Psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation in initial teacher education: the influence of employment status, enrolment motives, and early teaching vocation

1 Introduction

The study of psychological well-being has gained considerable attention in recent decades, particularly within the field of education and, more specifically, in initial teacher education. Traditionally, well-being has been examined from two major theoretical perspectives: the hedonic and the eudaimonic. While the former focuses on the subjective experience of happiness and life satisfaction, the latter emphasises personal development, self-realisation, and a sense of purpose in life (Martela et al., 2023; Ryan and Deci, 2001). Rather than being mutually exclusive, these perspectives offer complementary insights that support the understanding of well-being as a multidimensional construct encompassing both affective and cognitive dimensions (Mughal et al., 2024; Van Halem et al., 2024).

Within the context of initial teacher education, psychological well-being is a key factor, as it is closely associated with academic motivation, the development of professional teacher identity, and students’ expectations regarding future employment opportunities (Erazo Muñoz and Riaño Casallas, 2025). In this regard, students enrolled in Master's Degree Programmes in Teacher Education represent a particularly relevant population, given that their training involves a transition into a profession that requires both technical competence and strong vocational and ethical commitment.

Alongside psychological well-being, intrinsic motivation emerges as a fundamental variable in this process and is defined as engagement in an activity driven by the interest and satisfaction inherent in the activity itself (Deci and Ryan, 2000). According to Self-Determination Theory, the fulfilment of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness promotes the development of more autonomous forms of motivation and, consequently, higher levels of psychological well-being (Howard et al., 2022; Ryan and Deci, 2000). Furthermore, recent research has highlighted the close association between intrinsic motivation, psychological well-being, and academic achievement, emphasising their role as protective factors that enhance both personal and professional development (Bureau et al., 2022; Sheldon and Osin, 2022).

However, previous studies have shown that entry into teacher education programmes is not always driven by a clearly defined vocational aspiration. In many cases, enrolment decisions are influenced by external factors, particularly those associated with improving employability prospects (Slemp and Vella-Brodrick, 2023; Zhou et al., 2024). This reality highlights the need to examine how contextual variables, such as employment status and vocational orientation, may influence students’ psychological well-being and motivation.

Against this background, the present study aims to further explore the relationship between psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation among students enrolled in Master's Degree Programmes in Teacher Education, with particular attention to their employment status. It is the first study to simultaneously incorporate employment status, motivation for enrolment and career orientation into the model, in order to explore their interactive effects on psychological well-being and motivation. Understanding these relationships is essential for gaining deeper insight into the processes of adaptation, engagement, and commitment among future teachers, as well as for informing the design of educational strategies that promote their holistic development.

2 Theoretical framework

Well-being has traditionally been conceptualised from two major theoretical perspectives: the hedonic and the eudaimonic approaches. The former focuses on subjective well-being, whereas the latter is grounded in psychological well-being. Although closely related, these constructs represent distinct dimensions of human functioning and flourishing (Arnold and Muschalla, 2026). Within the context of initial teacher education, the study of well-being is particularly relevant, as it may influence academic motivation, the development of professional identity, and the career expectations of students enrolled in Master's Degree Programmes in Secondary Teacher Education.

From a hedonic perspective, well-being is primarily associated with life satisfaction and happiness, emphasising positive experiences, emotions, and favourable evaluations of one's life circumstances (Kansky and Diener, 2021). Ryan and Deci (2001) conceptualised this perspective in terms of the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of discomfort. Similarly, Rozas Calderón and Enciso Sotomayor (2025) argued that subjective well-being is characterised by positive self-evaluations, the presence of desirable experiences, and the relative absence of negative affective states. In the context of teacher education, and drawing on the analysis of Ryff's model conducted by Erazo Muñoz and Riaño Casallas (2025), this perspective may be reflected in satisfaction with the decision to pursue a teaching career, perceptions of future occupational stability, and expectations regarding employability.

