Communication as a catalyst: strengthening literacy through teacher–parent partnerships

Introduction

In rural inclusive education, communication between educators and parents is far more than a logistical necessity; it serves as a transformative catalyst for learners’ literacy advancement. In Foundation Phase classrooms, where young learners rely heavily on both home and school contexts, successful communication acts as a conduit for continuous learning support. According to the Department of Basic Education (2011), the foundation phase classrooms encompass Grade R-3, which is the developmental stage of learners between the ages of five and nine. As this stage is the foundational period, learners rely on both parents and educators for their literacy and numeracy development. Research by Romero-González et al. (2023) indicates that effective teacher-parent communication is a primary factor in learners’ academic and social success, enabling educators to identify and address early learning barriers by sharing knowledge, skills, and experience. This perspective redefines literacy as a “relational accomplishment”, a collaborative achievement developed through trust and reciprocal interaction rather than a solitary classroom task.

Central to this study is the recognition that families are children's first educators, shaping their early development, language, culture, and learning habits long before they enter formal schooling. As Romero-González et al. (2023) suggest, parents create literacy-rich home environments that fundamentally foster a child's academic trajectory. To strengthen this sociocultural foundation, this study draws on Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Rogoff's guided participation to frame learning as a socially mediated process. In this context, literacy is viewed as a “collective, experiential phenomenon” in which the relationship and trust between educators and parents must be sustained through two-way, relational communication.

Furthermore, this research advocates for a shift from deficit-oriented narratives to strengths-based paradigms. Traditional narratives often mischaracterize rural parents as disengaged; however, Monfrance et al. (2024) found that communication patterns are more strongly influenced by institutional frameworks and educators’ dispositions than by parental involvement levels. By integrating perspectives such as Moll and González's Funds of Knowledge and Yosso's Community Cultural Wealth (external frameworks), this study reframes rural household assets such as oral storytelling, communal knowledge sharing, and indigenous literacies as essential forms of intellectual capital. These indigenous systems provide a rich foundation for literacy that schools must recognise and validate through transformative engagement (UNESCO, 2020).

In rural South Africa, communication practices are often hindered by macro-level constraints, including policy deficiencies, socioeconomic realities, and the prevalence of “English-only” communication that can marginalise families whose first languages are indigenous. Omidire (2019) argue that such linguistic exclusion sustains power disparities and prevents meaningful involvement. To bridge this, the research highlights the importance of culturally attuned practices, such as using local languages like Sepedi or isiNdebele, to foster the relational depth and trust necessary for inclusive education.

Despite the potential for collaboration, a significant “responsibility gap” exists: many parents perceive formal learning as the teacher's sole responsibility. This lack of partnership hinders learners’ literacy development and creates a disconnect between the school's expectations and community realities (Allen, 2022). Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate how culturally responsive, multimodal communication between educators and parents contributes to literacy development among learners with diverse abilities in rural inclusive schools (Bond, et al., 2025). By redefining communication as a relational, context-dependent practice, this study seeks to offer a paradigm for enhancing literacy through inclusive, collaborative methods that prioritise the unique perspectives and strengths of rural families (Walton and Engelbrecht, 2022).

Problem statement

The lack of teacher–parent partnerships in the Foundation Phase hinders learners’ literacy development. According to Graham-Clay (2024), to enhance literacy development in the Foundation Phase, communication should be used strategically to cultivate positive teacher–parent relationships that support and balance literacy development. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate how culturally responsive, multimodal communication between educators and parents contributes to literacy development among learners with diverse abilities in rural inclusive schools.

Research question

How do communication practices between educators and parents influence literacy development among learners in inclusive rural Foundation Phase schools?

Research aim

This study aims to investigate how culturally responsive, multi-modal communication between educators and parents contributes to literacy development among learners with diverse abilities in inclusive rural schools.

