Environmental factors in the preservation of human remains and funerary textiles in the late Old Kingdom burials at Saqqara West, Egypt: burial microenvironments, taphonomy, and preservation bias

This paper investigates a link between intra-regional climatic changes and the preservation of human remains and funerary textiles in a representative group of burials from the late Old Kingdom/early First Intermediate Period cemetery (5th–8th Dynasties; c. 2498–2160 BCE) at Saqqara West, Egypt. The study integrates geological, geoarchaeological, and archaeological evidence from the site, contemporary with the 4.2ka BP aridification event, with macro- and microscopic bioarchaeological assessment of human remains, funerary textiles, and burial conditions. Human remains exhibited excellent preservation, with little to no evidence of weathering or cortical erosion. The varying state of textile preservation reflects a spectrum of burial microenvironments driven by a complex interplay between anthropogenic factors (underground shaft-tomb design; coffin materials) and environmental variables (bedrock porosity and permeability; pluvial water accumulation). By synthesizing multidisciplinary findings from the Saqqara West cemetery, this study demonstrates that the preservation of funerary textiles depended on the interaction between microclimatic events and burial attributes. These findings refine current understanding of the Old Kingdom burial practices, highlighting the value of organic remains as proxies for environmental and cultural changes.

The Saqqara necropolis, located approximately 30 km south of Cairo, Egypt, on a limestone (now desert) plateau to the west of the Nile Valley (El-khteeb et al., 2025), is the largest of the Memphite cemeteries established for the Old Kingdom élite and royalty (Figure 1A). The Saqqara West site (29.871352, 31.214597) extends immediately west of the funerary complex of Pharaoh Netjerykhet (Djoser; c. 2649–c. 2611 BCE) and its central Step Pyramid monument (Figure 1B), where archaeological investigations have been ongoing since 1987. Based on the site stratigraphy and distinctive burial characteristics, two temporally distant phases of funerary activity have been identified in the necropolis. The so-called Lower Necropolis dates to the terminal Old Kingdom and early First Intermediate Period (5th to 8th Dynasties; c. 2498–2160 BCE; Kuraszkiewicz et al., 2013, pp. 22–23) and comprises shaft-tomb inhumations of high officials and middle-ranking courtiers (Kuraszkiewicz et al., 2013; Myśliwiec et al., 2004, 2010). After a hiatus of nearly 2,000 years, funerary activity resumed in Saqqara West during the Graeco-Roman Period (332 BCE–394 CE), as evidenced by hundreds of grave pit inhumations made in sedimentary layers that accumulated over the remains of the Lower Necropolis (the so-called Upper Necropolis; Radomska et al., 2008).

The use of the Lower Necropolis coincided with political and social instability during the terminal Old Kingdom, linked to the global 4.2ka BP (c. 2200 BCE) aridification event (Bárta, 2019; Bini et al., 2019; Ran and Chen, 2019). Although the 4.2 ka BP event is generally associated with increasing aridity in the wider Eastern Mediterranean and reduced Nile flooding across Egypt (Stanley et al., 2003), geoarchaeological evidence from Saqqara West indicates episodes of intense local rainfall in the Memphite region (Welc and Marks, 2014). The intra-regional climatic events likely impacted the preservation of organic remains in burials by altering their microenvironmental conditions. This study explores how pluvial water accumulation and the resulting changes in burial microenvironments affected the preservation of organic remains in the underground structures of the Old Kingdom tombs. By integrating geological, geoarchaeological, and archaeological findings from the Saqqara West necropolis with bioarchaeological assessment, this study establishes an evidence-based rationale for the taphonomic preservation of funerary textiles and other organic remains within the examined burials. Furthermore, it provides an interpretative framework for preservation patterns in late Old Kingdom burials, underscoring the utility of organic artefacts as environmental and cultural indices.