Despite their conceptual differences, the hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives should be regarded as complementary rather than mutually exclusive approaches to understanding well-being (Martela and Ryan, 2023). Whereas subjective well-being focuses on positive emotions and life satisfaction, psychological well-being emphasises optimal functioning, personal growth, and self-regulation (Mughal et al., 2024). A comprehensive understanding of well-being therefore requires consideration of both affective and cognitive dimensions (Van Halem et al., 2024). From this perspective, well-being can be conceptualised as a multidimensional construct that integrates positive experiences with effective functioning across different domains of life. This distinction is particularly relevant for understanding the experiences of future teachers, whose well-being may be shaped not only by satisfaction with their current circumstances but also by perceptions of professional development, vocational fulfilment, and personal growth throughout their initial teacher education.

Linking hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives of well-being and motivation to the early stages of a teaching career provides a broader framework for understanding the experiences of students enrolled in Master's Degree Programmes in Secondary Teacher Education. From a hedonic perspective, a substantial proportion of students may enrol in teacher education programmes to enhance their employment prospects, reflecting the pursuit of personal satisfaction associated with stability, security, and favourable career opportunities (Zhou et al., 2024). Consequently, the decision to undertake these studies does not always stem from a clearly defined vocational aspiration but may instead reflect subjective evaluations of anticipated future benefits, consistent with a conception of well-being centred on achieving desirable life outcomes and favourable living conditions (Slemp and Vella-Brodrick, 2023).

From a eudaimonic perspective, intrinsic motivation for teaching is closely associated with a sense of purpose, personal growth, and self-realisation, all of which are particularly relevant in a profession that requires a strong vocational and ethical commitment (Medina-Garrido et al., 2023). From this viewpoint, the decision to become a teacher may be understood as a meaningful professional project that extends beyond the pursuit of employment. Although not all students entering teacher education programmes possess an initial teaching vocation, such a vocation may emerge and develop as they recognise the value, purpose, and social significance of the profession (Alberts et al., 2024). Consequently, the aspiration to become a teacher constitutes an important factor in understanding both the motivation and psychological well-being of future educators.

From a hedonic perspective, well-being is associated with individuals’ evaluations of the extent to which their desires, needs, and aspirations are fulfilled, with happiness and life satisfaction representing central outcomes. In this regard, Salavera and Usán (2019) distinguished between hedonia, which derives from the enjoyment and satisfaction associated with obtaining desired outcomes, and eudaimonia, which is grounded in the pursuit of meaningful goals and personal growth. Eudaimonic activities typically require sustained effort and are characterised by opportunities for self-development, clear goals, and an appropriate balance between challenges and personal skills. In contrast, hedonic activities are more closely associated with pleasure, relaxation, enjoyment, and positive emotional experiences (Erazo Muñoz and Riaño Casallas, 2025). In the context of Master's Degree Programmes in Teacher Education, both perspectives may coexist, as students’ decisions to undertake these studies are often influenced by expectations of improved employment opportunities as well as by aspirations for professional development and entry into the teaching profession

Ryff and Keyes (1995). proposed a multidimensional model of psychological well-being comprising six dimensions: self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth.

Recent research, such as that conducted by Joshanloo (2026), has sought to develop a more concise version of Ryff's model by refining its dimensional structure and reducing each dimension to a single indicator, thereby providing a more efficient and parsimonious measure of psychological well-being. Despite these efforts, Ryff's model continues to be regarded as one of the most robust frameworks for assessing eudaimonic well-being (Erazo Muñoz and Riaño Casallas, 2025). Nevertheless, these authors argue that certain adaptations may be necessary when applying the model to occupational and professional contexts.

Among these dimensions, personal growth and purpose in life have been identified as key contributors to psychological well-being (Vielma and Alonso, 2010). From this perspective, eudaimonic well-being involves pursuing personal growth, self-realisation, and meaningful goals while acting in ways that contribute positively to society (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Wood et al., 2009). Within the context of teacher education, professional identity develops through a dynamic and reflective process in which future teachers continuously reconstruct their beliefs, values, and professional aspirations in response to new experiences and the progressive acquisition of competencies throughout their academic journey, culminating in their participation in Master's Degree Programmes in Teacher Education (Simón, 2024).

In this regard, Maslow (1954) proposed a hierarchy of human needs, with self-actualisation positioned at its highest level. His work laid the foundation for McClelland’s (1958) theory, which posits that motivation is driven by three fundamental needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. Although these theoretical perspectives have made important contributions to the understanding of human motivation, they do not fully capture the complex interplay between individual needs, goals, and behavioural regulation. Indeed, such needs may influence both the goals individuals pursue and the strategies they adopt to achieve them. Within this framework, individual learning styles may also play a relevant role in shaping motivational processes and learning outcomes (Torres Carrero et al., 2024).

