Studying landscape transformation in the territory of Kazakhstan using the toponymic method

1 Introduction

In general, the study of changes in landscapes of the Earth and its individual regions primarily encompasses research directions such as anthropogenic impacts and landscape degradation, temporal changes in land cover, landscape resilience, desertification, pasture degradation, vegetation dynamics, ecosystem changes, and related processes. Although a substantial body of research exists in these fields, the majority of studies are limited to examining changes that have occurred over the past half century. This limitation arises because not all research methods are applicable to the investigation of landscape transformations during the medieval period.

Therefore, the use of toponymic data as indicators is of particular importance in such studies. In this context, lexical and semantic analysis of toponyms plays a crucial role, as it enables the identification of embedded environmental information and the interpretation of historical landscape characteristics (Imanberdiyeva et al., 2025; Akhmetova, 2024). Over the past decade, toponyms have increasingly become the focus of historical and political discourse as a cultural phenomenon. UNESCO and United Nations conferences have emphasized the significance of toponyms as elements of historical and cultural heritage and have highlighted the necessity of preserving and safeguarding toponyms as sources of landscape-related information (Zhou et al., 2025).

In Russian historical geography, the works of Lyubimova and Murzaev (1964); Murzaev (1982), as well as studies by E. M. Pospelov and others, played a significant role in providing a scientific foundation for the toponymic method and in its further development. However, subsequent research has frequently applied toponymy not as a methodological approach but rather as a source of data.

A number of studies based on toponymic evidence have examined spatial and temporal transformations of landscapes (Zhong et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2025; Hearn et al., 2024; Kaimuldinova, 2022; Yeginbayeva et al., 2015), changes in climatic conditions (Kaimuldinova et al., 2025), transformations in fauna (Tattoni, 2019) and vegetation cover (Atasoy and Yeginbayeva, 2017; Kotowski and Nowak, 2025; Ismayili, 2025; Petrov and Prodanova, 2019; Shi et al., 2015; Spampinato et al., 2022), as well as changes in hydrological features (Zhang et al., 2025; Zhong et al., 2020; Kaimuldinova, 2009; Kaimuldinova et al., 2014).

These studies demonstrate that changes occurring on Earth during different historical periods have altered the geographical characteristics of natural features, and that the information preserved in ancient toponyms does not always correspond to present-day geographical realities.

In general, the evolution of toponyms reflects changes in landscapes and the adaptive strategies of local communities. Therefore, by examining the historical and contemporary meanings of toponyms, researchers can obtain valuable insights into how climate change has shaped human experience and cultural identity. This understanding is crucial for transforming the rich cultural heritage embedded in a region's toponymic landscape into a reliable source of information for historical geography, while simultaneously ensuring its preservation (Kaimuldinova et al., 2025).

Nevertheless, from a geographical perspective, landscape changes—including those related to climate-remain insufficiently studied through the toponymic approach (Atasoy and Yeginbayeva, 2017). Under conditions of ongoing climate change, the investigation of landscape transformations, as well as the study of the spatial distribution of specific natural components across different historical periods and the identification of their changes, is of particular importance. A number of scholars (Atasoy and Yeginbayeva, 2017; Zhong et al., 2020; Kaimuldinova, 2022; Kaimuldinova et al., 2025; Saparov et al., 2017) argue that, in addition to historical, comparative-geographical, and statistical methods, the toponymic method plays an essential role in such studies. However, it should be noted that the toponymic method is still rarely applied in scientific research addressing the geographical aspects of landscape change (Kaimuldinova, 2022).

The aim of this study is to investigate landscape changes in the territory of Kazakhstan during the medieval period through the application of the toponymic method and to analyze their causal relationships. To achieve this aim, the following research questions were formulated:

• What is the role and significance of the toponymic research method in the study of landscape transformation?
• Which toponyms indicating landscape changes can be identified within the territory of Kazakhstan?
• What types of landscape changes occurred from a temporal and spatial perspective?

The results of this study may contribute to the investigation of landscape transformations in other regions and support the development of scientifically grounded recommendations for landscape conservation and the restoration of altered landscapes.

2 Research methods

The study employed both general scientific and discipline-specific research methods, including comparative analysis, historical, toponymic, descriptive, geographical, and cartographic approaches. For the first time in this research, the toponymic research method is presented as the principal approach for investigating landscape transformation. The toponymic method is understood as a set of approaches aimed at studying geographical names (toponyms) in order to determine their origins, meanings, and relationships with historical, geographical, and linguistic processes.

