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Frontiers in Developmental Psychology ·

Volume 4 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fdpys.2026.1879682

Role of moral and culture-related correlates in the relations between family ethnic socialization and U.S. Latine youth's prosocial behaviors

  • Alysia Maryse Cruz1*corresponding author
  • Gustavo Carlo1
  • Jeffrey Liew2
  • Amanda Higgins2
  • Teresita Merino1
  1. 1School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
  2. 2Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
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Abstract

Prosocial developmental scholars suggest that perspective taking (e.g., social understanding) and empathic concern (e.g., feeling sorrow for others) facilitate prosocial behaviors. At the same time, cultural scholars have posited and shown that cultural processes, including familism values and ethnic socialization practices, can also predict prosocial behaviors among ethnic and racial minority youth. These approaches underscore the need for integrative research that examines the links among family influences, culture-specific, and empathy-related mechanisms of prosocial behaviors in U.S. Latine youth. The present study examined whether family ethnic socialization practices were positively related to familism values, sympathy (a composite of perspective taking and empathic concern), and prosocial behaviors in U.S. Latine youth. A national sample of 450 U.S. Latine youth (78% girls; M age = 19.7 years) completed measures of family ethnic socialization, familism, empathic concern and perspective taking, and care-based prosocial behaviors (emotional, compliant, dire). Path analyses indicated significant indirect effects such that family ethnic socialization was positively associated with familism, which was positively related to sympathy. In turn, sympathy was positively associated with care-based prosocial behaviors. Family ethnic socialization was also directly positively associated with care-based prosocial behaviors. There were no other significant effects. Multigroup analyses by gender indicated no significant differences. These findings align with ecocultural strengths-based models and highlight how family and person culture-based and socioemotional mechanisms jointly shape prosocial development in U.S. Latine youth.

Keywords

1. Introduction

As the largest ethnic/racial minority group in the United States, Latine1 youth experience unique cultural and familial influences that shape their development. In particular, their prosocial development may be guided by culturally grounded orientations that differ from dominant individualistic frameworks. Consequently, understanding how family-based cultural processes promote prosocial behavior is critical for advancing and refining developmental theories that reflect the experiences of youth from diverse cultural backgrounds.

Prosocial behaviors, defined as voluntary actions that assist or benefit another person or group, such as helping, caring, sharing, and comforting others (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989), are indicators of health and wellbeing. Among Latine youth and young adults, greater engagement in prosocial behavior has been associated with higher social competence and better psychological adjustment (Cruz et al., 2025; Padilla-Walker et al., 2015). Despite this evidence, much of the extant literature on prosocial development has largely emphasized individual-level socioemotional processes, with comparatively less attention to how culturally embedded family practices shape these behaviors.

Traditional models of prosocial development emphasize the role of socioemotional mechanisms, particularly sympathy, defined here as the integration of empathic concern and perspective taking, as key predictors of prosocial behavior (Eisenberg et al., 2015; Streit et al., 2020). Youth who can understand the perspectives of others and respond with concern are more likely to engage in behaviors that benefit others (Van der Graaff et al., 2018). These mechanisms may be especially salient within cultural contexts that prioritize collective wellbeing, family connectedness, and social responsibility (Barragan and Meltzoff, 2025). Consistent with this view, research suggests that individuals of Latine origin often exhibit higher levels of prosocial behavior, reflecting cultural values that emphasize collectivism and community support (Knight et al., 2015).

This cultural inclination toward helping others is often rooted in familism, a core cultural value emphasizing loyalty, obligation, and responsibility to immediate and extended family members. Familism has been linked to higher levels of sympathy (capturing both empathic concern and perspective-taking) as well as prosocial behavior, suggesting that cultural values shape why youth help others and how they come to develop socioemotional skills that support helping (Gülseven and Carlo, 2021). Addressing this gap requires an integrative approach that considers both family socialization processes and individual socioemotional mechanisms.