Motivation constitutes a central component of professional identity development, a particularly relevant issue for students enrolled in Master's Degree Programmes in Teacher Education. Their motivations are often closely associated with the development of a teaching vocation, expectations of professional growth, and future career opportunities (Reissner and Armitage-Chan, 2024). Recent evidence further indicates that pre-service teachers’ initial motivations for entering teacher education are closely linked to the construction of their professional identity, as practical training experiences may strengthen self-confidence, deepen understanding of the teaching role, and reinforce commitment to a teaching career (Dewi et al., 2023). Furthermore, the pursuit of professional excellence has been associated with the development of advanced competencies, sustained commitment, and a strong sense of purpose, all of which contribute to professional identity formation and long-term career development within educational and social contexts (Rocha et al., 2024). Consequently, motivation not only promotes academic engagement but also supports the development of a coherent professional self-concept, which is essential for successful entry into and sustained commitment to the teaching profession.

Furthermore, contemporary perspectives on psychological well-being have extended these theoretical approaches by emphasising the central role of basic psychological need satisfaction in healthy human development and optimal functioning (Chen et al., 2021). Within this framework, Self-Determination Theory proposes that well-being is enhanced when individuals experience autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as these needs constitute essential psychological resources that foster personal growth, intrinsic motivation, and effective adaptation to the environment (Howard et al., 2022).

The extent to which these psychological needs are satisfied may vary across developmental stages and according to individuals’ personal, social, and cultural circumstances, reinforcing the view that psychological well-being is a dynamic construct that evolves throughout the lifespan (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Consequently, understanding well-being requires consideration not only of individuals’ needs, motivations, and personal resources but also of the broader contexts in which they develop, interact, and function (Vansteenkiste et al., 2023).

Within the context of Master's Degree Programmes in Teacher Education, factors such as employment expectations, vocational orientation, and perceived teaching competence may influence both psychological well-being and academic and professional motivation. These factors may also shape students’ commitment to the teaching profession and their capacity to adapt successfully to its academic and professional demands.

At present, there is no universally accepted definition of motivation. Atkinson (1976) linked individuals’ expectations to both intrinsic and extrinsic forms of motivation. According to Maehr and Braskamp (1986), motivation arises from individuals’ perceptions and interpretations of their experiences, including how they approach an activity, the degree of autonomy they experience, the factors that drive their behaviour, the goals they seek to attain, and the value they attribute to their actions and their outcomes. More recent perspectives conceptualise motivation as a dynamic and context-dependent process shaped by the interaction between expectations of success, task value, personal interests, and the meaning individuals attach to their experiences (Eccles and Wigfield, 2020).

The concept of self-efficacy also plays a central role in motivation within Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory, which posits that learning and performance are influenced not only by individuals’ actual capabilities but also by their beliefs about their capacity to succeed. Similarly, attribution theories emphasise that behavioural goals and achievement-related behaviours are shaped by the interaction between personal characteristics and environmental influences. In this regard, Dweck and Leggett (1988) argued that the interplay between individual dispositions and contextual factors influences both achievement goal orientations and behavioural responses to learning situations. More recent integrative perspectives on educational motivation further highlight that learning behaviour is shaped by the dynamic interaction of self-efficacy beliefs, attributional processes, achievement goals, expectations, and contextual influences (Urhahne and Wijnia, 2023).

Manassero and Vázquez (2000) examined achievement motivation, the instruments used to assess it, and its various dimensions, highlighting the importance of understanding motivational processes in order to explain human behaviour. More recently, Gagné et al. (2022) suggested that achievement motivation is closely associated with both psychological well-being and work performance. Individuals tend to perform more effectively when they perceive themselves as competent, experience a sense of autonomy and self-determination, and feel connected to others through meaningful interpersonal relationships. These conditions foster greater engagement, persistence, and commitment to goal attainment, thereby enhancing both personal fulfilment and professional performance.