The Saqqara West necropolis was established on a westward sloping (7° gradient) lower terrace of a former limestone quarry used for the construction of the Step Pyramid (Welc, 2011; Welc and Marks 2014; Figure 1B). It comprised the so-called mastaba (bench-like) tombs with the above-ground funerary chapel and underground rock-hewn burial chamber accessible through a vertical shaft (Figure 1C; Kuraszkiewicz et al., 2013; Myśliwiec et al., 2004, 2010). Constructed for the high officials and middle-ranking courtiers of the Memphite administration during the terminal Old Kingdom (c. 2498–2160 BCE), the shaft-tombs contained individual inhumations. These were typically placed in a wooden or reed coffin (e.g., Figures 2–5), with some wealthier burials equipped with a stone sarcophagus (e.g., the tomb of the vizier Merefnebef; Myśliwiec et al., 2004). The bodies were originally dressed and/or wrapped in linen (e.g., Figures 2–4), with evidence of additional linen textiles placed in coffins as part of the funerary goods assemblage. Despite their relative contemporaneity and similarities in burial practices, the preservation of funerary textiles visibly differed among the burials, ranging from large, identifiable fragments to little (i.e., small fragments or traces), if any, evidence of linen textiles in burial contexts (e.g., Figures 5, 6).

The fragmentation of funerary textiles and disarticulation of skeletonised human remains, recorded in an estimated 75% of the late Old Kingdom burials at Saqqara West (n > 100), were clear hallmarks of anthropogenic, post-depositional disturbance that took place in antiquity. This was unlikely to have been the sole determinant of the preservation of both the funerary textiles and human remains. In addition to anthropogenic disturbance, several other factors were likely significant contributors, including (a) post-mortem body treatment; (b) burial location and environment; and (c) climatic events contemporaneous with the burials. For the purpose of this study, a total of five burials (Figure 1C), representative of the site and period, with both human and textile artefacts available for re-examination, were selected for analysis. The burials, excavated between 2006 and 2017, were documented photographically while in situ and subsequently studied on site in accordance with the Egyptian regulations pertaining to archaeological finds, including human remains. Burial records and human remains were re-examined in 2025 and 2026, whereas the associated funerary textiles were, for the first time, systematically studied between the 2023 and 2026 fieldwork seasons. The human remains and funerary textiles remain part of the onsite archaeological collection curated in Saqqara West.

Human remains

Recording of human remains, including skeletal completeness and bone surface preservation, establishing demographic profile, and assessment of physical health status followed current standards and methodologies (Brickley and McKinley, 2004; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Mitchell and Brickley, 2017). In all five burials selected for this study (Shaft 103, B.511; Shaft 111, B.554; Shaft 110, B.555; Shaft 5, B.652; Chapel 32, B.702), human remains were found skeletonised with residual evidence of desiccated soft tissue. Burials B.511 and B.554 showed minor to moderate skeletal disarticulation and commingling within their coffins caused by anthropogenic disturbance (Figures 2, 3). In the case of B.554, the disturbance could be associated with an intrusive inhumation of B.553 in the same burial chamber (Figure 3). Cortical bone preservation and overall bone condition were visually assessed (macroscopically and using a magnifying glass; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994, pp. 96‒106). Identified bone modifications were differentiated as either taphonomic or pathological based on their aetiology (Corron et al., 2017). Particular attention was given to any evidence of environmental and physical alterations, such as weathering, staining or discolouration, and cortical erosion (Andrews and Bello, 2006; Bello and Andrews, 2006; Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews, 2016) to assess the effects of burial environmental conditions on the preservation of human remains.

Funerary textiles

Textile artefacts recovered from three (B.511; B.554; B.555) of the five burials were kept on site in stable environmental conditions until their specialist examination. These were inventoried, photographically documented, and subsequently studied using a magnifying glass and a portable Dino-Lite handheld microscope (AM4815ZT). Technical analysis included the recording of the weave, density (the number of vertical (warps) and horizontal (wefts) threads per cm2), spinning direction of the threads, fibre identification, and other diagnostic features (e.g., border, selvedge, fringe; Andersson Strand et al., 2010, p. 153). Textile fragments of the same density recovered from a single burial context were assigned the same inventory number, as these were considered parts of one original piece.

