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Frontiers in Developmental Psychology ·

Volume 4 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fdpys.2026.1861811

The intergenerational evolved nest: a longitudinal study of nested care and wellbeing

  • Eugene Malthouse1*corresponding author
  • Darcia Narvaez2
  • Mary S. Tarsha2
  1. 1Centre for Decision Research and Experimental Economics (CeDEx), University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
  2. 2University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States
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Abstract

The human evolved developmental niche (EDN), or evolved nest, includes practices such as responsive care, self-directed play, and extensive affectionate touch, which meet the species-specific biopsychosocial needs of human infants. Previous research has shown that early life experience of these practices is associated with wellbeing during childhood and adulthood. Here we examined the relationship between childhood EDN experience and wellbeing across two generations using longitudinal survey data collected from US-based mothers (N = 222) at 7 time periods during the first 6 years of their child's life. First, mothers' EDN experience during childhood was associated with their own child's EDN experience at age 4 and 6. Second, maternal EDN experience was also associated with multiple measures of current wellbeing (secure attachment, depression, and stress). Third, maternal wellbeing was related to both child wellbeing and child EDN experience at age 4 and 6. Fourth, children's EDN experience at age 4 and 6 was associated with their mental health and social engagement at these time points. Our findings indicate that experiencing nested care in childhood can bring about wellbeing benefits that extend into adulthood and the next generation.

Keywords

1 Introduction

After decades of research into adverse childhood experiences, their intergenerational effects on wellbeing are becoming clearer. Adult-reported childhood adversities (e.g., physical abuse) before age eighteen are associated with worse health outcomes in adulthood (e.g., Felitti et al., 1998; Hughes et al., 2021). Furthermore, toxic stress in early life has been identified as a causal factor of later ill health and ill being (Shonkoff et al., 2012; Garner and Yogman, 2021).

On the other hand, positive experiences in childhood are increasingly being examined. Multiple positive health outcomes have been found among people who report experiencing family closeness and support, healthy friendships, a sense of belonging in schools, participation in communities, and good relationships with parents (Lieberman et al., 2005; Skodol et al., 2007; Narayan et al., 2018; Bethell et al., 2019; Merrick et al., 2019; Narayan et al., 2023; VanderWeele et al., 2025).

Although the empirical evidence connecting positive childhood experiences and wellbeing is expanding, there are limitations to this line of research. First, many of these studies draw on existing theories of human development but lack a unifying theoretical framework for the positive experiences under investigation. Second, they do not account for humanity's millions-year-old developmental system, the evolved developmental niche (EDN), or evolved nest (Narvaez et al., 2013a).

Every animal has evolved a developmental system—or set of practices—for raising its young to optimize biological, psychological, and social health (Gottlieb, 1998; Lickliter and Harshaw, 2010). The human genus emerged from catarrhine social mammals, who evolved 30–40 million years ago (Martin, 1990). Among these social mammals, many practices are similar across species, such as breastfeeding, extensive early touch, and social play (Narvaez and Bradshaw, 2023). These practices also feature in humanity's evolved nest, which is more intense than that of other hominids, in part because human infants resemble fetuses of other animals until around 18 months of age (Trevathan, 2017; Montagu, 1968); leading to their greater helplessness and dependency on caregivers during a prolonged childhood (Kliesch, 2025; Rosenberg, 2021; Hammond et al., 2026). The human evolved nest (a.k.a., the “hunter-gatherer childhood model”; Konner, 2005) has been documented by ethnographers worldwide based on their observations of small-band hunter-gatherer communities—the types of societies in which humans spent 99% of their genus history (Lee and Daly, 1999):

[Y]oung children in foraging cultures are nursed frequently; held, touched, or kept near others almost constantly; frequently cared for by individuals other than their mothers (fathers and grandmothers, in particular) though seldom by older siblings; experience prompt responses to their fusses and cries; and enjoy multiage play groups in early childhood (Hewlett and Lamb, 2005; p. 15).

These communally-provided practices are theorized to foster healthy development and wellbeing over the lifespan (Gleason and Narvaez, 2019).1 By integrating these practices in a unifying framework, the evolved nest extends well-established theories of human development. According to attachment theory, for example, maternal responsiveness provides the foundations of secure attachment (Kochanska, 2002; Bowlby, 2008; Schore, 2025). The EDN incorporates additional practices beyond maternal responsiveness (e.g., positive touch, self-directed play) that are required for healthy neurobiological development and recognizes that human beings develop optimally when these practices are provided by multiple caregivers, especially when embedded in supportive cultural narratives and communal rituals (Narvaez, 2021; Trevarthen, 2005; Shepard, 2013; Hrdy, 2009; Otto and Keller, 2014).

Empirically, each individual EDN practice has well-documented effects on wellbeing (see reviews by Narvaez et al., 2013b, 2014; Narvaez D. et al., 2016a; Tarsha and Narvaez, 2023, 2024). As noted above, responsive care has been shown to lead to secure attachment and is closely related to the construct of maternal emotional availability, which has been linked to children's sense of self-worth (Paulus et al., 2018) and theory of mind (Licata et al., 2016). Affectionate touch has been linked to wellbeing and the development of moral capacities and engaged moral orientation (Kurth and Narvaez, 2018; Narvaez et al., 2019a). And frequent free play opportunities have been related to children's autonomic regulation (Gleason et al., 2021) and mental health (Gray, 2011; Nesbit et al., 2023).