Family ethnic socialization, defined as the processes through which parents transmit cultural values, practices, and expectations to their children, has been linked to youths' prosocial behavior, as well as to culturally salient values such as familism (Rogoff, 2014) and socioemotional skills, including sympathy (Alcalá et al., 2021; Alcalá and Cervera, 2022). However, these processes are often examined in isolation. As a result, less is known about how family ethnic socialization translates into distinct forms of prosocial behavior through culturally grounded values and socioemotional mechanisms, particularly during adolescence. Despite calls from cultural scholars for integrative models that examine how family socialization processes shape prosocial development among ethnic/racial minority youth, empirical work testing such models among U.S. Latine youth remains limited.

Drawing on cultural developmental frameworks, the present study conceptualizes prosocial development among Latine youth as emerging from the interplay of family socialization practices, culturally grounded values, and individual socioemotional processes (Knight and Carlo, 2012; Umaña-Taylor and Yazedjian, 2006). Within this framework, family ethnic socialization is expected to promote familism values, which emphasize moral obligations to family and others, while simultaneously fostering sympathy as a socioemotional skill that supports effective and responsive helping. Together, these processes may differentially shape youths' engagement in specific forms of prosocial behavior. Accordingly, the present study examined whether familism and sympathy (a composite of empathic concern and perspective taking) served as mediating mechanisms linking family ethnic socialization to prosocial behavior among U.S. Latine youth. Building on prior research, we focused on three distinct forms of prosocial behavior, care-based and responsive (emotional, dire, and compliant forms of helping) to capture variability in youths' motivations and expressions of helping.

We propose that these mediators serve complementary roles in prosocial development. Familism reflects culturally grounded moral expectations regarding helping and responsibility to others, whereas sympathy integrates affective and cognitive processes that support youths' ability to respond effectively to others' needs. Examining these processes simultaneously advances understanding of how culturally embedded family practices shape prosocial behavior through both value-based and socioemotional pathways.

Conceptual models of cultural and family influences on U.S. Latine youth development

Cultural developmental theories provide a useful framework for understanding how family processes and cultural values jointly shape youth development (Calzada et al., 2010; Carlo and Conejo, 2019; Umaña-Taylor and Yazedjian, 2006). These perspectives emphasize that cultural values, including familism and collectivism, are actively transmitted through everyday family interactions, including ethnic socialization practices, and that these values play a central role in guiding youths' socioemotional development. Familism, for example, emphasizes the importance of strong family bonds and loyalty, encouraging behaviors that prioritize family, whereas family ethnic socialization practices promote cultural identity and belonging, which have been linked to prosocial behaviors (Knight et al., 2011). By integrating cultural values and family ethnic socialization processes, these conceptual models provide a framework for understanding how U.S. Latine youth navigate their development within contexts rooted in both cultural heritage and family dynamics. Building on this work, the present study tests an integrative framework linking family ethnic socialization to youths' prosocial behaviors through familism and sympathy.

Mediating role of familism in the relations between family ethnic socialization and prosocial behaviors

Familism represents a central cultural value through which family ethnic socialization may shape youths' prosocial behaviors. Familism refers to a strong sense of obligation, loyalty, and responsibility toward immediate and extended family members (Cahill et al., 2021). Within Latine families, familism is socialized early in childhood through everyday family interactions that emphasize cooperation, shared responsibility, and prioritizing family needs (López et al., 2022). Through these practices, youth learn that helping and supporting are core expectations that contribute to overall positive family functioning.

The Ecocultural Strength-Based Model (Carlo and Conejo, 2019) proposes that familism functions as a value-based mechanism linking family ethnic socialization to prosocial behavior. Ethnic socialization practices that reinforce norms of obligation and care for others may strengthen familism values, which in turn motivate youth to engage in helping behaviors that support both family and social relationships. Consistent with this framework, familism has been associated with positive psychosocial outcomes among Latine youth, including lower stress and greater adjustment, and has been shown to function as a protective factor in the contexts of adversity (Stein et al., 2015).