Reconstruction of the original location of textiles in a burial context (e.g., on human remains as part of body wrappings or as a standalone funerary gift) was possible in an intact B.555 (Figure 4), and to a limited extent in two disturbed contexts, B.511 and B.554. Archival written and photographic documentation was consulted in the reconstruction of textile layering in the individual burial contexts. In that regard, special attention was given to any textile discolouration (i.e., deviation from a natural colour of undyed linen) that would be indicative of proximity to the body. For example, the innermost linen wrappings would darken due to close contact with the body during decomposition, while external wrappings would retain their original colour if no other factors were at play (e.g., coffined inhumation in a burial chamber instead of grave deposition). Also considered was the use of embalming agents and resin, which are known to cause significant discolouration of funerary textiles as well as human remains (e.g., Ikram et al., 2023). To that effect, a total of five textile samples were taken for laboratory analysis (SEM-EDS and GC-MS) to evaluate the condition of the flax fibres and identify any embalming agents that could have been used in body treatment. Sampling was conducted with permission and in accordance with the regulations of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities in Egypt. Samples were prepared on site at Saqqara West and subsequently transferred to the laboratory of the Research and Conservation Centre of Antiquities, MoTA, awaiting analysis.

No preserved textile remains were found in the intact burials B.652 and B.702; however, their original presence there was confirmed by textile imprints preserved in dry mud deposits that accumulated inside the coffins (Figures 5, 6). The recovered fragments were too fragile for taking casts (e.g., Phillips 2010) and were instead photographically documented and studied under magnification using a portable Dino-Lite microscope.

Assessment of the five Saqqara West inhumations indicates that differential preservation of funerary textiles and, to a lesser extent, human remains was likely influenced by a combination of variables, including anthropogenic disturbance, post-mortem body treatment, burial location, and local climatic events contemporaneous with the burials.

Burial attributes and environment

All inhumations took place in rock-hewn shaft-tombs, in their underground burial chambers, except the individual in B.652, whose remains were deposited on the shaft floor. All burials included a coffin made from either reed or wood. In addition to that, the wooden coffin in B.702 was placed in a grave pit hewn in the floor of the burial chamber and sealed with a stone slab. The archaeological and geoarchaeological evidence indicates that these burial contexts were exposed to pluvial infiltration and sediment accumulation. In combination with the differing properties of reed and wooden coffins, these factors likely influenced local burial conditions and may account for the contrasting preservation of funerary textiles observed among the studied burials (Table 1).

Individuals and their skeletal remains

Among the five burials studied, two (B.511 and B.554) belonged to older females (50+ years) and both inhumations were affected by anthropogenic disturbance (Figures 2, 3). The direct impact of this disturbance on the skeletal remains was observed in the upper body area, typically targeted for valuable adornments, where skeletal elements were found commingled with slight to moderate evidence of fragmentation of the ribs and vertebrae. Overall, the two disturbed skeletons were near complete. The remaining three intact burials (Figures 4–6) contained skeletonised remains of young adult males (B.555, 18‒20 years; B.702, 25‒35 years) and a child (B.652, 3‒4 years). A partial collapse of the coffin lid in B.702 had caused fragmentation of the craniofacial bones.