The combined effect of EDN practices on long-term wellbeing has also been studied. Early life EDN experience has been associated with cardiac vagal tone, which reflects healthy physiological functioning (Porges, 2011; Tarsha and Narvaez, 2024, 2025). It has also been linked to secure attachment, better mental health outcomes, and sociomoral orientations in adulthood (Narvaez et al., 2016c). More specifically, adults reported their experience of nested care during childhood via the Evolved Developmental Niche History (EDNH) measure and mediation models showed three pathways where: (1) higher EDNH scores were associated with higher scores on secure attachment, which corresponded with better mental health, predicting higher scores on perspective taking and then a social engagement sociomoral orientation; (2) lower EDNH scores were associated with lower scores on secure attachment, which corresponded with worse mental health, predicting lower scores on perspective taking and then an oppositional sociomoral orientation; (3) lower EDNH scores led to lower scores on secure attachment and worse mental health, leading to higher scores on personal distress and then a withdrawn sociomoral orientation. Lastly, in a study comparing the effects of childhood adversity and nested care on women's physiological regulation, higher scores on self-reported EDNH buffered the negative effects of adverse childhood experiences (Tarsha and Narvaez, 2022).

Several studies of EDN experience have focused on the first 6 years of life because brain function and social capabilities are significantly shaped during those years. For instance, scores on the Family Life Behavior and Attitude Measure (FLAM; Narvaez et al., 2016b) showed associations between young children's experiences of EDN practices and positive outcomes such as child empathy, inhibitory control, and self-regulation in China and the USA. Relatedly, the Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report (EDNPR) was designed to provide a snapshot of a young child's ongoing evolved nest experience by asking parents to report what the child experienced in the past week and to answer questions on the child's wellbeing, moral socialization and thriving. Across three countries (China, Switzerland, and the USA) EDNPR scores were predictive of almost every outcome (Narvaez et al., 2019b). The effects of several EDN practices on child outcomes have also been examined using a diverse longitudinal dataset: breastfeeding was associated with less aggressive behavior at age 2; and touch and maternal social support were each linked to fewer behavioral problems at both ages 2 and 3 (Narvaez et al., 2013a).

Associations between childhood EDN experience and both child and adult wellbeing outcomes are therefore well-established. Associations between EDN experience and provision, on the other hand, are not. In other words, it is unclear whether a parent's experience of the evolved nest during their childhood predicts their provision of the evolved nest for their own child. While previous studies have shown that both nurturing and unnurturing early life experiences can be transmitted between generations (Lieberman et al., 2005; Greene et al., 2020; Langevin et al., 2021; Narayan et al., 2021) this has not been examined from an evolutionary perspective.

Lastly, other factors beyond a child's experience of the evolved nest such as parental wellbeing matter for their wellbeing. Maternal depressive symptoms have been linked to lower social competence during childhood (Luoma et al., 2001) and depression during adolescence (Coles and Cage, 2022). Maternal stress has been negatively associated with child cognitive development and prosociality (Ward and Lee, 2020). And maternal attachment styles are often reflected in those of their children (Van IJzendoorn, 1995; Besser and Priel, 2005; Verhage et al., 2016).

Here we draw on longitudinal data that included a community sample of (N = 222) mothers who reported their childhood EDN experience, their wellbeing, their child's EDN experience, and their child's wellbeing during the first 6 years of the child's life. We offer an integrated examination of the relationship between: a) maternal and child EDN experience; b) maternal EDN experience and maternal wellbeing; c) maternal wellbeing and child EDN experience; d) child EDN experience and child wellbeing; and e) maternal and child wellbeing. Our overarching hypothesis was that we would detect positive associations between these variables (see below for separate hypotheses for each pathway shown in Figure 1, which summarizes our intergenerational model).

The intergenerational evolved nest. This theoretical model illustrates the relationship between: **(a)** maternal early life EDN experience and child EDN experience; **(b)** maternal EDN experience and maternal wellbeing; **(c)** maternal wellbeing and child EDN experience; **(d)** child EDN experience and child wellbeing; and **(e)** maternal wellbeing and child wellbeing.
Figure 1. The intergenerational evolved nest. This theoretical model illustrates the relationship between: (a) maternal early life EDN experience and child EDN experience; (b) maternal EDN experience and maternal wellbeing; (c) maternal wellbeing and child EDN experience; (d) child EDN experience and child wellbeing; and (e) maternal wellbeing and child wellbeing.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Participants

A sample of mothers (N = 222 overall; 74.5% Euro-American) from a US midwestern community was recruited for a longitudinal study through flyers at community organizations and pediatric medical offices. At T1 (prenatal) maternal ages ranged from 18 to 43 (M = 28.8, SD = 5.4), their median household income from all sources was $30,000–50,000, and their median highest level of education was an Associate's or Technical Degree (the modal response was a bachelor's degree). Forty seven percent of participants' children were female.

2.2 Procedure

Eight surveys were collected between 2011 and 2018: when mothers were pregnant (T1; n = 212), when their child was 3 months (T2; n = 183), 6 months (T3; n = 162), 8–9 months (T4; n = 170), 1 year (T5; n = 159), 4 years (T6; n = 89), and 6 years (T7; n = 96) old (see Missing Data section). Observational data were also collected in visits to the lab, but those data are not included here. Participants were given gift cards worth $10–60 in return for their completion of each session or survey, with values determined by the length of time needed for completion. Prior to each timepoint, ethical approval was granted by the university's Institutional Review Board.