Importantly, familism has been linked to multiple forms of prosocial behavior. Prior research indicates that youth exposed to strong familism values are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors characterized by cooperation, responsiveness to others' needs, and emotional support. For example, Calderón-Tena et al. (2011) found that familism was associated with emotional, dire, and compliant prosocial behaviors, forms of helping that align closely with family-based expectations of helping, cooperation, and caring for others. Youth who regularly assist siblings or respond to family members' needs may be especially likely to engage in compliant helping, whereas emotionally supportive family environments may foster emotional prosocial behaviors. Similarly, experiences of family hardship or crisis may promote dire prosocial responses, as youth learn to respond to urgent needs within the family context (Calderón-Tena et al., 2011; see also Knight et al., 2016).

Mediating role of sympathy in the relations between family ethnic socialization and prosocial behaviors

In addition to culturally grounded values, traditional models of prosocial development (Eisenberg et al., 2015) suggest that socioemotional processes may serve as key mechanisms linking family socialization practices to prosocial behavior. In the present study, we focus on sympathy, conceptualized as an integrated construct encompassing both affective and cognitive components of empathy (empathic concern), which refers to an individual's tendency to experience sorrow or concern for others (Davis, 1980). Sympathy reflects youths' tendency to experience concern for others while also understanding others' perspectives, enabling them to respond effectively to others' needs and engage in prosocial behaviors that foster supportive and positive social relationships (Einolf, 2008; Eisenberg and Strayer, 1990).

The affective component of sympathy involves emotional attunement to others' needs. Youth who exhibit higher levels of emotional concern are more likely to respond sensitively to others' distress and engage in prosocial behaviors that foster supportive and positive social relationships (Einolf, 2008; Eisenberg and Strayer, 1990). This affective responsiveness is particularly relevant for care-based forms of helping, such as emotional and dire helping, in which assistance is motivated by the desire to provide comfort and support to others (Eisenberg et al., 2006).

The cognitive component of sympathy involves perspective taking, or the ability to understand another person's thoughts, feelings, and situational context (Moll and Meltzoff, 2011). As youth develop this capacity, they become better able to anticipate others' needs and respond in ways that are sensitive and appropriate. Consistent with this view, research indicates that perspective taking is positively associated with prosocial behavior, as youth who can understand others' viewpoints are more likely to engage in helping behaviors and demonstrate responsiveness to others' needs (Streit et al., 2020).

Together, these affective and cognitive processes work to support effective prosocial responding, as youth are both motivated to help and able to determine how to help in context. Integrating traditional models of prosocial development (Eisenberg et al., 2015) and cultural developmental perspectives (Carlo and Conejo, 2019), family ethnic socialization may foster sympathy by promoting empathy, compassion, and social responsibility through culturally embedded practices and everyday interactions. Family members, particularly parents, serve as salient role models for caring and perspective-sensitive behaviors; by observing supportive and responsive interactions within the family, youth may internalize these patterns and enact them in their own social relationships (Rogoff et al., 2017). Through discussions of cultural heritage, shared histories, and community experiences, family members may also encourage youth to reflect on others' experiences and recognize the broader social and cultural contexts that shape individuals' needs and behaviors.

Within Latine cultural contexts, where family and community wellbeing are often prioritized over individual gain, sympathy reflects not only an individual socioemotional disposition but also a culturally reinforced orientation that supports social cohesion and mutual support. A strong sense of cultural identity and belonging may further motivate youth to attend to others' needs and act in ways that align with culturally shared expectations of care and responsibility (Meltzoff, 2013). Despite strong theoretical support for these pathways, the mediating role of sympathy in linking family ethnic socialization to prosocial behaviors, alongside familism, remains underexplored, particularly among U.S. Latine youth.