Post-mortem body treatment

All but one (B.702; extended) of the individuals were placed on their side in a flexed position, with the remains wrapped and/or placed on linen fabric and inside a coffin. The skeletonised remains showed no macroscopic evidence of embalming, such as visible resin residue on bone or linen. However, the absence of visible residues cannot be taken as definitive evidence that embalming agents were not used. Laboratory analyses (SEM-EDS and GC-MS) are required to evaluate this possibility further. Discolouration noted on some of the linen pieces (see Section 3.3 below) is consistent with direct contact with decomposing soft tissue. Nevertheless, alternative explanations, including the application of drying or embalming agents, cannot be excluded until chemical analyses are completed. This is supported by a uniform colour of the bones, which were predominantly off-white to light brown in colour. The exception was B.702 where the skeletal remains were visibly darker in colour (tan/brown; Figure 6), likely due to the specificity of its burial environment, including inhumation in a wooden coffin, now partially disintegrated, within a confined space of a rock-hewn burial pit. The absence of funerary textiles (only imprints preserved) made it difficult to determine if the bone colour was caused by the use of resinous substances on body wrappings, similar to a case from South Saqqara (Ikram et al., 2023).

Cortical bone preservation

The skeletal remains of all five individuals showed good to excellent bone preservation with no evidence of surface cracking or flaking (Stage 0; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994, Table 5). These are typically attributed to weathering due to bone exposure to various weather or environmental conditions, such as fluctuating temperature and humidity. Excluding post-mortem fragmentation and damage, the aetiology of the skeletal changes recorded in adult individuals was found to be pathological (Kaczmarek and Kozieradzka-Ogunmakin, 2013, pp. 373, 377; Kozieradzka-Ogunmakin, 2015).

Preservation and condition of textiles

Evidence of the use of textiles in the studied burials was manifested directly by preserved materials or indirectly by textile impressions preserved within dried sediments. This contrasting pattern of textile preservation reflects a spectrum of burial microenvironments, ranging from highly stable to severely compromised, likely shaped by the interaction of anthropogenic and environmental factors (Table 1).

Disturbed B.511 and B.554 and intact B.555 contained a large volume of textiles in excellent condition that retained fibre flexibility, including garment pieces, showing little evidence of biodeterioration (Figures 2–4). The assemblage comprises 20 entries from B.511, eight from B.554, and 21 from B.555 (see Supplementary Material). Almost all textiles were preserved in a fragmentary state, including pieces of considerable size (c. 110 × 84 cm; 90 × 90 cm). Some of the fragments preserved diagnostic features, such as rolled hem, weft-fringed border, sleeves, which allowed for the identification of their primary use as garments (e.g., Figures 2, 3). The results of SEM-EDS and GC-MS analyses of the sampled flax fibres were not yet available at the time of publication. Consequently, all interpretations relating to fibre degradation, the presence or absence of embalming agents, and the chemical causes of textile discolouration presented in this study are based on macroscopic and microscopic observations and should be regarded as preliminary pending laboratory confirmation.

Technical analysis

All textile artefacts recovered were linen fabrics woven in warp-faced tabby, a dominant weave in the Saqqara West archaeological textile material, also attested in the local Graeco-Roman burials (Pannenko 2008). Textile quality and density (warps/cm) ranged from low (less than 20 warps/cm) and medium (20–30 warps/cm) to finer textiles (over 30 warps/cm), and the number of types recorded varied across the burials. For example, B.511 contained two main types, whereas B.554 had five different types. Textiles from B.555 also show considerable variability; four different types in the textiles covering the body; two types in the textiles from the head area; and one or two types in the textiles found underneath the body. Overall, the textiles were of medium to high quality, with an average density of 28–30 × 15 threads/cm 2 (minimum is 25 × 10; maximum 36 × 16). The best quality textile was retrieved from the head area. In all three burials, the condition of the organic materials, both textiles and reed coffins, indicated a stable microenvironment. The linen artefacts retained most of their original shape and a relatively good flexibility.

Original position and discolouration

A systematic study of the fragments from disturbed burial contexts allowed for approximate reconstruction of their original location. For example, in B.511, some fragments with distinct reed-coffin impressions strongly suggest that the textile was placed on the coffin floor. In the same burial context, one of the four pieces identified as parts of dresses showed traces of organic matter (skin and bodily fluid discolouration) on the inner surface, consistent with direct contact with the body. The phenomenon of discolouration is particularly well attested and evidenced in the textiles from the intact B.555, which allowed their original positions to be recorded. The textiles recovered from underneath the human remains were heavily stained, brownish in colour, and visibly darker than the other recovered pieces.