Literature review

Communication as a fundamental component of inclusive education

In rural inclusive education, communication between educators and parents is not merely a logistical necessity; it serves as a transformative catalyst for learners’ literacy advancement. Successful communication functions as a conduit for continuous learning support, especially in the Foundation Phase, where learners rely heavily on both home and school contexts. Recent research by Epstein (2018) indicates that effective teacher–parent communication is a primary factor in learners’ academic and social success, enabling educators to identify and address early learning barriers by sharing knowledge, skills, and experience. This study redefines communication as a relational, context-dependent practice and views literacy as a “relational accomplishment,” developed through trust and reciprocal interaction rather than as a solitary cognitive task

Epstein’s (2018) concept of overlapping domains of influence asserts that communication is fundamental to successful school–family relationships. It highlights that when schools and families engage in regular discussion, learners gain from synchronised expectations and unwavering support. However, this approach presupposes a degree of institutional preparedness and parental capability that may be lacking in rural settings. Monfrance et al. (2024) found that communication patterns between educators and parents were more strongly influenced by institutional frameworks and educators’ dispositions than by parental involvement levels. This contests the deficit-oriented narrative, which suggests that rural parents are, in most cases, disengaged, and instead highlights the institutional obstacles within schools themselves (Dong, et al., 2020; Munthe and Westergård, 2023).

Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory provides a comprehensive framework that positions effective communication within interconnected impact networks. In rural schools, micro-level interactions, such as teacher-parent meetings, are influenced by macro-level constraints, including policy deficiencies, cultural norms, and socioeconomic realities. McCabe and Ruppar (2023) note that inclusive placements in rural schools often depend on informal community assistance rather than official policy implementation. This suggests that communication tactics should be integrated into community frameworks rather than being imposed from the outside.

The presumption that digital communication technologies inherently improve participation is widely scrutinised. Ainscow (2020) and Hornby (2020) emphasise the advantages of platforms such as WhatsApp and SMS in urban environments; however, Kwak et al. (2024) warn that these technologies could exacerbate the marginalisation of certain sections of the population if they are not tailored to local situations. Their systematic evaluation demonstrates that culturally responsive interventions utilising local languages, metaphors, and community liaisons produce markedly superior outcomes compared to generic digital solutions (Zhang, et al., 2026). This highlights the necessity for communication tactics that are both accessible and culturally appropriate.

An important element of effective communication is teacher preparedness, which remains a significant deficiency. Monfrance et al. (2024) indicate that numerous educators are unprepared to interact effectively with parents, especially in linguistically diverse and economically disadvantaged communities. This highlights the need for teacher education programmes to transcend educators’ technical communication skills and enable them to adopt relational, compassionate, and culturally competent methodologies. While learners will benefit from the educators’ enhanced communication skills, they will also benefit from improved communication between the educators and their parents. The lack of studies investigating the communication between parents and educators has been highlighted by researchers (Bilton, et al., 2018; Caronia and Vandini, 2019).

In summary, communication in inclusive rural education should be regarded as a multifaceted, context-dependent practice. It necessitates transcending transactional approaches in favour of transformative engagement, where communication fosters trust, validates cultural identity, and collaboratively develops literacy pathways (Jurkova, 2019). Empirical evidence supports a transition to participatory, community-based techniques that challenge institutional assumptions and prioritise the perspectives of rural families.

Digital communication instruments: advantages and constraints

In recent years, internet communication tools have transformed interactions between educators and parents, especially in rural inclusive education settings. Platforms like WhatsApp, SMS notifications, and smartphone applications have become vital tools for connecting home and school. Contextual factors, including infrastructure, computer literacy, and cultural norms, significantly shape their efficacy. WhatsApp has become a prevalent tool in rural schools across South Africa. In Limpopo Province, educators have established WhatsApp groups to disseminate homework updates, student progress, and school announcements. The transition from printed notifications to instant messaging has enhanced accessibility, particularly for parents with constrained literacy skills (Maharaj and Chauke, 2025). Jordan (2023) endorses this tendency, noting that messaging applications such as WhatsApp and SMS are efficient in low-connectivity settings.