2.3 Measures

2.3.1 Maternal EDN experience

We measured maternal EDN experience via the Evolved Developmental Niche History (EDNH; Narvaez et al., 2016c) questionnaire at T6 (4 years). Mothers were asked to think of their experience growing up (the years before age 18), with ‘parent' or ‘guardian' referring to anyone who took care of them like a mother or father. Using Likert-type response scales mostly ranging from (‘Never' to ‘Very often') the questionnaire assessed core components of the evolved nest, including touch (e.g., ‘How often were you affectionately touched, kissed, or hugged by at least one of your parents or guardians?'); family togetherness (e.g., 'How often did you do things together as a family at home'); play (e.g., ‘How much did you play freely with other children outside?'); and home emotional climate (‘In your family home when you were a child, please rate the emotion sets according to how frequently you felt them' – e.g., serenity, fear). We calculated overall composite scores for each participant by scaling and averaging component scores, as in Narvaez et al. (2016c).

2.3.2 Child EDN experience

We assessed child experience of nested care with the Child EDN Provision Report (EDNPR; Narvaez et al., 2019b) which mothers completed when their target child was age 4 (T6) and 6 (T7). The EDNPR provided a snapshot measure of child EDN experience in the past week, which included details about parent-child interactions during that period. Similar to the EDNH questionnaire, parents were asked how often their child experienced three evolved nest components: touch (e.g., ‘How often did you affectionately touch, kiss, or hug the child?'); free play (e.g., ‘How much did the child play actively and freely with other children outside?'); and family togetherness (e.g., ‘How often did you do things together as a family outside the home?') using a 7-point Likert-type scale (‘Never' to ‘Several times a day'). As above, we averaged component scores to create overall composite scores for each child at each time point.

2.3.3 Maternal wellbeing

Three measures of maternal wellbeing were used: secure attachment, depression (including diagnoses and symptoms), and stress. We measured secure attachment via the Close Relationship Questionnaire (Bartholomew and Horowitz, 1991). Participants rated how much four short descriptions of general relationship styles corresponded to their own relationship style (secure, dismissing, preoccupied, and fearful) using a 7-point Likert-type scale (“Not at all like me” to “Very much like me”). We report scores for secure attachment only for succinctness, given that lower scores reflect insecure attachment. The questionnaire was completed at T1 (prenatal) and T6 (age 4).

We measured maternal depression at T6 (age 4) and T7 (age 6) in two ways. First, mothers indicated whether they had ever been diagnosed with depression. At T6, 24 out of 89 mothers (27%) reported a previous diagnosis, whereas 29 out of 92 (32%) did so at T7. Since we were interested in whether mothers had ever been diagnosed with depression, we coded participants who reported a diagnosis at either time point as 1 (0 otherwise). Second, mothers completed a shortened version of the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck et al., 1996) at T1 (prenatal), T2 (3 months), T3 (6 months). The BDI-II consists of 21 groups of four statements from which the respondent selects the most representative of the past 2 weeks, for example: “I do not feel sad”; “I feel sad much of the time”; “I am sad all the time”; “I am so sad or unhappy that I can't stand it”. Questions about suicidal thoughts were omitted as required by the institutional review board, which may have reduced scale validity. All statements were scored from 0–3 and added together such that higher average scores indicated more symptoms of depression. Scores at T1, T2, and T3 were all therefore out of 60 (Cronbach's α =0.85, 0.89, 0.90, respectively).

We assessed stress using the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen, 1988) at all time points except T6 (4 years). Mothers responded to statements about the last month (e.g., “How often have you felt nervous and stressed?”) on a 5-point scale (“Never” to “Very often”). Responses were averaged to create a composite score, with higher scores indicating higher stress (α: T1 = 0.87; T2 = 0.89; T3 = 0.91; T4 = 0.88; T5 = 0.90; T7 = 0.89).

We collected these measures of maternal wellbeing both before and after the calculation of maternal EDNH composite scores but did not view this as a methodological limitation for two reasons. First, when completing the EDNH questionnaire, mothers were describing their early life experience, which took place before this study, and it is common practice to evaluate present wellbeing and behavior in the context of past experience, even if these measures are collected at separate time points. For example, assessments of maternal background are often collected and then linked with their mothering after they have maltreated their children (Greene et al., 2020; Schickedanz et al., 2021). Second, we elicited certain components of maternal EDN experience at T2 (positive and negative emotional climate) and T5 (touch and play). We found that responses were generally highly consistent with those provided at T6 [ICC3k: positive climate = 0.89, 95% CI (0.85, 0.91), p < 0.001; negative climate = 0.80, 95% CI (0.74, 0.85), p < 0.001; touch = 0.86, 95% CI (0.82, 0.89), p < 0.001; free play = 0.72, 95% CI (0.64, 0.79), p < 0.001].