In physical geography, the toponymic method primarily encompasses historical–physical–geographical approaches focused on the investigation of natural indicators that influence landscape development. These indicators are generally classified into three groups: biogenic, hydromorphic, and lithogenic. In this study, biogenic indicators were used as the primary analytical basis, as they represent the most dynamic components of landscapes. By examining toponyms associated with vegetation, fauna, biocenoses, and soil types, it becomes possible to identify changes in the natural environment.

In the first stage of the research, a review was conducted of the works of scholars who provided a scientific foundation for the toponymic research method and applied it in their studies.

In the second stage, a list of toponyms indicative of landscape changes was compiled using topographic and historical maps, scientific literature, and encyclopedic sources.

In the third stage, the meanings of the selected geographical names were analyzed using historical texts, memoirs, and maps produced by medieval travelers and scholars. Lexical–semantic analysis was conducted to construct an informational framework of historical toponyms. This included identifying the etymological components of toponyms based on toponymic dictionaries and linguistic studies, followed by a comparison of their historical meanings with present-day geographical contexts. Lexical elements related to water, vegetation, relief, and fauna were classified into semantic groups representing different landscape components. The results were subsequently cross-validated using historical sources and cartographic data.

In the fourth stage, the manifestation of landscape changes in historical toponyms was demonstrated through specific examples of geographical features, and corresponding maps were produced. Geographical, historical, and cartographic information obtained from various sources was analyzed using the comparative geographical method.

3 Research results

3.1 The role and significance of the toponymic research method in the study of landscape transformation

Zhekulin (1972) identified the toponymic and landscape-lexicological method as one of the principal approaches in historical-landscape research. In his works, the essence of the toponymic method is revealed through the analysis of the spatial distribution of toponymic and landscape-lexical data across geocomplexes and their interpretation in relation to landscape characteristics and human impact on nature (Dictionary of place names of Zhezkazgan Region, 1990, p. 77). This is because toponyms convey information about the historical patterns of land use and the distinctive features of natural complexes within a given landscape.

The scholarly value of Zhekulin's research in this field lies in his demonstration that the principle of “comparative negativity,” formulated by Nikonov (1966) in toponymic studies, is not universal in character.

For contemporary physical-geographical toponymic research, the following statement by Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1924) remains highly relevant: “…in geographical regions where the natural-geographical landscape has undergone repeated catastrophic changes, it is often possible to reconstruct the original state of the landscape based on place names. In such cases, the name seems to convey more precise information than the object it designates.” (p. 156).

If the term “landscape” is substituted for the word “paysage” used in this quotation, it becomes evident that the conceptual foundations of the research direction addressed in this study have deep historical roots. The scholar's emphasis, in the analysis of settlement names, on elements of relief, rivers and lakes, plant species, and animals, as well as his processing of extensive statistical data, contributed significantly to establishing this method as one of the most effective approaches within historical geography.

The historical-geographical study of natural features is closely linked to the identification of relict elements, the monitoring of changes in species ranges across historical periods, and the analysis of overall developmental processes (Lyubimova and Murzaev, 1964). Previous studies have demonstrated that toponyms preserve information about environmental conditions and landscape evolution, and that their lexical-semantic analysis allows for the classification of place names and interpretation of their historical meanings (Ivaşcu and Stanik, 2024; Imanberdiyeva et al., 2025; Akhmetova, 2024).

The spatial distribution of toponyms associated with phytonyms provides concrete geoecological information about the richness and diversity of vegetation cover in a given region in ancient times, as well as about the preservation of certain plant species that are considered relict today (Atasoy and Yeginbayeva, 2017). A number of Russian scholars (E. L. Lyubimova, E. M. Murzaev, E. M. Pospelov, and others) developed a methodology for mapping the distribution ranges of certain tree species across the Russian Plain using cartographic techniques based on toponymic data. Based on these approaches, a structured step-by-step framework of the toponymic research methodology was developed (Figure 1).

This methodology is based on a sequence of successive research stages. First, a list of toponyms is compiled from historical, cartographic, and literary sources. Second, the most reliable and relevant toponyms are selected for analysis. At the next stage, a lexical-semantic analysis is conducted to identify the etymological structure and key semantic components of toponyms, particularly those related to water, vegetation, relief, and fauna. Subsequently, the selected toponyms and associated archaeological and historical data are mapped to visualize their spatial distribution. Finally, a comparative spatial analysis is carried out to identify discrepancies between the semantic meanings of toponyms and present-day landscape characteristics, allowing for the interpretation of landscape transformations and the formulation of scientific conclusions.

The study of such names is conducted in parallel with the compilation of analytical and integrated landscape-toponymic maps. In addition, for more detailed analysis, the use of large-scale schematic maps illustrating the landscape conditions corresponding to specific toponyms has proven to be highly effective.