Deci and Ryan (1985, 1991) developed Self-Determination Theory (SDT), a framework that has subsequently been extended and refined through decades of theoretical and empirical research (Deci, 1992; Deci et al., 1991; Ryan and Deci, 2000). Within this framework, motivation is primarily, although not exclusively, distinguished according to the degree of Self-Determination underlying behaviour and is broadly categorised into two forms: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) also posits the existence of three innate psychological needs, competence, autonomy, and relatedness, which motivate individuals to initiate and sustain goal-directed behaviour. Furthermore, McInerney et al. (2003) argued that the prior establishment of goals influences intrinsic motivation by directing effort and energy towards the attainment of desired outcomes. More recently, Wang et al. (2024) suggested that commitment to personal goals contributes to autonomy and competence development, thereby strengthening intrinsic motivation, particularly when individuals are required to engage in sustained and challenging tasks.

Intrinsic motivation has long been recognised as a fundamental component of education and learning, serving not only as a natural source of engagement but also as a key driver of persistence, achievement, and personal development. It plays an important role in the pursuit of goals that emerge from individuals’ needs, interests, and aspirations. The satisfaction of basic psychological needs has been shown to enhance intrinsic motivation and foster active engagement across a wide range of learning activities (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Ryan and Stiller, 1991).

In the context of Master’s Degree Programmes in Teacher Education, perceiving oneself as competent to perform the teaching role, experiencing autonomy in the development of a professional project, and feeling a sense of belonging within the educational community may contribute positively to both motivation and psychological well-being throughout the process of initial teacher education (Simón, 2024).

In this regard, recent research has shown that intrinsic motivation is associated not only with goal attainment and academic performance but also with higher levels of personal functioning and psychological well-being (Bureau et al., 2022). From the perspective of Self-Determination Theory, when individuals’ needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence are satisfied, they are more likely to engage actively in learning activities, demonstrating greater commitment, enjoyment, persistence, and overall engagement in task performance (Howard et al., 2023). Consequently, intrinsic motivation constitutes a fundamental determinant of learning, academic achievement, psychological well-being, and individuals’ broader personal development, highlighting its central role in both educational success and human flourishing (Sheldon and Osin, 2022).

Castro et al. (2019) described motivation as a driving force that enables individuals to engage in goal-directed behaviour. This motivational drive is influenced by biological, physiological, psychological, and environmental factors and may vary according to age, contextual circumstances, and individual interests. More recently, motivation has been conceptualised as a dynamic, multidimensional process oriented towards goal pursuit, in which psychological needs interact with cognitive, emotional, and contextual factors to facilitate both goal attainment and the fulfilment of individual needs (Murayama and von Keyserlingk, 2025).

The development of competencies has become a central focus of educational research, as it seeks to integrate knowledge, skills, values, emotions, and motivation in ways that enable students to respond effectively to the challenges they encounter (Moreno-Murcia et al., 2015). In this context, instruments such as the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) have been widely used to assess motivational processes across different age groups and educational settings (Eskeles, 1982; Heilat and Seifert, 2019; Méndez et al., 2018), including teacher education and related academic programmes (Demir, 2011; Liu et al., 2019).

Taken together, the scientific literature highlights the close relationship between psychological well-being, job satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation within the context of initial teacher education. Psychological well-being has consistently been associated with positive psychological functioning, life satisfaction, and adaptive personal development. Among teachers, higher levels of well-being are observed when intrinsic motivation is present, reflecting genuine interest, enjoyment, and engagement in professional activities that are pursued for their inherent value rather than for external rewards (Alonso-Tapia et al., 2022). Furthermore, factors such as an early aspiration to become a teacher and the absence of employment related pressures have been associated with higher levels of well-being and motivation. These findings reinforce the view that vocational orientation, professional purpose, and personally meaningful goals contribute to more positive, fulfilling, and sustainable educational and professional experiences (Romeo Dávila Ramírez et al., 2024).

Consequently, the available evidence suggests that intrinsic motivation represents a key mechanism through which psychological well-being may contribute to teachers’ professional development and long-term commitment to the profession. Examining psychological well-being, intrinsic motivation, aspirations to enter the teaching profession, and employment status in an integrated manner is therefore essential for understanding the experiences of students enrolled in Master's Degree Programmes in Teacher Education and for identifying the factors that may facilitate their adaptation to, engagement with, and commitment to the teaching profession.