2.3.4 Child wellbeing

We measured three indicators of child wellbeing—anxiety, depression, and social engagement—via maternal reports when their child was aged 4 (T6) and 6 (T7). For anxiety, mothers completed the 14-item Preschool Anxiety Scale (Edwards et al., 2010) with a 4-item response scale (“Not true at all” to “Very often true”) for each statement (e.g., “Is tense, restless or irritable due to worrying”). Responses were averaged to create a composite score at each time point (α: T6 = 0.81; T7 = 0.87). For depression, mothers reported how frequently their child showed certain symptoms of depression listed by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). They responded to 10 statements that covered how often their child lacked confidence, had difficulties with peer relationships, and had trouble concentrating; and how often their child was bored, hostile, and negative on a 7-point scale (“I have never seen my child be this way or heard that my child acts this way” to “I have seen my child be this way or heard that my child acts this way several times a day”). Again, we averaged responses to create composite scores (α: T6 = 0.86; T7 = 0.82). For social engagement, mothers completed the Child Triune Ethics Measure (Narvaez et al., 2016b) indicating their child's behavior in social situations using a 6-point scale (“Never” to “Several times a day”). We combined responses to 29 items to create composite scores at each time point, with higher scores indicating greater social engagement (α: T6 = 0.85; T7 = 0.79).

2.4 Analytic plan

The measures recorded at each time point are summarized in Table 1, with descriptive statistics shown in Table 2. Our hypotheses were as follows. (1) Maternal EDN experience would be associated with child EDN experience at age 4 and 6 (Figure 1, path a). (2) Maternal EDN experience would be related to maternal wellbeing across all time points (Figure 1, path b). (3) Maternal wellbeing would be linked to child EDN experience at age 4 and 6 (Figure 1, path c). (4) Child EDN experience would be positively associated with child wellbeing at age 4 and 6 (Figure 1, path d). (5) Maternal wellbeing would correlate with child wellbeing at age 4 and 6 (Figure 1, path e).

Table 1. All measures and time points.

MeasureChild Age
0 Months (T1)3 Months (T2)6 Months (T3)8–9 Months (T4)12 Months (T5)4 Years (T6)6 Years (T7)
Maternal EDN experience✓
Child EDN experience✓✓
Maternal wellbeing: Secure attachment✓✓
Maternal wellbeing: depression diagnosis✓✓
Maternal wellbeing: depression symptoms✓✓✓
Maternal wellbeing: stress✓✓✓✓✓✓
Child wellbeing: anxiety✓✓
Child wellbeing: depression✓✓
Child wellbeing: social engagement✓✓
Control: household income✓✓✓✓✓✓
Control: maternal education✓

Table 2. Number of observations, means, and standard deviations of all measures at all time points.

MeasureNPossible rangeMinMaxMean (SD)
Maternal EDN experience
EDNH composite (4 years)891–72.345.074.07 (0.61)
Maternal wellbeing
Attachment
Secure (prenatal)2081–71.007.004.55 (2.07)
Secure (4 years)891–71.007.004.52 (2.17)
Depression
Diagnosis reported (4 years)24/890/10.001.000.27 (0.45)
Diagnosis reported (6 years)29/920/10.001.000.32 (0.47)
BDI-II score (prenatal)2070–600.0041.009.66 (6.01)
BDI-II score (3 months)1800–600.0032.006.71 (6.28)
BDI-II score (6 months)1620–600.0039.007.33 (6.77)
Stress
Stress (prenatal)1430–400.0034.0015.09 (6.39)
Stress (3 months)1810–400.0035.0014.02 (7.41)
Stress (6 months)1620–400.0034.0013.34 (6.88)
Stress (8 months)1680–400.0032.0012.42 (6.45)
Stress (1 year)1570–400.0033.0013.03 (6.53)
Stress (6 years)920–400.0029.0011.63 (6.67)
Child EDN experience
EDN composite (4 years)891–63.675.674.92 (0.5)
EDN composite (6 years)951–63.835.834.84 (0.43)
Child wellbeing
Anxiety (4 years)881–51.003.071.44 (0.42)
Anxiety (6 years)941–51.003.211.46 (0.47)
Depression (4 years)891–71.004.502 (0.68)
Depression (6 years)941–71.104.702.31 (0.63)
Social engagement (4 years)891–63.566.005.2 (0.5)
Social engagement (6 years)921–63.786.005.21 (0.47)

We carried out all statistical analyses in R (version 4.4.2). To assess associations between variables at specific time points, we used linear and logistic regression models. To assess overall associations between variables while accounting for repeated observations, we used linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) with maximum likelihood estimation using the lme4 package (Baayen et al., 2008; Bates, 2010). These models included standardized variables for comparability and random intercepts at the participant level because random slopes at this level were either not appropriate or did not improve model fit. Below we report results before and after controlling for maternal education (measured at T1) and household income (measured at T1 and T3-7 and therefore included in mixed-effects models as a time-varying covariate). We report all mixed-effects model results in the Supplementary material.

2.5 Missing data

The number of mothers who completed surveys varied across time points. To examine whether attrition was associated with socioeconomic factors, we compared the annual household income of participants who completed all seven surveys (n = 61) with those who did not (n = 161). Income responses ranged from 1 (“Less than $15,000”) to 6 (“More than $100,000”) and differed between these groups (Complete: 3.74 vs. Incomplete: 2.41; t (122) = 6.0, p < 0.001). Attrition was therefore associated with lower household income. We mitigated potential bias due to attrition by: a) using all available data in mixed-effects models via likelihood-based methods, which is equivalent to full information maximum likelihood estimation for handling data missing at random (Enders and Bandalos, 2001; Gabrio et al., 2022); and b) including household income and level of education as covariates in all models to support the missing-at-random assumption.