Gender may also be relevant to the development of prosocial behaviors and their associated cultural and socioemotional correlates. Prior research suggests that girls often report higher levels of empathy, sympathy, and certain forms of prosocial behavior than boys, although findings are not always consistent, and observed differences are frequently modest (Eisenberg et al., 1995; Van der Graaff et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2019). Among Latine youth, gendered socialization experiences may also shape the development and expression of familism values and helping behaviors, as cultural expectations regarding family obligations and interpersonal relationships can differ for boys and girls (Cupito et al., 2015; Umaña-Taylor and Guimond, 2010). Given these findings, gender was included as a covariate, and exploratory multigroup analyses were conducted to examine whether the relations among family ethnic socialization, familism, sympathy, and prosocial behaviors differed across male and female youth.

The present study

The present study examined whether familism and sympathy serve as mediating mechanisms linking family ethnic socialization to care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors among U.S. Latine youth. Grounded in cultural developmental frameworks (Carlo and Conejo, 2019) and traditional models of prosocial development (Eisenberg et al., 2015), we focused on care-based and responsive forms of prosocial behaviors (i.e., emotional, dire, and compliant helping). These forms of helping were selected because they reflect responsiveness to others' emotional distress, urgent needs, and requests for assistance and therefore are conceptually aligned with family ethnic socialization, familism, and sympathy. We tested the following hypotheses: (1) Family ethnic socialization will be positively associated with care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors; (2) Family ethnic socialization will be positively related to familism values and sympathy; (3) Familism and sympathy will be positively associated with care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors; (4) Familism and sympathy will mediate the relations between family ethnic socialization and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors.

2. Materials and methods

Participants

Data were drawn from a national sample of U.S. Latine youth recruited through Bovitz, Inc., Santa Monica, CA, USA, a third-party research firm, using social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter). Because the data collection and participant management were conducted by a third party and responses were fully anonymized, the study received an institutional review board (IRB) exemption from the author's institution. Surveys were administered online using the Qualtrics XM Research Core Survey Software (2021), and participants were compensated $2.50 USD plus one loyalty credit from Bovitz, Inc. To reduce fraudulent responses, multiple safeguards were implemented, including Google's reCAPTCHA and MaxMind's minFraud screening. Participants' eligibility screening questions assessed age and ethnic background; inclusion criteria required identifying as Latine and being between 18 and 21 years old.

The analytic sample consisted of 451 U.S. Latine youth (M age = 19.7 years, SD = 1.24). Descriptive statistics were based on the full analytic sample; however, because one participant was missing gender data, analyses that included gender were conducted on 450 participants. Among participants who reported their gender, 78% were girls. Three participants did not report their Latine subgroup. Among participants who reported their Latine subgroup (n = 448), 64.1% identified as Mexican or Mexican American (n = 287), 12.7% identified as Puerto Rican (n = 57), 8.5% as Central American (n = 38), 6.5% as South American (n = 29), 4.5% as Cuban or Cuban American (n = 20), and 3.8% as Caribbean (e.g., Dominican; n = 17). Regarding academic standing, 8.5% of participants were still in high school (n = 38), 37.6% had graduated from high school or obtained a General Educational Development (GED) (n = 169), 13.8% were first-year college students (n = 62), 16.3% were second-year students (n = 73), 11.8% were third-year students (n = 53), 6.7% were fourth-year students (n = 30), 0.7% were in their fifth year or beyond (n = 3), and 4.7% had completed a bachelor's degree and were attending graduate school (n = 21). Among participants who were currently enrolled in school (n = 277), 40.8% were enrolled as full-time students only (n = 113), 36.5% were working part-time while attending school (n = 101), and 22.7% were working full-time while attending school (n = 63). All participants completed an online survey battery assessing family ethnic socialization, familism, sympathy, and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors.

Measures

Familial ethnic socialization practices

Family ethnic socialization was measured using the Familial Ethnic Socialization Measure (FESM; Umaña-Taylor and Fine, 2001). This measure assesses the degree to which participants perceive that their families socialized them with respect to their ethnicity (Umaña-Taylor and Fine, 2001). The Family ethnic socialization measure consists of six items, and respondents used the following scale (1 = Not at all, 2 = Somewhat, 3 = Very much). Sample items include, “My family teaches/taught me about my ethnic/cultural background,” “My family encourages/encouraged me to respect the cultural beliefs of our ethnic/cultural background,” and “My family participates/participated in activities that are specific to my ethnic group.” The measure demonstrated good reliability (α = 0.85).