Studies conducted over the past decade (Atasoy and Yeginbayeva, 2017) have demonstrated the significance of the toponymic method (the analysis of geographical names) for understanding the transformation of landscapes and the natural environment under conditions of climate change. Researchers emphasize that, among toponyms, those derived from plant names are particularly accurate in reflecting landscape changes (Ismayili, 2025; Shi et al., 2015; Spampinato et al., 2022). In their research conducted in Calabria, southern Italy, Spampinato et al. (2022) compared phytotoponyms with the names of contemporary plant species in the region and identified inconsistencies between them attributable to landscape transformations, highlighting phytotoponyms as an effective tool for analyzing changes in vegetation. Petrov and Prodanova (2019), based on their research findings, identified a relatively high concentration of toponyms associated with coniferous tree species on the northern slopes of Mount Shipka in Bulgaria and hypothesized that a coniferous belt existed in this area approximately 200–300 years ago. Shi et al. (2015), in their study of the western part of Hubei Province, proposed a new method for estimating vegetation degradation based on toponymic data, emphasizing its applicability for investigating long-term vegetation degradation.

Yeginbayeva et al. (2015) investigated landscape development in Kazakhstan across different historical periods through place names associated with hunting activities and natural features, demonstrating that such toponyms reflect natural and geographical conditions. Using a similar approach, Tattoni (2019), in a study conducted in Italy, established that geographical names serve as evidence of the past distribution of animals and plants, and demonstrated that historical distribution maps of wolves and bears correspond closely with areas of high toponym density.

Likewise, Kotowski and Nowak (2025), in their study of the distribution of tree-related place names in Silesia, showed that the density of such toponyms enables the reconstruction of historical forest dynamics. Comparable studies by Atasoy and Yeginbayeva (2017) and Hearn et al. (2024) conceptualized local field names as a “landscape memory layer,” revealing that they reflect the history of past agricultural and pastoral activities and represent indicators of traditional ecological knowledge.

Furthermore, Zhang et al. (2025) in their research on the Manas River basin, demonstrated that place names related to water resources are concentrated along river valleys and emphasized that the preservation of such toponyms is essential for maintaining local traditional knowledge and promoting sustainable development. The findings of these studies indicate that the toponymic method serves as an indicator of past landscape characteristics and ecosystem changes, and also plays an important role in the analysis and interpretation of the impacts of climatic processes.

3.2 Toponyms indicating landscape changes in the Territory of Kazakhstan

The semantic analysis of toponyms showed that a significant proportion of geographical names contain lexical elements associated with water, vegetation, relief, and fauna. These elements serve as indicators of past environmental conditions and help identify discrepancies between historical meanings and present-day landscape characteristics.

The analysis further indicates that, in many regions of Kazakhstan, toponyms reflect landscape transformations. Such information is expressed through different types of geographical names, including hydronyms, oikonyms, oronyms, and limnonyms (Table 1).

Table 1. Toponyms indicating landscape changes (Ibn Fadlan, 1939a,b; ; Kaimuldinova, 2022; Maksheev, 1888; Levshin, 1832; Murzaev, 1984; Dulati, 2015; Konkashpaev, 1951; Gorbunov, 2006; Pospelov, 1998; Koichubaev, 1974; Koshimova, 2010; The Book of the Great Map, 1950; Bichurin, 1953).

The spatial distribution of the toponyms compiled in the table is systematized and presented in Figure 2.

As illustrated in the map, toponyms formed in different historical periods often do not correspond to present-day natural zones, as noted above. For example, in provinces located within the desert zone such as Mangystau, Kyzylorda, and Atyrau the occurrence of toponyms such as Karagaily, Kokzhide, Talgairan, and Taldyaral indicates landscape transformation and reflects climatic changes over time. Consequently, the meanings of the historical place names preserved in the region no longer correspond to the characteristics of the modern landscape as a result of climate change. In many cases, changes in water bodies can also be observed. In the following section, we therefore turn to the scholarly interpretations and explanations provided for the semantic origins of these toponyms.

Studies conducted on the chronology of the naming of Lake Alakol (Kaimuldinova, 2022) have shown that the Swedish cartographer Renat, who compiled a map of Dzungaria between 1716 and 1733, labeled this lake on his map as “Yer Gurge” (Maksheev, 1888, p. 141). In addition, A. Levshin's work Description of the Kirghiz-Kazakh or Kirghiz-Kaisak Hordes and Steppes, published in 1832, reports based on information provided by J. Klaproth that Lake Alakol was formerly known as Gurge-noor, and that on the Unkovsky map compiled in 1722–1723 the lake was designated as “Alak-Tugul,” according to information supplied by the Dzungar khontayji (Levshin, 1832, p. 79). Subsequently, because the mottled appearance of the lake constituted its most distinctive feature, the local population named it “Alakol” (“variegated lake”).