3 Results

3.1 Maternal EDN experience will be associated with child EDN experience at age 4 and 6 (H1)

To test this hypothesis (Figure 1, path a), we first calculated the intraclass correlation coefficient of child EDN experience at T6 (age 4) and T7 (age 6). This was relatively consistent over time [ICC3k = 0.64, 95% CI (0.53, 0.72), p < 0.001]. Bivariate correlations are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Correlations between maternal and child EDN experience composite scores across all time points (H1).

Measures123
1. Maternal EDN experience T6 (4 years)–
2. Child EDN experience T6 (4 years)0.24*–
3. Child EDN experience T7 (6 years)0.41***0.45***–

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Linear regression models for each time point indicated that maternal EDN experience was associated with child EDN experience at both T6 [β = 0.19, 95% CI (0.03, 0.36), p = 0.020] and T7 [β = 0.30, 95% CI (0.15, 0.45), p < 0.001) After controlling for household income and education, this association weakened at T6 [β = 0.14, 95% CI (−0.04, 0.31), p = 0.119] but remained statistically significant at T7 [β = 0.29, 95% CI (0.13, 0.46), p < 0.001]. Assessing the overall relationship indicated that the relationship between maternal and child EDN experience was positive after controls: every 1 SD increase in the former was associated with a 0.25 SD increase in the latter [β = 0.25, 95% CI (0.07, 0.44), p = 0.010; LMM, see Supplementary material Table S1 and Figure 2A]. These results supported H1.

Intergenerational effects of maternal EDN experience. Panel show associations between maternal EDN experience and child EDN experience **(A)**, maternal secure attachment **(B)**, maternal depression **(C)**, and maternal stress **(D)**. Points represent raw data. Lines and ribbons reflect estimated values (± 95% CI) from linear mixed-effects models that controlled for income, education, and time. *p* values reflect the effect of maternal EDN experience.
Figure 2. Intergenerational effects of maternal EDN experience. Panel show associations between maternal EDN experience and child EDN experience (A), maternal secure attachment (B), maternal depression (C), and maternal stress (D). Points represent raw data. Lines and ribbons reflect estimated values (± 95% CI) from linear mixed-effects models that controlled for income, education, and time. p values reflect the effect of maternal EDN experience.

3.2 Maternal EDN experience will be related to maternal wellbeing across all time points (H2)

Our measures of maternal wellbeing were taken at multiple time points and included secure attachment (T1, T6), depression (T1-3, T6, T7), and stress (T1-5, T7). We first calculated bivariate correlations between all measures (see Table 4) before modeling the relationship between maternal EDN experience and wellbeing (Figure 1, path b) with income and education controls.

Table 4. Correlations between maternal EDN experience and maternal wellbeing (H2).

Measures1234567891011121314
Maternal EDN
1. EDNH composite–
Attachment
2. Secure (prenatal)0.41***–
3. Secure (4 years)0.33**0.56***–
Depression
4. Diagnosis (4 years)−0.37***−0.15−0.15–
5. Diagnosis (6 years)−0.2−0.19−0.26*0.5***–
6. BDI-II (prenatal)−0.19−0.35***−0.060.33**0.31**–
7. BDI-II (3 months)−0.31**−0.17*−0.030.37***0.22*0.55***–
8. BDI-II (6 months)−0.13−0.11−0.030.43***0.26*0.44***0.63***–
Stress
9. PSS (prenatal)−0.16−0.34***−0.160.260.190.67***0.46***0.41***–
10. PSS (3 months)−0.36***−0.28***−0.120.35**0.180.48***0.69***0.51***0.6***–
11. PSS (6 months)−0.25*−0.19*−0.080.27*0.170.38***0.43***0.7***0.49***0.64***–
12. PSS (8 months)−0.26*−0.15−0.110.26*0.090.36***0.4***0.56***0.52***0.6***0.69***–
13. PSS (1 year)−0.23*−0.2*−0.10.22*0.160.32***0.43***0.43***0.47***0.57***0.58***0.68***–
14. PSS (6 years)−0.16−0.14−0.20.29*0.160.41***0.31**0.39***0.56***0.49***0.52***0.59***0.59***–

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

3.2.1 Secure attachment

Maternal EDN experience was associated with secure attachment both prenatally (T1) and at age 4 (T6) after controlling for income and education [T1: β = 1.29, 95% CI (0.66, 1.93), p < 0.001; T6: β = 1.33, 95% CI (0.60, 2.07), p < 0.001]. LMMs provided further evidence for the strength of this association: for every 1 SD increase in mothers' experience of nested care, secure attachment scores increased by 0.38 SDs [β = 0.38, 95% CI (0.21, 0.55), p < 0.001; see Figure 2B and Supplementary material Table S2].

3.2.2 Depression

First, logistic regression models with controls indicated that maternal EDN experience was linked to a significantly lower likelihood of ever receiving a depression diagnosis [OR = 0.31, 95% CI (0.12, 0.72), p = 0.010]. Furthermore, a comparison of the distribution of EDNH composite scores among those who reported (vs. did not report) a previous diagnosis revealed that they differed significantly (D = 0.42, p = 0.002, two-sided Kolmogorov-Smirnov test; see Supplementary material Table S3 and Supplementary material Figure S1).