In addition to group messaging, schools in the OR Tambo District Municipality have established SMS alert systems to inform parents of student absenteeism and academic assignments. These strategies have led to heightened parental attentiveness and reduced learner absenteeism (Nciweni and Abrahams, 2023). Jordan et al. (2023) assert that SMS is an economical way to engage parents, particularly in areas with limited smartphone access. Despite these achievements, digital communication in rural schools continues to encounter ongoing obstacles. Gandhi and Umair (2025) emphasise infrastructural constraints, such as inconsistent network coverage and elevated data expenses, that impede sustained engagement. Furthermore, CRY.org (2025) underscores that access to technology should be complemented by digital literacy training to facilitate meaningful engagement. In response, certain schools have collaborated with NGOs to provide digital literacy training for educators and parents, thereby addressing the digital gap and empowering families.

A key observation from schools in KwaZulu-Natal is the importance of hybrid communication frameworks. These institutions integrate internet communication with face-to-face gatherings conducted in culturally resonant locations such as tribal halls and churches. Myende and Nhlumayo (2022) contend that these approaches honour communal values while utilising technology for expanded outreach. This method not only cultivates trust but also fosters relational depth, which is frequently absent in purely digital interactions.

In Mpumalanga, educators have established innovative WhatsApp literacy circles. Parents were provided with reading prompts and offered comments on their children's development, thereby assuming the role of co-educators in the literacy process (Du Plessis and Mestry, 2019). Duhaney and Duhaney (2018) endorses this concept, noting that interactive digital technologies can significantly enhance learner engagement and literacy outcomes.

Nonetheless, the digital gap persists as a significant issue. Chandramoulesh (2025) cautions that insufficient support for digital technologies may exacerbate existing inequities rather than alleviate them. Vulpe (2026) endorse context-sensitive digital techniques that rectify equity disparities and foster inclusive engagement.

In conclusion, whereas digital communication tools offer significant opportunities to enhance teacher-parent collaboration in rural inclusive education, their effectiveness depends on careful integration (Delos Reyes, et al., 2025). Tools must be accessible, culturally relevant, and underpinned by adequate infrastructure and training. Hybrid methods that integrate digital outreach with community engagement provide the highest efficacy, confirming that communication transcends ordinary transactions to become a relational and transformative endeavour.

Sociocultural foundations: families as primary educators

Parents are widely recognised as children's first educators, shaping early development, language acquisition, cultural identity, and learning behaviours long before formal schooling begins. Romero-González et al. (2023) emphasise that literacy-rich home environments play a critical role in fostering foundational reading skills and positive literacy outcomes. This study draws on Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Rogoff's concept of guided participation to deepen understanding of the parental role in literacy development. These perspectives view learning as a socially mediated process in which children acquire knowledge through interaction with more experienced members of their communities. Within this context, parents provide essential scaffolding through every day, culturally embedded activities that support children's literacy development.

Despite their central role, many parents continue to perceive formal education as primarily the responsibility of educators. This perception often results in limited engagement with schools, with interactions confined to formal events such as parent meetings and report collection days. Clapis and Bautista (2025) argue that effective home–school partnerships require reciprocal communication that promotes parental involvement and facilitates the sharing of information about learners’ needs and progress. Meaningful collaboration is most likely to occur when parents feel respected, valued, and included in educational decision-making (Herrera et al., 2020). Such partnerships reposition literacy development as a shared responsibility that extends beyond the classroom and is embedded within daily family life.

From deficit narratives to strengths-based paradigms

A significant challenge to effective home–school collaboration is the persistence of deficit-oriented perspectives that portray rural parents as uninvolved or lacking the capacity to support their children's education. However, Monfrance et al. (2024) found that communication patterns are influenced more by institutional structures and educators’ attitudes than by levels of parental engagement. This finding highlights the role of schools in either enabling or constraining meaningful family participation.

In response, this study adopts a strengths-based perspective that recognises and values the resources available within rural communities. Concepts such as Funds of Knowledge (Moll and González) and Community Cultural Wealth (Yosso) provide useful lenses for understanding how families contribute valuable knowledge and experiences to children's learning. Through this perspective, practices such as oral storytelling, indigenous knowledge transmission, and communal learning are recognised as important educational assets rather than indicators of deficiency. McCabe and Ruppar (2023) demonstrated that integrating local folktales and oral histories into literacy instruction enhances learner engagement while strengthening parental confidence and participation. Recognising these community-based strengths can therefore contribute to more inclusive and contextually relevant literacy practices.