Filial piety

Familism was measured using the Filial Piety Measure (Fuligni et al., 1999). This measure assesses youths' beliefs about the importance of respecting and following the wishes of other family members (Fuligni et al., 1999). The Fuligni Filial Piety measure consists of seven items, and respondents used the following scale (1 = Not important at all, 2 = A little, 3 = Somewhat, 4 = A lot, 5 = Very Important). Sample items include “Treat your parents with great respect,” “Treat your grandparents with great respect,” and “Do well for the sake of your family.” Further, the measure demonstrated good reliability (α = 0.85) in the current sample.

Sympathy

Sympathy was operationalized as a composite of two subscales from the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1980): Empathic Concern and Perspective Taking. Empathic concern assesses other-oriented feelings of sympathy and concern for unfortunate others, whereas perspective taking assesses the tendency to spontaneously adopt the psychological point of view of others (Davis, 1980). The original seven-item empathic concern scale was reduced to four items, and the original seven-item perspective taking scale was reduced to five items following the removal of items that had been modified to better reflect the experiences of Latine participants but demonstrated poor item performance. All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Not at all like me, 2 = Not very much like me, 3 = A little like me, 4 = Somewhat like me, 5 = Very much like me). Sample items included “I sometimes try to understand my friends better by imagining how they think about things,” “I often care strongly about things that I see happen,” and “I often feel sorry for people who do not have the things I have.” Consistent with prior research, items from both subscales were averaged to create a composite measure of sympathy, representing an integrated socioemotional construct encompassing both affective and cognitive components of empathy. The composite demonstrated good internal consistency (α = 0.87).

Prosocial behaviors

Prosocial Behaviors were measured using the Prosocial Tendencies Measure (PTM; Carlo and Randall, 2002), a 21-item self-report measure that assesses prosocial behavioral tendencies on six subscales (emotional, dire, compliant, altruistic, public, anonymous) (Carlo and Randall, 2002). Participants responded using a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = Does not describe me at all to 5 = Describes me greatly). Sample items include “I tend to help others, especially when they are really emotional” (emotional), “It is easy for me to help others when they are in a bad situation” (dire), and “When people ask me to help them, I don't hesitate” (compliant). Consistent with the aims of the present study, and prior work linking sympathy to prosocial responding (Eisenberg et al., 2015), we focused on care-based and responsive forms of prosocial behavior. Specifically, emotional, dire, and compliant helping were selected because these behaviors reflect responding to others' emotional distress, urgent needs, and requests for assistance. In contrast, altruistic and public prosocial behaviors reflect distinct motivational processes (e.g., helping in the presence of others and self-sacrificial helping) that were not central to the present conceptual model and were therefore not included in the primary analyses. Care-based prosocial behavior was operationalized as a composite of the emotional, dire, and compliant subscales. Internal consistency was acceptable to good for the emotional (α = 0.83), dire (α = 0.74), and compliant (α = 0.61) subscales, and items from these subscales were averaged to create the care-based composite (α = 0.90). Further, each subscale demonstrated good reliability in the current sample.