Second, we tested the relationship between maternal EDN experience and their Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) scores at 3 time points. Regression models with controls revealed a negative association at 1 time point [T2: β = −2.35, 95% CI (−4.36, −0.34), p = 0.023] but no association at the other 2 time points [T1: β = −1.17, 95% CI (−2.87, 0.54), p = 0.177; T3: β = −0.61, 95% CI (−3.02, 1.80), p = 0.616]. Overall, the relationship across all time points was negative but not significant after including controls [β = −0.13, 95% CI (−0.29, 0.02), p = 0.105, LMM; see Figure 2C and Supplementary material Table S4].

3.2.3 Stress

The association between maternal EDN experience and stress was statistically significant at T2 after controls [β = −3.68, 95% CI (−6.11, −1.26), p = 0.003] but not at other time points [T1: β = −1.84, 95% CI (−4.75,1.07), p = 0.209; T3: β = −2.17, 95% CI (−4.59,0.26), p = 0.080; T4: β = −2.17, 95% CI (−4.49, 0.16), p = 0.068; T5: β = −1.74, 95% CI (−3.81,0.33), p = 0.098; T7: β = −0.43, 95% CI (−3.05,2.18), p = 0.742]. Overall, however, the association between maternal EDN experience and stress was negative: every 1 SD increase in the former was associated with a 0.19 SD decrease in the latter [β = −0.19, 95% CI (−0.35, −0.03), p = 0.025; LMM, see Figure 2D and Supplementary material Table S5].

In summary, whereas some associations were limited to certain time points or weakened after controlling for income and education, maternal EDN experience in childhood was overall positively related to several measures of maternal wellbeing, as shown in Figure 2. H2 was therefore broadly supported.

3.3 Maternal wellbeing will be associated with child EDN experience at age 4 and 6 (H3)

We tested H3 (Figure 1, path c) by assessing the relationship between child EDN experience at age 4 and 6 and the measures of maternal wellbeing recorded at the same time points (secure attachment and stress, respectively). Table 5 shows bivariate correlation coefficients.

Table 5. Correlations: maternal wellbeing and child EDN experience at age 4 and 6 (H3).

Measures1234
Measures at T6 (4 years)
1. Maternal secure attachment–
2. Child EDN experience0.22**–
Measures at T7 (6 years)
3. Maternal stress−0.20−0.32*–
4. Child EDN experience0.40***0.45***−0.29**–

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Regression models with controls indicated that maternal wellbeing was associated with child experience of nested care at T6 [secure attachment: β = 0.05, 95% CI (0.01, 0.10), p = 0.024; see Supplementary material Table S6] and T7 [stress: β = −0.02, 95% CI (−0.03, 0.00), p = 0.018; see Supplementary material Table S7]. In standardized terms, a 1 SD increase in maternal secure attachment was associated with a 0.24 SD increase in child EDN experience at age 4; and a 1 SD increase in maternal stress was linked to a 0.24 SD decrease in child EDN experience at age 6. These results, shown in Figure 3, supported H3.

Maternal wellbeing and child EDN experience. **(A)** Shows child EDN experience at age 4 based on maternal secure attachment at the same time point. **(B)** Shows child EDN experience at age 6 as a function of maternal stress at the same time point. Points represent raw data and are jittered to show overlapping responses. Lines and ribbons reflect estimated values (± 95% CI) from linear regression models that controlled for income and education. *p* values reflect the effect of maternal wellbeing.
Figure 3. Maternal wellbeing and child EDN experience. (A) Shows child EDN experience at age 4 based on maternal secure attachment at the same time point. (B) Shows child EDN experience at age 6 as a function of maternal stress at the same time point. Points represent raw data and are jittered to show overlapping responses. Lines and ribbons reflect estimated values (± 95% CI) from linear regression models that controlled for income and education. p values reflect the effect of maternal wellbeing.

3.4 Child EDN experience will be associated with child wellbeing at age 4 and 6 (H4)

For this hypothesis Figure 1, path d), Table 6 shows correlations between child EDN experience and child anxiety, depression, and social engagement at age 4 and 6. Regression models indicated that child EDN experience was generally associated with child wellbeing after controls (see Figure 4). For example, EDN experience was negatively related to anxiety at age 4 [β = −0.54, 95% CI (−0.99, −0.10), p = 0.018] and age 6 [β = −0.81, 95% CI (−1.32, −0.31), p = 0.002]. It was also associated with fewer symptoms of depression at age 6 [β = −0.65, 95% CI (−1.17, −0.14), p = 0.013] but not at age 4 [β = −0.41, 95% CI (−0.85, 0.03), p = 0.068]. Child EDN experience was also positively related to social engagement at both time points [T6: β = 0.45, 95% CI (0.01, 0.89), p = 0.044; T7: β = 0.77, 95% CI (0.26, 1.27), p = 0.003]. These results were supported by LMMs (see Supplementary material Tables S8–S10) which indicated that across these ages child EDN experience was negatively linked to anxiety [β = −0.23, 95% CI (−0.38, −0.08), p = 0.003] and depression [β = −0.21, 95% CI (−0.36, −0.06), p = 0.007) and weakly positively linked to social engagement [β = 0.13, 95% CI (−0.02, 0.28), p = 0.078]. These results generally supported H4.

Table 6. Correlations: child EDN experience and child wellbeing measures at age 4 and 6 (H4).