Linguistic inclusion and cultural responsiveness

• Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory provides a useful framework for understanding how home–school communication is shaped by interactions across multiple social and institutional contexts. Family engagement does not occur in isolation but is influenced by broader factors such as educational policies, socioeconomic conditions, and language practices (Masunungure and Maguvhe, 2024).

In rural South Africa, communication is often constrained by standardised and predominantly English-based approaches that marginalise families whose home languages are indigenous African languages. Omidire (2019) note that the dominance of English in educational settings can create feelings of exclusion among parents, limiting their participation in school activities and decision-making processes. Research increasingly demonstrates the value of culturally and linguistically responsive practices in promoting meaningful engagement (Masunungure and Maguvhe, 2024). For example, Ntuli and Mudau (2024) found that the use of isiNdebele scientific registers enhanced classroom participation compared to English-only instruction. Similarly, Mashige et al. (2019) reported improved parental involvement when communication and literacy activities were conducted in isiXhosa. These findings suggest that acknowledging and incorporating families’ linguistic and cultural identities is essential for building trust, strengthening communication, and promoting inclusive educational practices.

Digital innovation and hybrid communication frameworks

The increasing use of digital communication platforms has transformed home–school interactions, particularly in rural contexts where traditional methods may be less effective. Tools such as WhatsApp and SMS have expanded opportunities for regular communication and provided more accessible channels for parents with limited literacy or limited availability (Ismoilova, 2025). Maharaj and Chauke (2025) found that instant messaging platforms improved accessibility and responsiveness in rural Limpopo schools, while Jordan (2023) highlighted their effectiveness in low-connectivity environments. Digital communication can also support innovative forms of parental involvement. Du Plessis and Mestry (2019) describe WhatsApp-based literacy initiatives that enable parents to participate actively in their children's learning by receiving reading prompts, guidance, and feedback. These approaches position parents as co-educators and strengthen the connection between home and school literacy practices.

Nevertheless, challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, limited access to devices, and high data costs continue to hinder sustained digital engagement. Gandhi and Umair (2025) caution that these barriers may exclude some families from technology-based communication initiatives. Consequently, this study advocates for hybrid communication approaches that combine digital tools with face-to-face engagement in culturally meaningful community spaces such as churches, tribal halls, and community centres. As Myende and Nhlumayo (2022) argue, such approaches align with communal values while leveraging the benefits of technology, thereby fostering inclusive, relational, and transformative communication.

Theoretical framework

This study adopts an integrated theoretical framework that combines Epstein's School–Family–Community Partnership Model, sociocultural theory and strengths-based perspectives. The framework provides a comprehensive lens for understanding teacher–parent communication as a relational, culturally situated, and collaborative process that supports literacy development in rural inclusive schools. Rather than conceptualising communication as a one-way transmission of information, the study views it as a transformative practice that fosters meaningful partnerships between schools, families, and communities.

Epstein's school–family–community partnership model

The primary foundation of this study is Epstein’s (2018) School–Family–Community Partnership Model, which identifies six forms of involvement that contribute to learners’ academic and social success. Central to the model is the notion of overlapping spheres of influence, which emphasises that schools, families, and communities share responsibility for children's learning and development. When these stakeholders work collaboratively, learners benefit from consistent support and aligned educational expectations (Holmes, 2022; Newman, et al., 2019).

The first dimension, parenting, acknowledges parents as children's first educators, shaping their social, emotional, and academic development before and during formal schooling. The creation of literacy-rich home environments is regarded as essential for promoting the development of reading and writing.

The second dimension, communication, highlights the importance of ongoing, two-way exchanges between educators and parents. Effective communication enables the sharing of information about learner progress, challenges, and support strategies, thereby strengthening collaborative relationships.

The third dimension, volunteering, encourages parents to participate in school-based activities according to their interests, skills, and availability. Within inclusive education contexts, parental involvement extends beyond traditional volunteer activities to include active participation in children's learning experiences.

The fourth dimension, learning at home, emphasises the role of families in supporting educational activities beyond the classroom. Schools can facilitate this process by providing clear guidance, literacy-focused tasks, and practical strategies to help parents assist their children effectively.