3 Research objectives

The present study aims to analyse the levels of psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation among students enrolled in the Master's Degree in Teacher Education at the University of Castilla–La Mancha (UCLM) and Villanueva University (UV), with particular attention to their employment status. This objective is grounded in previous evidence highlighting substantial heterogeneity in the motivational trajectories of students entering teacher education programmes.

In this regard, several studies have shown that only a minority of students report a clearly defined teaching vocation prior to commencing their university studies, whereas the majority enter teacher education without a specific professional orientation towards teaching, often perceiving it as one of several possible career options. Indeed, enrolment in the Master's Degree programme is primarily driven by expectations of improved employability, while a considerably smaller proportion of students are motivated by educational interests or personal development goals.

This reality highlights the need to further examine the role of intrinsic motivation in the development of professional teacher identity, particularly given that teaching requires not only technical competencies but also a strong personal commitment grounded in interest, engagement, and a positive valuation of the profession. As noted by Orbegoso (2016), intrinsic motivation is characterised by voluntary engagement in an activity, the enjoyment derived from its performance, and the absence of external pressures as the primary driving force behind behaviour.

Furthermore, empirical evidence has consistently demonstrated a close relationship between intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being (Chekola, 1974; Diener et al., 1999), as well as between psychological well-being and future job satisfaction (Romeiro, 2015). Within educational contexts, psychological well-being has been associated with factors such as positive interpersonal relationships, perceived social support, the presence of a meaningful life project, and effective coping abilities (Muñoz Campos et al., 2018). These factors are particularly relevant during the early stages of professional preparation, when individuals are developing their professional identity and preparing for future career demands.

From this perspective, recent research has shown that variables such as an initial aspiration to enter the teaching profession and students’ employment status may significantly influence levels of intrinsic motivation and certain dimensions of psychological well-being, particularly those related to interpersonal relationships and engagement in educational activities. Furthermore, higher levels of intrinsic motivation have been positively associated with self-regulated learning strategies, effective study habits, and achievement-oriented goals (Chacón-Cuberos et al., 2019), as well as with the development of life purposes linked to social commitment and helping others (Morán and García, 2019).

Within this theoretical framework, and in line with the principles of Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000), which emphasises the role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the development of motivation, it is important to examine how students’ personal and contextual circumstances—particularly their employment status and vocational orientation—influence these key psychological variables. Accordingly, the present study seeks to provide empirical evidence that contributes to a better understanding of motivational processes and psychological well-being within initial teacher education. In doing so, it aims to inform the implementation of educational strategies designed to foster greater engagement, satisfaction, and commitment to the teaching profession.

4 Methodology

4.1 Sample description

The present study was conducted using a sample of 239 university students (34.1% male and 65.9% female) with a mean age of 27.48 years. Data were collected during the 2021–2022 academic year. Of the participants, 73.2% were enrolled at the University of Castilla–La Mancha (UCLM), while 26.8% were enrolled at Villanueva University (UV).

Regarding their educational background, 87.9% of participants held a bachelor’s degree, 5.9% had completed a licenciatura degree, 4.2% held a diplomatura qualification, and 2.1% had already obtained a doctoral degree.

Participants presented diverse employment situations. The largest group consisted of students actively seeking employment (35.6%). In addition, 30.1% were unemployed and not seeking employment, 28.4% were employed by an organisation, and 5.1% were self-employed.

The distribution of participants according to their Master’s specialisation is presented in Figure 1.

As shown in Figure 1, English is the most represented specialisation (20%), followed by Economics and Business and Physics and Chemistry (14% each), and Geography and History (12%). Spanish Language accounts for 9% of the sample, while Mathematics, Technology and Computer Science represent 8% each. Educational Guidance accounts for 6%, followed by French, 5% and Arts, 4%, which is the least represented specialisation.

4.2. Instruments and variables

To assess the study variables, an ad hoc questionnaire was administered alongside the Psychological Well-Being Scale (Ryff, 1989) and the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Ryan and Deci, 2000).