Measures12345678
Measures at T6 (4 years)
1. EDN experience–
2. Anxiety−0.26*–
3. Depression−0.180.54***–
4. Social engagement0.22*−0.27*−0.12–
Measures at T7 (6 years)
5. EDN experience0.45***−0.28*−0.040.42***–
6. Anxiety−0.110.61***0.37**−0.21−0.26*–
7. Depression−0.090.29*0.53***−0.15−0.23*0.59***–
8. Social engagement0.15−0.19−0.100.69***0.32**−0.18−0.11–

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Child EDN experience and child wellbeing. Panel shows child wellbeing scores at age 4 and 6 as a function of evolved nest experience after controlling for income and education. Points represent raw data. Lines and ribbons reflect estimated values (± 95% CI) from linear regression models that controlled for income and education. *p* values reflect the effect of child EDN experience.
Figure 4. Child EDN experience and child wellbeing. Panel shows child wellbeing scores at age 4 and 6 as a function of evolved nest experience after controlling for income and education. Points represent raw data. Lines and ribbons reflect estimated values (± 95% CI) from linear regression models that controlled for income and education. p values reflect the effect of child EDN experience.

3.5 Maternal wellbeing will be associated with child wellbeing at age 4 and 6 (H5)

To test our final hypothesis (Figure 1, path e), we first calculated correlation coefficients between variables (see Table 7). We then used regression models at each time point with controls (see Figure 5). At T6, maternal secure attachment was positively related to child social engagement [β = 0.22, 95% CI (0.13, 0.31), p < 0.001; see Supplementary material Table S13]. However, it was not associated with child anxiety [β = −0.08, 95% CI (−0.18, 0.02), p = 0.135; see Supplementary material Table S11] or depression [β = −0.03, 95% CI (−0.13, 0.07), p = 0.543; see Supplementary material Table S12]. At T7, maternal stress was related negatively to social engagement [β = −0.05, 95% CI (−0.08, −0.01), p = 0.005] and positively to child anxiety [β = 0.04, 95% CI (0.00, 0.07), p = 0.033]. It was marginally associated with child depression [β = 0.03, 95% CI (−0.00, 0.06), p = 0.060]. These findings indicated that the relationship between maternal and child wellbeing was partly evident at both age 4 and 6.

Table 7. Correlations: maternal and child wellbeing measures at 4 and 6 years (H5).

Measures12345678
Measures at T6 (4 years)
1. Maternal secure attachment–
2. Child anxiety−0.14–
3. Child depression−0.050.54***–
4. Child social engagement0.44***−0.27*−0.12–
Measures at T7 (6 years)
5. Maternal stress−0.200.170.09−0.31**–
6. Child anxiety−0.150.61***0.37**−0.210.21*–
7. Child depression−0.180.29*0.53***−0.150.180.59***–
8. Child social engagement0.52***−0.19−0.100.69***−0.29**−0.18−0.11–

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

Maternal and child wellbeing. Panel show associations between child wellbeing at age 4 **(A)** and 6 **(B)** and maternal secure attachment and stress, respectively. Points represent raw data and are jittered to highlight overlapping responses. Lines and ribbons reflect estimated values (± 95% CI) from linear regression models that controlled for income and education. *p* values reflect the effect of maternal wellbeing measures.
Figure 5. Maternal and child wellbeing. Panel show associations between child wellbeing at age 4 (A) and 6 (B) and maternal secure attachment and stress, respectively. Points represent raw data and are jittered to highlight overlapping responses. Lines and ribbons reflect estimated values (± 95% CI) from linear regression models that controlled for income and education. p values reflect the effect of maternal wellbeing measures.

4 Discussion

Drawing on longitudinal data collected from a community sample in the US at seven time periods, we presented the intergenerational evolved nest: a model of relationships between early life evolved nest (EDN) experience and wellbeing across two generations. We detected positive associations between maternal EDN experience, maternal wellbeing, child EDN experience, and child wellbeing (see Figure 6 paths a–e). In most cases, the relationships between these variables were statistically significant even after controlling for household income and education. We summarize our five main findings below.

The intergenerational evolved nest. A summary of the relationships between our main variables, with paths **a–e** in green denoting statistically significant associations that remained after controlling for income and education. Here we add path **f** to highlight how a child's EDN experience will become the mother's EDN experience if they have a child or children, and therefore start the cycle anew.
Figure 6. The intergenerational evolved nest. A summary of the relationships between our main variables, with paths a–e in green denoting statistically significant associations that remained after controlling for income and education. Here we add path f to highlight how a child's EDN experience will become the mother's EDN experience if they have a child or children, and therefore start the cycle anew.