Altynaryk is the name of a settlement and an irrigation canal in Merki District and is interpreted as meaning “a well-watered, good canal” (Kulamanova, 2014, p. 149). In the same area, the toponym Balatogan occurs, which reflects the size of the feature. At present, the water level of this reservoir has significantly declined. While one of these features was formerly characterized by an abundance of water, the other was relatively small in size. In both cases, notable transformations can be observed. Although the locality known since early times as Mynbulak (“a thousand springs”) was fed by mountain springs, their actual number is not particularly large.

The toponym Araltobe is characteristic of many oronyms found in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. E. M. Murzaev suggests that the Turkic word aral may derive from ar (“to separate, distinct”) or ara (“interval, space between two objects”), while also noting that the word tobe (“hill”) is of Turkic origin (Murzaev, 1984). In certain regions, this name no longer corresponds to the physical characteristics implied by the toponym due to the retreat of water bodies. During his journey to Siberia and the Caspian Sea in 1829, Baron von Humboldt wrote: “On the road from Semey to Zharkent, upon reaching Lake Alakol (Ala Sea), northeast of Balkhash, we saw a large mountain that at times appeared to emit fire. The mountain stood in the middle of the lake like an island….” This information was recorded based on the account of the Tatar Seifulla Seifullen, who was present in the region in 1829. According to accounts by Bukharans and Tashkent residents who had also been in this area: “…from the Emel River to Lake Alakol is 60 versts… in the middle of the lake stands a large hill called Araltobe.” (Journey of Baron von Humboldt to Siberia and the Caspian Sea in 1829, 1837, p. 20–21). In addition, this toponym can be found as an oikonym in West Kazakhstan and Atyrau regions, and as an oronym at Lake Sasykkol in the Urzhar District of Abai Region.

The toponym Arshaly is generally understood to be associated with the widespread presence of juniper (arsha). However, at present, toponyms such as Arshaly and Arshaty are encountered in areas that are not particularly rich in this vegetation. Such names occur in Akmola, Almaty, Jambyl, Turkistan, and East Kazakhstan regions. The medieval scholar M. H. Dulati, in his work, describes a place called Arshaly as “a locality rarely reached by human presence… a place with three gorges” (Dulati, 2015, p. 105).

Atasu is the name of a river and a settlement in the central part of Kazakhstan. (Zhanuzak 2010, p. 49) interprets the meaning of this name as “the main, principal, or large river.” However, when considering the literal meaning of the toponym, the river in its present state can hardly be regarded as large or primary.

Among toponyms reflecting historical transformations of natural features, the limnonym Balkhash also merits attention. This name may be associated with the term balkash, meaning “clay” or “mud” in Old Kazakh. As noted by Konkashpaev (1951), this term is no longer used in contemporary language and survives only within toponyms. Natural features bearing the name Balkhash are recorded not only in this region but also elsewhere: Balkhash (settlement, Aktobe Region), Balkhash (lake, Pavlodar Region), Balkhashsor (salt lake, Pavlodar Region), and Balkhashtybulak (spring, South Kazakhstan Region).

According to (Gorbunov 2006, 27), historical sources indicate that the lake was known as Zho-Hai (“Dead Sea”) in the 7th−10th centuries, as Kyzylbash-Nur (“Lake of the Kyzylbash”) during the campaigns of Genghis Khan, as Kokshetengiz in the 16th century, and as Tengiz on Russian maps dating to the late 17th-early 18th centuries.

(Koichubaev 1974, p. 53), drawing on the conceptual framework proposed by S. P. Tolstov, argues that the root element bal/bar, which is considered the basis of the toponym Balkhash, denotes “water” and belongs to the Ural-Altaic language group dating back to the 3rd−2nd centuries BCE.

Toponyms containing the name Balkhash are also found elsewhere: Balkhash (settlement, Aktobe Region), Balkhash (lake, Pavlodar Region), Balkhashsor (salt lake, Pavlodar Region), and Balkhashtybulak (spring, South Kazakhstan Region).

Belkol is the name of a settlement in Kyzylorda Region. The primary meaning of this toponym is “the main, principal, or largest lake” (Zhanuzak, 2010, p. 61), indicating that the name originally referred to a lake in this area. However, in the vicinity of the settlement called Belkol, no lake corresponding to this description can currently be identified.

The settlement known as Bestamak is located within the territories of Aktobe, Karaganda, and Kostanay regions. (Murzaev 1984, p. 542) interprets the toponymic meaning of the component tamak as “river mouth, valley, or small ravines.” However, in the vicinity of the settlement it is not possible to identify “five valleys” or “five ravines” in numerical terms. This, in turn, indicates that the local landscape has undergone significant transformation.