The Ryff Psychological Well-Being Scale (RPWB) is a multidimensional instrument designed to assess psychological well-being across six dimensions through 39 items rated on a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The Spanish adaptation by Díaz et al. (2006) was employed in the present study. Previous research has reported satisfactory levels of internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients of approximately.70. In addition, the scale has shown an excellent fit to the theoretical model of psychological well-being proposed by Van Dierendonck (2004). Evidence from university samples has also supported its psychometric adequacy, with Véliz-Burgos (2012) reporting acceptable reliability and validity indices. These findings support the suitability of the instrument for assessing psychological well-being in higher education settings.

The following dependent variable (DV) was derived from this instrument: The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) is a multidimensional instrument designed to assess participants’ subjective experiences related to a specific activity, grounded in the principles of Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985). It has been widely used in educational, psychological, and motivational research to evaluate intrinsic motivation and related constructs associated with engagement in specific tasks. The version employed in this study consisted of 25 items, rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating a greater level of intrinsic motivation toward the target activity. The instrument assessed three dimensions relevant to the present research: Interest/Enjoyment, Perceived Choice, and Value/Usefulness. These dimensions provide complementary information regarding participants’ motivational experiences, including the degree to which they find the activity enjoyable, perceive autonomy in engaging with it, and recognize its personal importance and utility. According to Self-Determination Theory, Interest/Enjoyment represents the most direct self-report measure of intrinsic motivation, whereas Perceived Choice and Value/Usefulness are associated with autonomous engagement and the internalization of personal goals (Ryan and Deci, 2000).

• Psychological well-being. This variable was assessed through all six dimensions of Ryff's Multidimensional Model of Psychological Well-Being: Self-acceptance, Positive Relations with Others, Autonomy, Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, and Purpose in Life. Together, these dimensions provide a comprehensive measure of individuals’ levels of psychological well-being.

To enhance the relevance of the questionnaire to the aims of the study, the item wording was contextualized to the teaching profession and teacher career aspirations. This process did not involve any modification of the original instrument's content, response format, scoring procedure, or factorial structure. Rather, references to the target activity were adapted linguistically so that respondents could relate the statements to teaching as a future professional goal. Consequently, the procedure should be understood as a contextual adaptation intended to improve ecological validity and comprehension within the study context while preserving the theoretical and psychometric foundations of the original IMI. This approach is also consistent with the recommendations of the instrument developers, who indicate that IMI items can be slightly modified to fit specific activities without altering their conceptual meaning. Extensive evidence supports the reliability and validity of the IMI across a wide range of educational and behavioral settings. Early psychometric research conducted by McAuley, Duncan, and Tammen (1989) confirmed the factorial structure of the instrument through confirmatory factor analysis and reported satisfactory internal consistency coefficients for its dimensions. Subsequent research has shown that the IMI subscales are factorially coherent and stable across different tasks, conditions, and populations, with item selection based on rigorous psychometric criteria, including substantial factor loadings and minimal cross-loadings.

Additional studies have further supported the instrument's psychometric robustness in educational contexts. For example, Kooiman et al. (2015) and Ostrow and Heffernan (2018) reported adequate reliability and validity indicators when employing the IMI to assess motivational processes in learning environments. More recently, Bosch (2024) confirmed the validity and reliability of the IMI among university students in blended learning environments, demonstrating its effectiveness for measuring intrinsic motivation in higher education settings. Considering the extensive body of evidence supporting its construct validity, factorial stability, and internal consistency, together with the preservation of its original structure in the present study, the IMI can be regarded as an appropriate, valid, and reliable instrument for assessing intrinsic motivation among prospective teachers. The dependent variable derived from this instrument was the level of intrinsic motivation, operationalized through the dimensions of Interest/Enjoyment, Perceived Choice, and Value/Usefulness, which collectively reflect students’ subjective motivational experiences regarding teaching as a professional career.

The following dependent variable (DV) was derived from this instrument: With regard to the independent variables (IVs), this study considered employment status, reason for enrolment, and early teaching aspiration.

• Intrinsic motivation. This variable was assessed through all three dimensions of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI): Interest/Enjoyment, Perceived Choice, and Value/Usefulness. Together, these dimensions capture students’ subjective experiences of motivation in relation to teaching-related activities and professional aspirations within the field of education.