Data analytic approach

Hypotheses were tested using path analysis to examine the associations among family ethnic family socialization, familism, sympathy, and care-based responsive prosocial behaviors. Models were estimated in Mplus Version 8.3 (Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles, CA, USA) (Muthén and Muthén, 2017) using maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors (MLR). Model fit was evaluated using multiple indices, including the root mean square error approximation (RMSEA ≤ 0.06), comparative fit index (CFI ≥ 0.90), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI ≥ 0.90), and standardized root mean residual (SRMR ≤ 0.08) (Hu and Bentler, 1999). As shown in Figure 1, the conceptual model specified direct paths from family ethnic socialization to familism and sympathy (a composite of empathic concern and perspective taking). Additional paths were specified from familism to sympathy, reflecting the theorized relations among the mediating processes. Each mediator, familism, and sympathy, were specified as a predictor of care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors (a composite of emotional, dire, and compliance). Direct paths from family ethnic socialization to care-based and responsive prosocial behavior were also included. Gender was included as a covariate predicting care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors. Finally, multigroup analyses were conducted to examine whether the hypothesized model varied by gender. We tested the significance of mediation effects using the INDIRECT command in Mplus 8.10 and conducted a follow-up bias-corrected residual bootstrap analysis to estimate 95% confidence intervals for indirect effects (MacKinnon et al., 2004; Muthén and Muthén, 2017). Goodness of model fit was assessed using multiple fit indices, including the root mean square error approximation (RMSEA ≤ 0.06), comparative fit index (CFI ≥ 0.90), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI ≥ 0.90), and standardized root mean residual (SRMR ≤ 0.08) (Hu and Bentler, 1999).

3. Results

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

Descriptive statistics and correlations among the primary study variables are presented in Table 1. Family ethnic socialization was positively associated with familism, sympathy, care-based, and responsive prosocial behaviors. Similarly, familism and sympathy were positively correlated with care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors. In addition, familism was positively associated with sympathy. Sympathy was strongly and positively related to care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors. No additional significant correlations were observed. We conducted independent samples t -tests to examine gender differences across the primary study variables. Results indicated that females reported significantly higher levels of familism (M = 3.77, SD = 0.80) than males (M = 3.57, SD = 0.85), t (438) = −2.14, p = 0.033, d = 0.25. However, there were no significant gender differences in family ethnic socialization, t (438) = −1.34, p = 0.183, d = 0.15; sympathy, t (438) = −1.77, p = 0.077, d = 0.20; or care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors, t (438) = −0.42, p = 0.678, d = 0.05. Overall, effect sizes were small, suggesting minimal gender differences across the primary study variables.

Main path model analysis

A path analysis was conducted to examine the hypothesized relations among family ethnic socialization, familism, sympathy, and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors (emotional, dire, compliant). The hypothesized model demonstrated good fit to the data, χ 2 (2) = 3.47, p = 0.18, RMSEA = 0.04, 90% CI (0.00, 0.11), CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.98, and SRMR = 0.03.

As shown in Figure 2, family ethnic socialization was significantly linked to familism (β = 0.39, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001), but was not significantly linked to sympathy (β = 0.08, SE = 0.05, p = 0.113). Familism was significantly linked to sympathy (β = 0.29, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001), and sympathy was positively linked to care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors (β = 0.59, SE = 0.03, p < 0.001). Familism was not significantly linked to care-based and responsive prosocial behavior (β = 0.06, SE = 0.04, p = 0.159). Finally, family ethnic socialization was directly linked to care-based and responsive prosocial behavior (β =0.10, SE = 0.04, p = 0.013). Gender was included as a covariate predicting care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors; this association was not significant, β = −0.03, SE = 0.03, p = 0.435.

Indirect relations

As a follow-up, bias-corrected bootstrap analysis with 5,000 iterations was conducted to test the significance of indirect relations between family ethnic socialization, familism, sympathy, and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) (MacKinnon et al., 2004). Results showed that there was also a significant indirect effect between family ethnic socialization and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors through familism [β = 0.09, SE = 0.03, p = 0.001, 95% CI (0.05, 0.15)]. There was also a significant indirect effect between family ethnic socialization and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors through sympathy [β = 0.11, SE = 0.03, p < 0.001, 95% CI (0.05, 0.18)]. In addition, there was a significant serial indirect effect between family ethnic socialization and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors through familism and sympathy [β = 0.07, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001, 95% CI (0.04, 0.11)]. There were no other significant indirect relations.