Derkol is the name of a river and a settlement in West Kazakhstan Region. The scholar (Zhanuzak 2010, p. 74) explains the meaning of this name by deriving der from a word meaning “pearl,” associating it with the clarity and purity of the lake water. However, no lake corresponding to this description can currently be found near the river or settlement. In our view, one of the small lakes that formed in this area during a certain period as a result of rising river waters may have originally borne this name.

The name of Lake Egindi is interpreted by (Zhanuzak 2010, p. 77) as meaning “a spring-fed lake receiving water from several rivers.” At present, however, no multiple inflowing rivers can be observed feeding the lake.

The Jaikh River is the largest river in western Kazakhstan. In Pospelov's (1998, p. 432) dictionary, the name is derived from the Turkic words yai and ik and is interpreted as meaning “a wide, broadly spreading river.” The scholar (Baskakov 1972, p. 209) notes that the variant daykh of the toponym, meaning “river flood,” belongs to the Kuman dialect of the Altaic language group. Both interpretations presented above indicate that, during a certain historical period, the river experienced strong flooding and widely dispersed flow.

One of the major rivers in the central and southern parts of Kazakhstan, the Sarysu River, flows across the flat steppe and dissipates into the Betpak-Dala desert. The meaning of this name is associated with the abundance of its waters and its long course (Zhanuzak, 2007). In the structure of the toponym, the component sary is used in the sense of “large, extensive, or vast.” In addition, this hydronym has also been interpreted as meaning “a wide river” (Koichubaev, 1974).

In the toponym Zhetisay, the numeral zheti (“seven”) is not used in its literal sense but rather to denote “many” (Pospelov, 1998, p. 138). Accordingly, the name signifies “an area with numerous dry river channels.” However, given that agricultural activities are well-developed in this region, it can be observed that the number of such channels or ravines is not particularly large, indicating changes in the landscape over time.

The word zhide in the Kazakh language refers to wild shrubs and trees of the genus Elaeagnus (or their fruits). In Central Asia, these plants were widely distributed along sheltered river valleys with marginal vegetation and within old riparian woodlands. Toponyms derived from the word zhide, which provide evidence of intrazonal landscapes, are found in many regions of Kazakhstan. In the Kyzylorda and Zhetysu regions, zhide vegetation was once abundant within former riparian forest belts.

The toponym Kazansu is formed from the Kazakh words qazan (“cauldron, hollow”) and su (“water”) and denotes “water located in a hollow or depression” (Zhanuzak, 2010). This settlement is part of the Sarybulak rural district in Kerbulak District, Zhetysu Region. However, no lake is currently found within or near the settlement.

In addition, a group of toponyms such as Kanshymsai, Kanshymturan, Kansu (which occurs repeatedly), Kankum, Kankuduk, Kandybas, Kankystau, and others are noteworthy. In these toponyms, the component kan functions as a geographical term meaning “water” or “river” (Koshimova, 2010). There are also oronyms formed from the root kup, derived from Persian, meaning “a vessel for water” or “water-bearing.” Examples include the Kyzylkup and Zhetikup gorges (Span and Duisenbayeva, 2006). At present, these geographical locations have transformed into dry, arid, barren landscapes. The Kyzylkup Gorge is also found within the territory of Turkmenistan.

The Book of the Great Map, compiled in 1627, contains the names of more than thirty geographical features located within the territory of present-day Kazakhstan. Along with the names of these features, the work provides descriptions of their characteristics. Information concerning the Oiyl River specifically that it disappears into the ground before reaching the Zhaiyk River, and that eight lakes called Karakol are situated at its mouth constitutes highly valuable data for toponymy and historical geography. The hydronym Zhem, whose etymology is not in doubt today, appears in this source as Gem: “The Gem River flows into a lake twenty versts before reaching the Khvalyn (Caspian) Sea… The Kainar Sagyz River flows into the Gem River from the right bank….” (The Book of the Great Map, 1950, p. 93). In other regions of Kazakhstan, toponyms that have lost their original indicator function include names such as Kostobe (“Two Hills”), Zhalgyztobe (“Single Hill”), Karatobe (“Black Hill”), Zhuantobe (“Massive Hill”), and Zhartytobe (“Half Hill”). For example, in areas bearing the name Kostobe, which numerically indicates the presence of two hills, or Karatobe and Zhalgyztobe, which imply a prominent or solitary hill, it is often impossible today to identify hills corresponding to these descriptions. Similarly, landscape transformation can also be observed in connection with the toponym Tastobe. Such names are found throughout all regions of the country.