The fifth dimension, decision-making, recognises parents as equal partners in educational processes. Meaningful involvement in school governance and educational planning strengthens parents’ sense of ownership and commitment to learner success.

Finally, collaboration with the community highlights the importance of linking schools with local resources and institutions (Malone, 2020). Community spaces such as libraries, churches, tribal halls, and cultural centres can provide additional opportunities for literacy development and collective learning.

Sociocultural perspectives: Vygotsky and Rogoff

To explain how educational partnerships facilitate literacy learning, the study incorporates Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory and Rogoff's theory of Guided Participation. These perspectives emphasise that learning occurs through social interaction and participation in culturally meaningful activities.

According to Vygotsky, literacy development is a socially mediated process in which children acquire knowledge through interaction with more knowledgeable individuals, such as parents, educators, and community members. These individuals provide scaffolding that supports learners as they progress within their Zone of Proximal Development. From this perspective, literacy learning emerges through dialogue, shared activities, and collaborative engagement rather than through isolated individual effort.

Rogoff's concept of guided participation complements this view by highlighting how children learn through participation in everyday cultural practices. Literacy is therefore understood as a collective and experiential process embedded within family and community life. Practices such as oral storytelling, indigenous knowledge sharing, and participation in community activities serve as important pathways for transmitting literacy skills and cultural values across generations.

Strengths-based perspectives: funds of knowledge and community cultural wealth

This study adopts a strengths-based orientation that challenges deficit perspectives frequently associated with rural communities. Rather than viewing rural parents as disengaged or lacking educational capacity, the framework acknowledges the valuable knowledge, experiences, and cultural resources present within families and communities.

The concept of Funds of Knowledge (Moll and González, 2012) recognises that households possess rich bodies of knowledge developed through lived experiences, occupations, social networks, and cultural practices. These resources can be integrated into classroom learning to create meaningful and culturally relevant literacy experiences. Local histories, folktales, indigenous languages, and community expertise, therefore, become valuable educational assets rather than overlooked resources.

Similarly, Yosso’s (2005) Community Cultural Wealth framework highlights the multiple forms of capital that exist within historically marginalised communities. These include linguistic, familial, social, navigational, and aspirational forms of capital that support resilience and learning. Through this lens, the linguistic diversity and cultural knowledge of rural families are recognised as strengths that can enhance literacy development and strengthen teacher–parent relationships.

The integration of Epstein's Partnership Model, sociocultural theory, and strengths-based perspectives provides a comprehensive framework for understanding teacher–parent communication in rural inclusive schools. Together, these theories suggest that effective literacy development depends on collaborative relationships that value families as educational partners, acknowledge the influence of broader social contexts, and recognise the cultural and linguistic assets present within communities. The framework, therefore, supports a shift from transactional forms of communication towards transformative engagement grounded in trust, collaboration, cultural responsiveness, and shared responsibility for learner success.

Figure 1, the theoretical model illustrates a multi-layered approach to teacher–parent partnerships, moving from structural requirements to asset-based engagement. It serves as a visual guide to clarify how the employed frameworks interweave to support inclusive rural education. The core and the main goal are the literacy advancement layer, which outlines the main goal for inclusive education. The second layer comprises Epstein's six-type model of parental involvement, which is the structural goal for literacy advancement of learners in inclusive education. The third layer, the process layer, presents sociocultural scaffolding and guided participation, emphasising the intellectual abilities and cultural wealth families possess, and may enhance learners’ literacy levels. The last layer presents the assets layer, which emphasises communication as a catalyst that facilitates transition from Deficit-Oriented Narratives to Relational Accomplishment, which is built on trust and respect between educators and parents (Figure 1).