Textile imprints

Burials B.652 and B.702 contained no surviving textile artefacts. On closer inspection, their original presence in the burial contexts is strongly supported by textile impressions made in a layer of dry sediment that accumulated on the bottom of wooden coffins (Figures 5, 6). In B.652, the closer observation of the rather flat imprint showed negative traces of a warp-faced textile, c. 30 warps × 10 wefts/cm 2, wrapped with its length perpendicular to the body. The three imprint fragments recovered from the foot area of B.702 reveal the presence of three to four different textiles. Fragment 1 preserves negative traces of two different textiles – a fine one (40 warps × 14 wefts/cm 2), with a rather flat surface, and a second one with a lower density (28 warps × 12 wefts/cm 2) and vertical folds. Fragment 2 shows another fine textile (44 warps × 12 wefts/cm 2), with light vertical folds and a deeper horizontal pleat. Fragment 3 presents a flat surface with textile imprint partially covered with a layer of blue, white and black pigments, making it difficult to assess density of the textile. Due to their small size and fragmentary condition, it was difficult to identify the precise location and function of the original textiles in the burial context. Nevertheless, these fragile imprints are invaluable material evidence of a temporal variation in the burial environment and subsequent degradation of organic material.

The burial environments proposed here are analytical reconstructions derived from preservation patterns, burial architecture, coffin materials, geoarchaeological evidence of water infiltration, and the differential survival of funerary textiles. The hot and dry climate of Egypt has been credited for exceptional preservation of human and organic remains in archaeological contexts, including linen artefacts. Local environmental conditions were conducive to flax cultivation to meet the demand for making linen for both the living and the dead (e.g., DeYoung, 2014; Vogelsang-Eastwood, 1992, 1993). Linen featured prominently in ancient Egyptian funerary and religious practices, as attested by well-preserved mummified human and animal remains (Ikram and Dodson 1998; McKnight and Atherton-Woolham 2015). As evident in the Saqqara West necropolis, the preservation of textile artefacts varied significantly according to different burial and environmental conditions, body treatment, and mummification with the application of resinous substances (Kozieradzka-Ogunmakin, 2025). Unlike the funerary textiles, the skeletal remains showed consistently good preservation across all five burials, thus providing limited resolution for distinguishing between different depositional environments. The principal evidence for local environmental variation derives instead from contrasting preservation of textile materials.

The Saqqara West burials contained exclusively linen textiles, which generally preserve well in the Egyptian climate. However, a sudden, temporary change in burial microenvironment (e.g., fluctuating temperature, humidity, acidity, or waterlogging) can start or accelerate fibre degradation. Cellulose-based fabrics, such as linen, are usually less resistant to biodegradation than protein-based fibres, such as wool or silk (Gillis and Nosch, 2007; Peacock, 1996). As cellulose degrades into glucose, it becomes a source of nutrients for microbes found omnipresent in burial contexts (Pannenko, 2008, 561‒562; Pinto et al., 2025).

Geoarchaeological evidence from Saqqara West attests to periods of intensive rainfalls that affected northern Egypt (Welc and Marks, 2014). The evidence of thick deluvial deposits and pools of stagnant pluvial water recorded in subterranean structures of over 100 late Old Kingdom tombs (mostly dated to the 6th Dynasty, 2345‒2181 BCE; Myśliwiec et al., 2012), in the environment otherwise known to have been arid at the time, can be linked to intra-regional climate change. The pluvial episodes documented at Saqqara West should not be interpreted as contradicting wider evidence for the 4.2 ka BP aridification event, but should rather be understood as local manifestations of climatic variability and local hydrological responses occurring within a broader regional trend towards aridification. While Egypt experienced a long-term decline in effective moisture availability and Nile discharge, episodic rainfall events were still capable of generating significant runoff and flooding within the landscape of the Memphite necropolis. The archaeological significance of these events lies not in their frequency, but in their capacity to alter burial microenvironments when water became trapped within the subterranean tomb structures and thus affect the preservation of organic materials. Consequently, the taphonomic significance of these events was determined less by regional climate averages than by local geomorphology, bedrock characteristics, and tomb architecture.