Multigroup analysis

A multigroup analysis was conducted to examine whether the hypothesized model varied by youth gender. Results showed that an unconstrained model, in which all structural paths were freely estimated across males and females, was just-identified, χ (0) 2 = 0.00. A fully constrained model, in which all structural paths were held equal across gender, demonstrated good fit to the data, χ (6) 2 = 9.17, p = 0.164, RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.991, and SRMR = 0.097. Although a chi-square difference test was not informative due to the just-identified unconstrained model, the constrained model fit the data well. These results indicate that constraining the structural paths did not worsen model fit, providing support for structural invariance and suggesting that the hypothesized developmental processes did not vary by youth gender. Overall, findings suggest that the developmental processes linking family ethnic socialization, familism, sympathy, and prosocial behavior are largely consistent across male and female youth.

4. Discussion

Building on these findings, the present work examined whether familism and sympathy mediated the relations between family ethnic socialization and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors among U.S. Latine youth. Importantly, we found significant indirect effects such that sympathy significantly mediated the relations between family ethnic socialization and prosocial behaviors. This mediation effect aligns with ecocultural strength-based models of U.S. Latine youth prosocial development (Carlo and Conejo, 2019), which indicates that family ethnic socialization could promote prosocial behaviors in part by enhancing youth's ability to understand and respond to others' emotional needs.

These findings indicate that when Latine families engage in ethnic socialization practices such as teaching about cultural heritage, traditions, and values, youth not only gain a deeper understanding of their own cultural identity but also develop socioemotional skills pertinent to prosocial behaviors. Importantly, these processes also appear to operate in part through familism values, such that family ethnic socialization may foster family-centered orientations emphasizing relational obligation and concern for others, which in turn support youths' socioemotional development. These socioemotional skills include the capacity to take others' perspectives and to share and understand the feelings of others. Consequently, these competencies may increase the likelihood that Latine youth engage in behaviors that benefit others, with familism further shaping a value-based pathway through which sympathy supports care-based prosocial behaviors, demonstrating the central role of family ethnic socialization in fostering empathy-driven prosocial behaviors. Together, these findings provide clear evidence that family ethnic socialization shapes prosocial behaviors indirectly through culturally grounded values and sociomoral processes, underscoring the need to integrate ecocultural strength-based and traditional models of prosocial development in U.S. Latine youth.

In addition, there were a number of direct effects in the relations among family ethnic socialization, familism, sympathy, and care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors. Consistent with our hypotheses, family ethnic socialization was positively associated with sympathy, indicating that those youth who reported their families frequently engage in ethnic socialization practices also report that they better understand and share the feelings of others. These findings suggest that both family dynamics and individual socioemotional processes are associated with prosocial behavior in youth. This finding aligns with previous research indicating that ethnic socialization can foster cognitive and emotional skills that are crucial for interpersonal interactions (Ayón et al., 2020).

Consistent with ethnic socialization models (Calzada et al., 2010), family ethnic socialization was positively linked to familism, suggesting that ethnic socialization practices might promote a sense of familial loyalty and interconnectedness (Knight et al., 2016). High levels of familism were also associated with higher levels of sympathy (a composite of perspective taking and empathic concern). In turn, higher levels of sympathy were associated with greater care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors. These findings suggest that previously documented effects of familism on prosocial behaviors may operate via its effects on sympathy (Streit et al., 2020). Interestingly, familism was not associated with care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors, suggesting that familism may not translate directly into behavior without the involvement of socioemotional processes. One possible explanation is that familism primarily orients youth toward valuing relationships and obligations, but that sympathy is needed to activate these values in emotionally salient situations that elicit helping behavior.