Methodology

Patel and Patel (2019) define research methodology as a systematic approach to addressing the research problem, which they describe as the science of how research is done. Within the interpretivist paradigm, this study employed a qualitative multiple-case study methodology to explore the dynamics of teacher−parent communication in rural inclusive schools and how these dynamics impact literacy development in the foundation phase. The data collection methods included in-depth semi-structured focus group interviews with foundation phase educators and parents of learners in the foundation phase. 15 educators and 9 parents were purposefully selected from 3 rural primary schools to participate in 60-minute interviews. 4 groups participated in focus group discussions: 3 groups from educators and 1 group from parents. The focus group interviews were conducted in Sepedi to accommodate the participants’ linguistic preferences. The interviews were audio-recorded and later transcribed by the researcher. The study employed inductive thematic analysis. Transcribed data were coded and inductively analysed to identify recurring themes and patterns, providing a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and strategies for effective communication.

Ethical consideration

The consideration of ethical issues is crucial throughout all stages of the qualitative study to maintain a balance between the potential risks of the research and its likely benefits (Arifin, 2018). Ethical considerations were meticulously upheld during the study to safeguard the rights and dignity of all participants. Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Pretoria Ethics Committee (EDU137/23) prior to data collection. Informed consent was obtained from each participant after a comprehensive explanation of the study's objectives, methodologies, and their right to withdraw at any point without repercussions. Confidentiality and anonymity were preserved through the secure storage of data and the elimination of all identifying information from reports and publications. I have used pseudonyms in the study (i.e., T1S1-T15S3/P1S1-P9S3). All exchanges were conducted with cultural sensitivity, honouring participants’ languages, values, and community standards. Participation was entirely voluntary, free from force or exploitation.

Presentation of results

The study's results indicate that efficient and appropriate communication between educators and parents in rural inclusive schools improves parental involvement and learners’ reading outcomes. Through a thematic analysis of the focus group interviews and school papers, numerous significant patterns emerged, revealing both facilitating practices and ongoing problems. The Table 1 below illustrates the participants' information.

Table 1. Teachers and parents demographic information.

From the coded data, three themes emerged which will be discussed in the following sub-sections.

Cultural responsiveness fosters trust

A culturally responsive environment fosters trust between educators and parents, thereby enhancing the learning environment for learners (Silaji, 2024). This aligns with Aguayo et al. (2025), who argue that a culturally responsive environment fosters trust. Therefore, the approaches and practices that educators use to engage parents will help build trust in learners’ literacy development. Parents demonstrated a willingness to help their children with schoolwork, but also indicated challenges in doing so.

“I try to help my child with homework, but because I work far I sometimes get tired to. I have had a meeting with the teacher about my child, and I think she understands my problem.” P1S1

“I am able to assist my daughter to read or write because the homework is in Sepedi. If I assist her, she improves a lot. The teacher has encouraged us to teach them at home, as they send them with homework” P3S1

These encounters were regarded as more courteous and intimate, developing trust and transparency. Educators who demonstrated cultural sensitivity by using local languages and recognising community norms were more effective at engaging parents.

“Our school is situated in rural areas. Every time I send letters to parents or give learners homework, I use the local language because I know most parents do not speak English. So, some parents will call to ask for clarity if they do not understand the homework, but others do not assist at all” T11S3

According to this quote, parents who understand the conveyed message show interest in actively communicating with the educators. The communication, therefore, builds the teacher-parent relationship, as emphasised by Epstein (2013). One parent acknowledges that developing trust between educators and parents enhances a positive relationship. As a result, learners perform well academically.

“The teacher of my child has called me to discuss my child, who was unable to read, so I have been assisting him when he gets home. And he is progressing well. I think our conversation has helped him. In a way, I can say I have a relationship with the teacher” P2S1

According to Epstein (2018), educators must support parents in creating a literacy-rich home learning environment. The quote emphasises that educators communicate with parents, send messages, and collaborate to support learners’ literacy development from school to home and vice versa. This quote emphasises the importance of trust between educators and parents. As trust is developed, a welcoming environment is cultivated. One parent agreed:

“Educators in this school always encourage parents to assist children with homework, which makes it easy for them to pass. Every time they call meetings, they encourage us.” P4S2

This quote suggests that educators are providing parents with support and creating an environment that allows them to support their children's learning. This substantiates the assertion that communication should be relational and context-dependent, rather than solely transactional.

Teacher attitudes affect communication quality

The research indicated a strong correlation between the quality of communication and educators’ attitudes and views on parental involvement. Educators who regarded parents as co-educators showed greater proactivity and empathy in their communication. Educators agree that initiating communication with parents yields better results.