The Saqqara West necropolis is located on limestone bedrock, characterised by low porosity and permeability (Ali and Ahmed, 2019), the very qualities that were likely responsible for retention of rainwater in the underground, rock-hewn shaft-tombs. The gentle gradient of the quarry terrace covered by sandy-debris deposits facilitated the water runoff only to some extent. In the water-penetrated burial chambers, the choice of a coffin material, typically reed or wood, proved significant for the preservation of funerary textiles. The observed association between preserved textiles and reed coffins, compared with the absence of surviving textiles in the wooden-coffin B.652 and B.702, suggests that coffin material may have influenced burial microenvironments. One possible explanation is that reed coffins allowed infiltrating water to drain more rapidly, whereas wooden coffins may have retained moisture for longer periods. Although this mechanism remains hypothetical and requires experimental verification, it is consistent with the differential preservation observed in the studied burials. Shaft-tombs located at the foot of the sloped terrace, such as those containing B.652 and B.702, both equipped with wooden coffins (Figures 5, 6), would be the most affected by intensive water penetration and accumulation of silty deposits in burial chambers. Humid conditions created by the retained water, combined with high temperature, would reactivate fibre decomposition, further accelerated by the activity of microorganisms, ultimately leading to the degradation of organic materials. The preservation of textile impressions in B.652 and B.702 demonstrates that funerary textiles were originally present in these burials but subsequently deteriorated. Differences between the burials cannot thus be explained solely by variations in funerary practice and instead point towards divergent post-depositional histories.

A noticeable shift in architectural design of the subterranean parts of the terminal Old Kingdom tombs in Saqqara West was likely introduced in response to the impact of torrential rain events and sheet-flooding that affected the area (Kuraszkiewicz, 2016), attesting to contemporary human response to climatic events. To avoid water and sediment accumulation in burial chambers, the floor of the connecting shaft was lowered, creating a simple rainwater drainage solution. This protection measure may have enhanced preservation when combined with burial features that facilitated drainage. As a result, differential textile preservation in the Saqqara West interments may reflect both environmental variability and intentional funerary practices.

The interpretations presented here are based primarily on archaeological context, preservation patterns, and macroscopic and microscopic observations of textiles and human remains. Although five textile samples were collected for SEM-EDS and GC-MS analyses, the results were not available at the time of publication. As a result, the proposed explanations for the preservation and condition of the textile artefacts remain provisional. Future chemical analyses will provide an independent means of testing these interpretations and refining the reconstruction of burial microenvironments and funerary practices.

The geoarchaeological and archaeological evidence suggests that episodic rainfall events and associated changes in burial conditions were important contributors to textile preservation outcomes at Saqqara West. Although the precise microenvironmental mechanisms remain to be tested through future laboratory analyses, the observed contrasts between burials indicate that local depositional conditions played a significant role in determining the survival of organic materials. The interpretations presented here will be further evaluated through future SEM-EDS and GC-MS analyses to assist in distinguishing between environmental, biological, and anthropogenic factors affecting textile preservation. Chemical analysis of linen samples can provide information on treatment and maintenance of linen garments prior to their burial deposition, and inform about funerary practices through the identification of chemical composition of embalming agents used in mummification. Little or no evidence of weathering may not adequately reflect the scale of the environmental impact on human remains, including bone diagenesis, with implications for biochemical (C14; isotopes) and biomolecular (aDNA) studies.