1.61 (1.07)[−3.74, 0.52]0.14–––−0.95 (0.90)[−2.73, 0.84]0.29
Adj. R<sup>2</sup>0.280.200.250.19

B = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error. Model 1 outcome: depression; Model 2 outcome: depression; Model 3 outcome: anxiety; Model 4 outcome: anxiety.

For household income and parents' education variables, response categories were combined to address small counts.

The models stratified by gender groups included age, parents' education, and household income. The models stratified by parents' education groups included age, gender, and household income. The models with interaction terms for all participants included age, gender, parents' education, and household income.

+Pooled estimates from multiple imputation.

Discussion

In this study of Asian and Latino second-generation teenagers in NY, we found that higher levels of emotional and informational support from immigrant parents were associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety. In addition, we found evidence that this relationship was significantly moderated by race/ethnicity, implying the importance of cultural context when understanding the association between parental support and teenagers' mental health.

The majority of the second-generation teenagers reported minimal or mild depression and anxiety. The prevalence of teenagers with moderate or moderately severe depression was 15%, which was lower than that of depression among US teenagers according to the 2021–2023 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (19%) and NYC teenagers ages 13–17 years in 2023 (25%; Brody and Hughes, 2025; Hamwey et al., 2024). Similarly, the prevalence of anxiety in this study (12%) was lower than the global prevalence of youth anxiety symptoms (21%) in 2020–2021 (Racine et al., 2021) and the prevalence of anxiety among Finnish immigrant teenagers (17%; Abdulhamed et al., 2022), and this may be because a large proportion of the study samples came from wealthy suburban neighborhoods, which are associated with lower prevalence of mental health conditions (Ettman et al., 2020). Another explanation may reflect differences in the study settings, study populations, and time periods between the current and other studies.

The observed association between emotional support and teenagers' mental health is consistent with previous findings among pregnant and postpartum Chinese immigrant women from NYC (Tian et al., 2024). Due to the cross-sectional nature of this sample, directionality cannot be assessed. Our findings do align with the Social Support theory (Alyahya et al., 2025), implying that emotional support from parents may play a positive role in mitigating anxiety and depressive symptoms among teenagers, especially when they face unique challenges due to cultural differences between home and schools and/or discrimination as immigrants.

Unlike emotional support, the relationship between informational support and teenagers' mental health was inconsistent. Whereas informational support was significantly associated with depression and anxiety among Latino teenagers, it was not associated with mental health outcomes among Asian teenagers or those with highly educated parents. This may be attributed to the cultural and language barrier between first- and second-generation immigrants, which may negatively affect delivery of helpful information and advice that teenagers are looking for. With limited social networks and lack of familiarity with educational and economic systems in a foreign country, resources that immigrant parents could provide to their teenagers may be limited (Falah-Hassani et al., 2015; Sentell et al., 2007). In contrast, providing information about academics and careers may drive teenagers' anxiety and depression, as teenagers may perceive receiving this type of support as a high expectation from parents. A Korean study of middle and high school students found that higher levels of parental education led to an increase in teenagers' perceived academic stress and a decrease in their sense of wellbeing, increasing the risk of depression (Jang et al., 2020).

The relationship between perceived parental support and mental health was stronger for Latino vs. Asian teenagers. This could be due to the strong ties between family members; familismo is a Latino cultural value, meaning the importance of strong family loyalty, closeness, and getting along with each other (Gonzalez-Detrés et al., 2025). These strong ties have been attributed to helping new immigrants adjust and confront challenges in foreign countries (Baca Zinn, 1994). The family serves as a natural support system for Latinos, as family members are crucial sources of emotional and informational support during challenging times (Villatoro et al., 2014). Asian culture also highly values strong family ties, but because of cultural norms to suppress particular emotions (such as excitement or pride) in Asian culture, Asian teenagers may perceive parental support less clearly than their Latino counterparts (Luo et al., 2022).