Finally, family ethnic socialization was directly associated with care-based and responsive prosocial behaviors, even after accounting for indirect pathways. This suggests that family ethnic socialization may also influence prosocial development through additional mechanisms not captured in the present study. For example, culturally grounded values such as bien educado, which emphasize respect, positive social conduct, and cooperation (Bridges et al., 2012), may directly promote helping behaviors alongside the indirect pathways identified here. In turn, empathic concern was significantly linked to care-based and responsive prosocial behavior. This highlights empathic concern as a key socioemotional correlate of prosocial behaviors. Interestingly, family ethnic socialization was not directly related to empathic concern. This suggests that while ethnic socialization fosters perspective taking, its effect on empathy might be mediated by other mechanisms or contextual factors not captured in this study. Overall, these findings highlight the need for more research on the unique correlates of specific forms of prosocial behavior (Carlo and Padilla-Walker, 2020).

Extending these findings, although girls reported slightly higher levels of familism, overall gender differences were minimal. Multigroup analyses further indicated that the structural relations among study variables were comparable across boys and girls, suggesting that these developmental processes operate similarly across gender. This pattern may reflect the culturally shared nature of familism and ethnic socialization practices within Latine families, which are often emphasized to both boys and girls, although some studies report modest gender differences in how these values are expressed (Cupito et al., 2015; Umaña-Taylor and Guimond, 2010).

Study limitations

The current study had several limitations. First, the cross-sectional study design limits the ability to make strong causal and directional inferences about the relations among family ethnic socialization, familism, sympathy, and prosocial behaviors. Although the general pattern of relations is consistent with prior theory and research, longitudinal studies, and/or experimental (e.g., interventions) are needed to better understand the directionality and causality of these relations. Second, the study relied on youth self-report measures, which can introduce various biases, including social desirability bias and recall bias. Future research is needed using multiple and alternative (e.g., behavioral tasks) methods to replicate the findings. And third, although the sample is a nationally recruited sample, the study was restricted to U.S. Latine youth completing an online survey, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to specific sub-Latine ethnicities (e.g., Nicaraguans, Puerto Ricans) or Latine youth without access to the internet. Relatedly, the sample consisted predominantly of women (78%), which could mitigate the generalizability of the findings to boys.

5. Conclusions

The primary goal of this study was to examine the interplay of family ethnic socialization, familism, sympathy, and distinct forms of prosocial behaviors (care-based and responsive) in U.S. Latine youth. The findings provide support for ecocultural strength-based and traditional models of prosocial behaviors (Carlo and Conejo, 2019; Eisenberg et al., 2015) that differentiate between culture-group and non-culture-group related predictors of prosocial development in U.S. Latine youth. Specifically, the study highlighted the central role that family ethnic socialization practices play in fostering sympathy, which in turn is linked to familism and multiple forms of prosocial behavior. Importantly, the present findings show evidence that there is an interplay between culture-related mechanisms (e.g., familism) and sociomoral traits (i.e., sympathy), which suggests that promoting strong family bonds and a sense of duty and care toward family members can promote sociomoral development. That is, empathy-related traits might be nurtured through traditional Latine cultural practices and values. Recognizing these culturally embedded pathways provides additional evidence that family ethnic socialization practices and familism are cultural strengths that can enhance positive social development in U.S. Latine youth. Moreover, these traditional Latine cultural mechanisms can be promoted in interventions aimed at fostering U.S. Latine youth prosocial development.

Statements

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Data availability

The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following licenses/restrictions: the data that support the findings of this study are available from the authors upon reasonable request. Requests to access these datasets should be directed to gcarlo@uci.edu.

Ethics approval

The studies involving human participants were approved by the University of California, Irvine. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The requirement for written informed consent was waived by the institutional review board because the data were collected anonymously through an online survey. Participants provided electronic informed consent prior to participation.

Author contributions

AC: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. GC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. JL: Writing – review & editing. AH: Writing – review & editing. TM: Writing – review & editing.

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Citation

Cruz, A. M., et al. (2026). Role of moral and culture-related correlates in the relations between family ethnic socialization and U.S. Latine youth's prosocial behaviors. Frontiers in Developmental Psychology, Volume 4. https://doi.org/
Received
Accepted
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4 - 2026

Copyright

Copyright © 2026 Cruz, Carlo, Liew, Higgins and Merino.

License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

*Correspondence: Alysia Maryse Cruz

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