First, maternal EDN experience was associated with child EDN experience at ages 4 and 6. This finding is consistent with previous evidence regarding the intergenerational transmission of positive and negative childhood experiences (Lieberman et al., 2005; Greene et al., 2020; Langevin et al., 2021; Narayan et al., 2021). Second, maternal EDN experience was linked to several indicators of wellbeing (secure attachment, depression, and stress) in adulthood. This finding is consistent with previous evidence for the long-term effects of experiencing nested care in childhood on mental health and wellbeing in adulthood (Narvaez et al., 2016c; Tarsha and Narvaez, 2023, 2024). Third, maternal wellbeing was positively related to child EDN experience at age 4 and 6. We propose that the positive effect of maternal secure attachment and the negative effect of stress may have been mediated by responsive caregiving (Bowlby, 2008; Jones et al., 2015; Millings et al., 2013; Deater-Deckard, 1998; Ward and Lee, 2020) although we did not test this directly. It is also worth noting that we studied the effects of maternal attachment and stress independently, even though these measures of wellbeing are closely related (Kim et al., 2019; Nygren et al., 2012; Simpson and Rholes, 2017). Fourth, child EDN experience and wellbeing were positively related at ages 4 and 6. Specifically, children who experienced more nested care were reported to exhibit less anxiety and more social engagement at these ages after controlling for income and education, providing further evidence for the importance of providing the evolved nest for child wellbeing (Narvaez et al., 2013b; Gleason and Narvaez, 2019; Narvaez et al., 2019b). Fifth, maternal and child wellbeing were associated at ages 4 and 6: maternal attachment corresponded with child social engagement at age 4 and maternal stress was related positively to child anxiety and negatively to social engagement at age 6. We propose that the relationship between maternal attachment and child social engagement—but not child anxiety or depression—existed because attachment is more closely connected to the quality of social relationships. Our finding that maternal stress was related to child anxiety is also consistent with several previous studies (Kidwell et al., 2015; Platt et al., 2016). Together, these results highlight the combined importance of maternal EDN experience and wellbeing for child EDN experience and wellbeing. The strength of this work is showing the interrelations among these factors over several years and across two generations.

Our study has several limitations. First, our sample size was relatively small and changed over time due to attrition. Attrition is a common problem in longitudinal studies, but it represents a significant limitation here—even though it does not necessarily affect estimates of associations between variables in longitudinal studies (Gustavson et al., 2012; Howe et al., 2013). Participants who dropped out tended to be less wealthy and less educated, which biased the sample toward more advantaged families. While we mitigated this bias as far as possible in our analysis, this attrition considerably limits the generalizability of our results. Second, our sample lacked geographic, ethnic and socioeconomic diversity. In other words, it was a relatively homogeneous convenience sample that yielded clear—but not necessarily generalizable—results (Jager et al., 2017). Theoretically, the wellbeing benefits of evolved nest experiences are universal, given that they fulfill the unique developmental needs of our species, but further research would be required to empirically test whether our results generalize to other populations. Third, our findings relied on self-reported survey data and may therefore be influenced by recall biases or social desirability distortions. Fourth, our measures of maternal wellbeing lacked consistency, limiting the extent to which we could evaluate equivalent outcomes over time. On account of these limitations, we propose that our findings represent preliminary evidence for the intergenerational benefits of experiencing nested care during childhood. Future studies could address the above limitations by recruiting participants from more diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds; collecting responses from additional caregivers and family members; recording biomarkers of wellbeing such as cardiac vagal regulation (Tarsha and Narvaez, 2024, 2025); and collecting the same measures repeatedly over time. Alternatively, future researchers could integrate the evolved nest framework into existing longitudinal studies with large and diverse participant pools.

Notwithstanding the above limitations, our findings point toward the critical role that evolved nest practices play in shaping child mental health and wellbeing trajectories, as well as parenting behavior in the next generation. Path f in Figure 6 provides a visual representation of this process, since today's children become tomorrow's parents. Consequently, this study highlights the value of the EDN as a framework for integrating child-rearing practices that foster intergenerational wellbeing. Importantly, it enables us to understand why certain positive experiences consistent with the EDN (and their timing) can be so formative and negative experiences so consequential: whereas the former fulfill the species-specific biopsychosocial needs of human infants, the latter neglect or even violate them. While it is informed by our evolutionary past, the EDN framework does not idealize it, not least because its components are practiced among many contemporary hunter-gatherer communities across the world and were universal until recent millennia. The EDN framework does, however, indicate that answers to the question of how to meet the developmental needs of children today are more likely to be found in our evolutionary past than in new technologies manufactured in our present. It points toward the need to imagine and introduce policies that facilitate the provision of EDN practices within families, childcare settings, and communities, which our results suggest would have far-reaching, long-term benefits for individuals and societies alike.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fdpys.2026.1861811/full#supplementary-material

Supplementary material Supplementary material at the source

Footnotes

Edited by: Maria Licata-Dandel, Charlotte Fresenius Hochschule, Germany

Reviewed by: Stuart I. Hammond, University of Ottawa, Canada

Michaela Viragova, Kings London, United Kingdom

Footnotes

These practices provide a template across cultures though their implementation may vary by locale (Narvaez et al., 2022).

Statements

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The research received internal funding from the University of Notre Dame but did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors in the USA. This work was supported by the European Research Council [grant number #101020453].

Data availability

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics approval

The studies involving humans were approved by University of Notre Dame Institutional Review Board. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

EM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing – original draft. DN: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Supervision, Writing – original draft. MT: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Writing – review & editing.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all participants who made this longitudinal study possible as well as the University of Notre Dame which provided funding for data collection.

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Citation

Malthouse, E., et al. (2026). The intergenerational evolved nest: a longitudinal study of nested care and wellbeing. Frontiers in Developmental Psychology, Volume 4. https://doi.org/
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4 - 2026

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Copyright © 2026 Malthouse, Narvaez and Tarsha.

License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

*Correspondence: Eugene Malthouse

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