“As a teacher, when I see a child who is struggling, I call the parents of that child and discuss their challenges together, so that we can assist that child. But sometimes it is difficult, as some parents do not come to school if you call them individually. They will wait for the parents’ meeting or for them to come and collect the report. That is when you can talk to the parent..” T13S3

This aligns with Monfrance et al. (2024), who assert that institutional culture and teacher preparation influence communication patterns. Although educators try to communicate with parents about their children's education, parents still tend to see educators as the sole participants in their children's education.

“When I see that the child is struggling to read, I make it a point to call the parents. Some come, but some do not. Moreover, this is a challenge as the child is left behind.” T5S1

The findings suggest that educators positively identify learners with learning challenges and communicate with parents. This aligns with Leenders et al. (2019), who suggest that communication becomes a challenge when it is one-way, whereas two-way communication enhances learners’ literacy development.

Literacy improvements associated with collaborative practices

In contexts where communication was consistent, inclusive, and culturally relevant, parents indicated heightened participation in literacy activities at home, including learners reading aloud, storytelling, and parents providing homework assistance. Educators noted enhancements in learners’ confidence, vocabulary acquisition, and reading proficiency.

“I identified a few learners who are struggling.. I made efforts to contact their parents.. some learners are improving academically.” T15S3

The quote above suggests that when educators are in constant communication with parents, learners’ literacy is enhanced. Moreover, educators agree that an effective relationship enhances learners’ literacy development. One teacher agreed:

“The benefit of the teacher–parent relationship is that as a teacher, you give learners homework, and the parents assist at home.” T10S2

While the benefits of teacher-parent relationships are stated, educators still face challenges getting all parents involved or building relationships with them.

“Our school have meetings with parents of different phases to report on the progress of learners and check their books. In those meetings, some do not come. So, the meetings are important because we ask them to assist learners to read and write at home,” T1S1.

“Some learners stay with their grandparents, who cannot read or write. That is a challenge because even if you call them and ask for help, they are not able to” T3S3.

“I send learners home with homework, whether to read and write, but some come back being assisted, while others are not assisted. So, their progress is hindered when they are not helped,” T15S3.

Epstein's model emphasises learning at home as one of the forms of involvement that foster the relationship between educators and parents. However, the educators in these quotes noted challenges, as parents are unable to attend meetings or assist their children with homework at home. This is due to factors such as parents’ literacy level or children staying with grandparents who cannot assist them. These results indicate that communication is both a relationship instrument and an educational approach that facilitates literacy advancement.

Discussion of findings

The findings indicate that teacher–parent communication in rural inclusive contexts is a relational and contextually embedded practice. When educators view parents as “co-educators” in the literacy process, they adopt more proactive and empathic communication strategies. This supports the transition from passive engagement to active relationships. However, a persistent “responsibility gap” exists, in which some parents perceive the teacher as the sole participant in education. To bridge this, the study recommends relational, compassionate, and culturally competent methodologies. By utilising hybrid communication frameworks that combine digital tools such as WhatsApp with face-to-face gatherings in culturally resonant locations like tribal halls, schools can honour communal values while expanding their outreach. As Thuketana et al. (2023) found, literacy outcomes improve significantly when parents are actively involved in reading and storytelling. This collaborative model suggests that when communication aligns with the linguistic and cultural realities of the home, literacy becomes a collective process embedded in daily life. For example, a parent stated, “I constantly call the teacher… I make an appointment to visit the teacher,” while educators reported adapting communication strategies to reach parents across diverse contexts. The data further demonstrates that cultural and linguistic responsiveness enhances communication effectiveness, as educators who used local languages improved accessibility and engagement, illustrated by the statement, “I use the local language because most parents do not speak English,” and supported by a parent who noted, “I can assist my daughter… because the homework is in Sepedi.” These findings show that trust and mutual understanding are strengthened when communication aligns with parents’ linguistic and cultural realities. Moreover, communication functions as a mediating process that enables literacy development at home, with parents reporting increased involvement in reading and homework support, for instance, “I have been assisting him when he gets home… he is progressing well.” Educators confirming improvements through statements such as, “…I contacted their parents… some learners are improving academically.” However, the findings also reveal persistent structural constraints, including low parental literacy levels and caregiving limitations, as reflected in statements such as “Some learners stay with their grandparents, who cannot read or write,” and “some come back being assisted, while others are not assisted,” indicating that communication alone cannot fully overcome socio-economic barriers. In addition, teacher attitudes shape the quality and impact of communication, with those adopting collaborative approaches reporting better engagement, as illustrated by “…we can assist that child together.” In contrast, limited parental participation in meetings and follow-ups constrained some efforts. Collectively, the findings demonstrate that communication in rural inclusive settings redefines parental involvement as collaborative, culturally grounded, and practice-oriented, directly supporting literacy development through sustained, context-sensitive interactions in everyday home–school contexts rather than through formal participation alone.