Mental health was more strongly associated with emotional support among girls vs. boys, despite lack of evidence on moderation by gender. This is consistent with the previous findings where women were more likely to use emotional support to handle stressful situations, whereas men used more problem-focused or instrumental methods (Matud, 2004). Socialization theory provides a potential theoretical explanation for the observed gender difference. It suggests a gender-specific coping mechanism in which men are socialized to use more active and instrumental coping behaviors, and women are socialized to use more passive and emotion-focused behaviors (Eagly and Wood, 1991).

Similar to teenagers' gender, the strength of the relationship between parental support and mental health differed by teenagers' age, although moderation by age was not significant. For those ages 13–14 years, anxiety was more strongly associated with emotional and informational support from parents. This may reflect the fact that younger teenagers are more dependent on parental support when encountering academic and social challenges. For example, in the study of middle school students in Maryland, perceived parental involvement with education was negatively associated with students' mental health difficulties (Wang et al., 2019). In contrast, older teenagers, compared with younger teenagers, may develop increased autonomy and coping skills to handle stressful events, as evidenced in the study of 201 families where decision-making autonomy increased from early to late adolescence (Wray-Lake et al., 2010).

Implications

Given that parental support is associated with their second-generation teenagers' mental health, it is crucial to provide training for immigrant parents to help them understand the diverse types of parental support and their associations with teenagers' mental health. The present finding on emotional support also emphasizes the need to educate the parents on strategies to express empathy, emotional responsiveness, and the act of listening and being present. Future interventions should prioritize strengthening emotional communication within immigrant families, which may create a more supportive and open parent-child relationship, a protective factor for mental wellbeing. Immigrant parents may benefit from greater access to resources that help them stay informed about information relevant to their teenagers' needs.

Moreover, these findings can inform the development of community-based and culturally sensitive programs for the specific needs of immigrant families. It would be valuable to explore how different cultural backgrounds influence parents' perceptions and expressions of emotional and informational support, and the long-term effect of this support on immigrant youths' mental health.

Limitations and strengths

Several limitations of the current study should be noted. First, the convenience sample limited the ability to generalize broadly, but the sample was reflective of a specific segment of the immigrant population in the US. Second, many participants did not report their parents' income, indicating that they might not know their parents' income, and others may have guessed when asked about it. To address this potential bias, we used multiple imputation. Third, since the data were based on self-reports, responses might be biased. Although we used well-validated questions to measure anxiety, depression, and perceived parental support, we cannot rule out errors that could be affected by peer-to-peer interactions and personal relationships with respondents. Lastly, because the current study is cross-sectional and observational, a causal relationship between parental support and teenagers' mental health cannot be established.

Despite the limitations described above, this study makes a unique contribution to the literature by providing the prevalence of anxiety and depression among second-generation teenagers in the US and finding relationships between parental support and teenagers' anxiety and depression. In addition, the study findings expand current understanding by generating evidence on moderation by cultural and developmental contexts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, higher emotional support from Asian and Latino immigrant parents was associated with lower scores of their second-generation teenagers' depressive and anxiety symptoms in NY. A similar finding was observed for informational support, but its association was non-significant among Asian teenagers. Moderation by the cultural context points to the importance of culturally tailored approaches when developing interventions to promote teenagers' mental health among immigrant households.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fdpys.2026.1861151/full#supplementary-material

Supplementary material Supplementary material at the source

Footnotes

Edited by: Alexandra Main, University of California, Merced, United States

Reviewed by: Damien Doolub, Henri Laborit Hospital Centre, France

Oliver Ramos-Alvarez, University of Cantabria, Spain

Statements

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Data availability

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics approval

The studies involving humans were approved by Edgemont Junior-Senior High School Institutional Review Board. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardians/next of kin.

Author contributions

EL: Formal analysis, Project administration, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Data curation, Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. TD: Supervision, Data curation, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Resources. NR: Validation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. SL: Visualization, Software, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. BK: Methodology, Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation, Data curation, Writing – review & editing.

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Citation

Lim, E., et al. (2026). Association between parental support from immigrant parents and anxiety/depression of second-generation teenagers. Frontiers in Developmental Psychology, Volume 4. https://doi.org/
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4 - 2026

Copyright

Copyright © 2026 Lim, Dardis, Rojas, Lim and Kerker.

License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

*Correspondence: Sungwoo Lim

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