Karaegin is the name of a village in Akmola Region. The meaning of this toponym is interpreted as “main, major, or primary spring or source” (Zhanuzak, 2010, p. 124). At present, no such spring or source can be found in the vicinity of the village. Nevertheless, it can be assumed that the origin of the name was initially associated with such a water source.

Karatogai is the name of settlements in Aktobe, Pavlodar, and East Kazakhstan regions. Semantically, it denotes “a dense grove or thick forested area.” In the work of the medieval scholar Dulati, this place is described as being located along the Syr Darya River. The author notes: “In the Turkistan region, along the banks of the Sayhun (Syr Darya) River, there is a place called Karatogai…” (Dulati, 2015, p. 156). However, at present, no locality bearing this name can be identified in that region.

The toponym Kusak is used for a lake in Akmola Region, a river in eastern Kazakhstan, and a settlement in Jambyl Region. The meaning of the name is explained as “dried up, arid; a dry channel or ravine.” (Zhanuzak, 2011, p. 143). However, the lake and river currently retain a certain level of water. This suggests that, at the time the name originated, these features were characterized by extremely low water levels.

Taldyaral is the name of a settlement in Kyzylorda Region. The meaning of the toponym can be interpreted as “an island with willows growing in the middle of water.” At present, no such “island” can be identified in the vicinity of the settlement. This can be explained by the fact that the name was given to a “temporary” island that formed as a result of rising water levels in the Syr Darya River. Similar phenomena can be observed in the formation of other toponyms.

The toponym Sharyn derives from the Old Turkic word charan, meaning “a rapid, flood-prone, forceful, or swift-flowing river.” (Zhanuzak, 2011, p. 134). In addition, in the Kyrgyz language, the word shar denotes “fast, swift, or turbulent flow.” In the Mongolian language, the term is interpreted as “wild” or “unruly,” conveying a characterization consistent with the interpretations presented above. This suggests that, although the Sharyn River currently has a relatively slow flow, at the time the name originated it was characterized by strong currents and frequent flooding.

Toponyms such as Sholtobe (“Desert Hill”) are found in many regions of Kazakhstan. While the name directly reflects the arid character of the hill, grassy landscapes can now be observed in these locations. An example is Sholtobe, considered an ancient settlement site in Baizak District of Jambyl Region.

The Ile River flows from east to west from Dzungaria through the Ili District and empties into Lake Balkhash after a course of approximately 1,400 li (Bichurin, 1953, p. 30). Telgozha Zhanuzak notes that the name Ile is characteristic of Old Turkic languages (Zhanuzak, 2010). Referring to its mention in the works of Mahmud al-Kashgari, he suggests that the name conveys the meaning “river” or “water.” In Old Turkic, the hydronym is also interpreted as meaning “land softened after rain.” The well-known toponymist (Murzaev 1984, p. 195) notes that the root element il, which underlies the name, denotes “sediment,” “silt,” or “clay” in Slavic languages. The presented evidence suggests that, in both ancient Turkic and Slavic languages, the meaning of the hydronym converges on the notion of “land softened or kneaded after rain.”

4 Discussion

Although the number of studies that examine landscape change directly on the basis of toponyms remains limited, there is a substantial body of research that focuses on changes in individual components reflected in toponyms, particularly vegetation cover, fauna, climate, and hydrology. The results obtained in this study are largely consistent with the findings and interpretations of many previous researchers.

The research results indicate that certain vegetation-derived toponyms (such as Zhide, Karagaily, Talgairan, and Zhalpaktal) testify to the former presence of dense vegetation cover during earlier periods. As demonstrated by Hällzon et al. (2022), zhide (referred to locally as jigdä) constituted an important component of rural ecosystems and was frequently reflected in place names as well as in proverbs and ritual expressions. However, the plant species that indicate intrazonal landscapes are currently rarely encountered in the vicinity of Zhideli and Kokzhide, suggesting a contraction of intrazonal areas. According to the study by Baikenjeeva et al. (2022), the oleaster tree (Elaeagnus oxycarpa) represents a dominant species in the increasingly narrowing dense riparian forests along the Syr Darya River. The construction of dams and reservoirs, along with agro-landscape transformations, has also altered riparian forest ecosystems.

Although pine species are not currently found in desert or semi-desert zones, there exist toponyms that indicate their former distribution in these regions. This issue has also been addressed in our previous research (Kaimuldinova et al., 2025). Atasoy and Yeginbayeva (2017) argue that toponyms make it possible to identify which plant species were widespread in the past and to determine their role within historical landscapes. There are also historical accounts indicating that the forest zone in northern Kazakhstan was once more extensive. For example, in the first section (“Geographical Information”) of Description of the Kirghiz-Kazakh or Kirghiz-Kaisak Hordes and Steppes, published in St. Petersburg in 1832, Levshin (1832) notes that the forest belts of Amankaragaily, Arakaragaily, and Nauryzym within the territory of Kazakhstan were once very extensive, and that tobylga shrubs were abundant along the Tobyl River. Moreover, archaeobotanical evidence suggests that deciduous and evergreen forests (including laurel, magnolia, oak, and others) existed in the Pavlodar region during earlier periods (Atasoy and Yeginbayeva, 2017).