Conclusions

This study concludes that teacher–parent communication in rural inclusive schools is a relational and culturally grounded process that enhances learners’ literacy development by strengthening home–school collaboration. The findings further show that when communication is consistent, multilingual, and context-responsive, parents are more likely to participate actively in literacy practices such as reading and homework support. However, its effectiveness remains influenced by socio-economic constraints, including parental literacy levels and limited access to resources, which may hinder full participation. The study also highlights the importance of educators’ attitudes in fostering trust and sustaining meaningful partnerships with parents. Therefore, there is a need for adaptable, inclusive communication strategies and targeted support for parents as co-educators to ensure sustained literacy development in rural inclusive contexts.

Recommendations

This section presents recommendations for strengthening Foundation phase literacy instruction, teacher professional development, and pre-service teacher preparation in rural inclusive education contexts. The findings indicate that Foundation Phase educators are generally proactive in identifying struggling readers but face a significant challenge when families view literacy development as the sole responsibility of schools. This challenge is intensified in households where grandparents or caregivers have limited literacy skills, making conventional homework-based support ineffective. As a result, professional development programmes should extend beyond technical training and equip educators with culturally responsive, compassionate, and relationship-centred communication skills that enable meaningful engagement with diverse families. Educators should be trained to adopt strengths-based approaches that recognise and utilise family and community assets, including oral storytelling, indigenous knowledge, and cultural practices, as valuable resources for literacy development. The findings further suggest that literacy learning should be viewed as a collaborative process between schools and homes rather than an isolated classroom activity. Therefore, educators should implement multilingual pedagogies by providing learning materials and communication in learners’ home languages, such as Sepedi, while incorporating local folktales, oral histories, and community knowledge into literacy instruction. Digital platforms, particularly WhatsApp, can also be used to create literacy support networks that actively involve parents in daily reading activities. In addition, the study highlights the need for teacher education institutions to better prepare future educators for rural and socioeconomically disadvantaged contexts. Pre-service teacher training programmes should integrate school-family-community partnerships as a core component of the curriculum, provide opportunities to engage with culturally and linguistically diverse communities, and develop competencies in using both digital and face-to-face communication strategies. Equipping future educators with these skills will enable them to build stronger relationships with families, address contextual barriers to literacy development, and support inclusive education more effectively.

Contributions

This study contributes to the literature on learner literacy development in rural inclusive education by providing empirically grounded evidence that effective literacy learning is strengthened through culturally responsive school-family-community partnerships. The findings extend current understandings of parental involvement by demonstrating that meaningful family engagement can occur even when caregivers have limited formal literacy skills, provided that educators adopt strengths-based, multilingual, and contextually relevant approaches that draw on community cultural wealth. The study further contributes a practical framework for enhancing literacy outcomes by integrating home languages, indigenous knowledge, and accessible communication platforms, while highlighting the importance of equipping both in-service and pre-service educators with the knowledge and skills needed to build collaborative relationships with families in resource-constrained contexts. By linking classroom pedagogy, teacher professional development, and teacher education, the study offers actionable strategies to promote inclusive literacy practices and improve learner achievement in rural schools.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Percy Lai Yin Kwok, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China

Reviewed by: Naorah Rimkunas, Binghamton University, United States

Sandra Bequette, Emporia State University The Teachers College, United States