In addition, Levshin (1832) provides highly valuable information regarding the abundance of red deer (maral) inhabiting the Bugyly Mountains, the presence of numerous islands in the Aral Sea, the existence of kulans and tarpans on the Ustyurt Plateau, and tigers inhabiting the reed-covered areas along the Syr Darya River. The Russian scholar Maksheev (1888) also noted that the Kulandy Peninsula was named due to the large population of kulans in that area. These accounts, in conjunction with the evidence of rich vegetation cover discussed above, demonstrate that the fauna of these regions was likewise abundant in the past.

Many hydronyms in Kazakhstan indicate that rivers and lakes possessed significantly greater water volumes during historical periods. Hydronyms such as Zhaiyk, Sarysu, Sharyn, Ile, Karakol, Kanshymsai, Kanshymturan, Kazansu, Kansu, Kankuduk, Kankum, Kandybas, Kankystau, Kanai, and others serve as evidence of this. For example, in the accounts of Ibn Fadlan, the Zhaiyk River is described as “the largest and fastest-flowing river we encountered.” (Travels of Ibn Fadlan, 1939a,b). In Pospelov's (1998, p. 433) dictionary, the name of this river is derived from the Turkic words yai and ik and interpreted as meaning “a wide, broadly spreading river.”

Similarly, hydronyms such as Sarysu, Sharyn, Ile, Kazansu, Kansu, and Kankuduk also testify to a formerly more humid climate. For instance, (Smailov 1997, p. 5–11) argues that the name of the Sarysu River in the 14th century was Saryguzen, indicating that the river was large and wide during that period. This interpretation is supported by the presence of the component sary in the hydronym, which conveys the meaning “large” or “extensive.” In contrast, the river is not particularly large at present.

Furthermore, the Arab geographer and traveler Ibn Khordadbeh, who lived in the 9th century, wrote that “near Abardjadj, thousands of springs emerge from a single hill, forming a river that flows eastward. This river is called Barku-ab, meaning water that flows in the opposite direction.” (Ibn Khordadbeh, 1986, p. 64). Based on these descriptions, the locality known as Mynbulak can be identified within the territories of the Merki and Zhualy districts. However, the accuracy of these historical descriptions appears to have diminished over time, as although springs still exist in this area today, their number is no longer particularly large.

As a result of climatic changes, the surface areas of water bodies have undergone significant transformations. Lakes Alakol and Balkhash serve as illustrative examples. Based on written sources, it can be established that the water level of Lake Alakol has experienced several pronounced fluctuations over the past 170 years alone. Particularly noteworthy are the observations recorded by A. Schrenk, who traversed the southern, eastern, and northern shores of Lake Alakol in 1840. During his visit to the region, Schrenk noted that the sandbars of Lesser Alakol formed a continuous strip that separated the Lesser Alakol Bay from the main body of the lake. Accompanied by his expedition, he crossed to the opposite shore of the lake along this land strip, which exceeded 15 km in length. Schrenk also reported that he easily reached Greater Araltobe via this terrestrial “bridge,” whereas today this area is occupied by a water surface with a minimum width of 13 km (Kurdyukov, 1951).

Schrenk further documented that the land strip he traversed was known as Naryn Ozek (“Narrow Channel”) and rose approximately 2–3 m above the water surface. However, in 1862, A. Golubev, who also visited the region, reported that the central part of this isthmus had become submerged (Kazanskaya, 1965, p. 101). Changes in the water level and shoreline configuration of Lake Alakol over past centuries are also corroborated by lithological analyses of the lake bed and coastal formations. At present, narrow, elongated underwater ridges extending parallel to one another in a meridional direction are observed on the lake floor. According to the interpretation of (Kurdyukov 1951, p. 122), these ridges did not form under lacustrine conditions but instead represent structures that developed in a subaerial environment. On this basis, it can be hypothesized that the water level of Lake Alakol in earlier centuries was even lower than that observed during Schrenk's time.

P. P. Semenov Tyan-Shansky reported that between 1840 and 1858 the Alakol lake basin consisted of two principal lakes, referred to as Eastern and Western Alakol, separated by a marshy isthmus approximately 20 versts wide. This isthmus contained small lagoons that were partially overgrown with reeds and interconnected by water flow (Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, 1958, p. 261).

On Chinese maps from the period of the Three Kingdoms (220–280 CE), a small lake is depicted at the location of present-day Lake Balkhash. This lake is situated in what is now the deepest part of Balkhash, leading scholars to hypothesize that much of the lake dried up during the 3rd century (Gumilev and Aleksin, 1963, p. 47). In contrast, a Chinese map compiled in the 9th century during the Tang dynasty depicts Balkhash as a large lake whose configuration closely resembles the depression of the modern Balkhash—Alakol basin (Kurdyukov, 1951, p. 129).

A map produced by I. Unkovsky, who traveled through southeastern Kazakhstan between 1722 and 1724, covers the territory of Kazakh lands between 580 and 460 versts. On this map, three separate lakes are depicted at the location of present-day Lake Balkhash (Beisenova, 2001, p. 49). These data demonstrate that the water level of Lake Balkhash underwent multiple oscillatory fluctuations during historical periods. The variability in the lake's names may therefore be regarded as an indicator reflecting its geographical characteristics and describing the lake's condition during different historical stages.

In addition, Berg proposed that the Balkhash basin was initially dry and only later filled with water; consequently, its waters have not yet become fully saline. The scholar suggested that in the early 19th century the abundance of water in this region was such that there existed a flow connecting Lake Sasykkol and Lake Balkhash (Berg, 1947). Based on the evidence presented above, we associate the emergence of the name Balkhash with a period in the 18th century when the lake level dropped significantly and certain parts of the basin transformed into mud (balkash in Old Kazakh).

In some cases, the existence of lakes in historical periods can be inferred from toponyms formed using the term köl (“lake”). For this purpose, Kaimuldinova et al. (2014) analyzed toponyms containing the term köl in North Kazakhstan Region. In total, the researchers identified 37 such toponyms, of which 31 referred to marshes and 6 to settlements. These names provide direct evidence that former lacustrine landscapes degraded under the influence of climatic change, transforming into marshes and, in some cases, into meadow landscapes (Kaimuldinova et al., 2014).

It is well-established that landscape changes are directly linked to climatic variations. The toponyms discussed above demonstrate that landscapes in Central Asia and Kazakhstan during the medieval period were markedly different from those of today and that a more humid and cooler climate prevailed. In particular, a humid climatic regime dominated Central Asia between the 9th and 13th centuries (Kaimuldinova et al., 2025). In his accounts, Ibn Fadlan notes that the Amu Darya remained frozen for three months, indicating climatic conditions that were considerably colder than those observed today.

In lowland and morphologically uniform landscapes, the principles governing the formation of toponyms differ from those in mountainous regions. In such areas, individual hills or uplands were perceived as distinctive natural features and did not require additional specification when being named. These oronyms have thus become important indicators reflecting historical changes in relief. For example, toponyms such as Araltobe, Kostobe, Zhalgyztobe, and Zhetisay often no longer correspond to actual hills or valleys in the present-day landscape. In areas named Kostobe, which numerically indicates the presence of two hills, or Karatobe and Zhalgyztobe, which imply a prominent or solitary hill, no such features can currently be identified. Similarly, landscape transformation can also be observed in relation to the toponym Tastobe. Such names are widespread throughout all regions of Kazakhstan.

5 Conclusion

The study has demonstrated that the toponymic method plays a crucial role in identifying landscape changes and transformations in landscape components through the analysis of historical toponyms. Ancient place names contain substantial evidence that no longer corresponds to present-day natural conditions: areas that were once rivers have become dry channels without permanent flow, while regions that formerly supported dense vegetation have transformed into barren land. These transformations resulted not only from natural climatic changes but also from the influence of anthropogenic factors. The reduction of forests and riparian woodlands, the shrinkage of rivers and lakes, the expansion of agricultural activities, and alterations to irrigation systems have all contributed to the restructuring of natural systems.

Moreover, toponyms such as Karagaily, Kostobe, and Muzbel, which are currently found within desert and arid steppe zones, provide evidence of markedly different geographical conditions during earlier historical periods. These data help explain the discrepancies between ancient place names and present-day geographical realities. The application of the toponymic method in historical-geographical research is therefore an indispensable approach for reconstructing past landscape structures and tracing the dynamics of environmental change. Expanding this line of research and establishing a comprehensive database encompassing other regions of Kazakhstan is of considerable importance. Such a database could prove highly valuable for the future cartographic modeling of regional landscape transformations and the development of climate adaptation strategies.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Juan Ochando Tomás, University of Siena, Italy

Reviewed by: Николай Беленов, Samara State Academy of Social Sciences and Humanities, Russia

Muhamad Iko Kersapati, University College London, United Kingdom