For analytical purposes, employment status and reason for enrolment were recoded into dichotomous variables. Regarding employment status, participants actively seeking employment were compared with all other employment categories, as the study specifically aimed to examine whether the immediate need for labour market integration was associated with psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation. This decision was also supported by the small number of participants in some of the original employment categories, which would have reduced the stability and statistical power of comparisons between individual groups. Similarly, reason for enrolment was dichotomised by distinguishing participants whose primary motivation was to improve their employment prospects from those reporting other motives, in line with the study's focus on the role of explicit career-oriented motivation.

4.3 Procedure

The study was conducted in three phases. During the first phase, contact was established with the universities from which the participants were recruited, namely the University of Castilla–La Mancha (UCLM) and Villanueva University (UV). The objectives of the study and the ethical requirements associated with participation were explained to both institutions. Once the study sample had been defined, the necessary procedures for obtaining informed consent were initiated, and the documentation required for ethical approval was submitted to the Social Research Ethics Committee (CEIS) of the University of Castilla–La Mancha.

The second phase commenced following approval by the CEIS. During this stage, participants completed the questionnaires described above.

In the third phase, the collected data were analysed and the findings were interpreted.

4.4 Data analysis

Data analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 28.

The Student’s t test was selected for the analysis of the results in order to determine the variables associated with higher levels of well-being and those associated with higher levels of intrinsic motivation, both considered dependent variables (DVs) in this study.

Specifically, employment status, reason for enrolment, and early teaching aspiration were analysed in relation to psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation.

4.5 Ethical considerations

The research presented in this study was approved by the Social Research Ethics Committee (CEIS) of the University of Castilla–La Mancha under reference number CEIS-626839-J9Q6 on 31 March 2022.

To obtain this approval, informed consent was obtained from both the participants and the participating universities. In addition, a research proposal was submitted to the committee to assess the ethical feasibility and appropriateness of the study.

5 Results

5.1 Psychological well-being scores according to employment status

The psychological well-being scores according to participants’ employment status are presented below. To facilitate interpretation, each dimension of psychological well-being is examined separately.

The results presented in Table 1 indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in any of the dimensions of psychological well-being between the Other group and the Seeking Employment group, as all p values are above.05.

Table 1. Psychological well-being scores according to employment status.

*Significant value p < 0.05.

Cohen's d effect size.

Other consists of the following categories: “student and unemployed, not seeking employment/student and employed by another person or organisation/student and self-employed/other”.

Nevertheless, several noteworthy descriptive trends can be observed: Regarding overall psychological well-being, the mean scores were very similar across both groups (4.54 vs. 4.47), reinforcing the absence of meaningful differences according to employment status.

• The Other group showed slightly higher scores in self-acceptance, positive relations with others, environmental mastery, and purpose in life.
• In contrast, the Seeking Employment group obtained slightly higher scores in autonomy and personal growth.

The effect size values (Cohen's d) are trivial or small (d < .30). And overall, the results indicate that the work situation (looking for a job versus other situations) was not significantly associated with psychological well-being in the analysed sample the level of psychological well-being in the sample analyzed.

5.2 Psychological well-being scores according to the reason for enrolment

Similarly, psychological well-being scores were analysed according to participants’ reason for enrolment in the Master's Degree programme. To facilitate interpretation, each dimension of psychological well-being was examined separately.

The results presented in Table 2 indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in any of the dimensions of psychological well-being according to the reason for enrolment (other reasons vs. employment-related reasons), as all p values are above.05.

Table 2. Psychological well-being scores according to the reason for enrolment.

*Significant value p < 0.05.

Cohen's d effect size.

Other reasons consist of the following categories: “to improve my knowledge/other reasons”.

At a descriptive level, slight differences can be observed between the groups. The Other Reasons group reported somewhat higher scores across almost all dimensions of psychological well-being, including self-acceptance, positive relations with others, environmental mastery, personal growth, and purpose in life, with the largest difference observed in personal growth. In contrast, autonomy showed virtually identical scores in both groups.

Regarding overall psychological well-being, the mean scores were very similar between the two groups (4.60 vs. 4.48), reinforcing the notion that the reason for enrolment has little influence on levels of psychological well-being.

The effect size values (Cohen's d) are trivial or small (d < .30). In this case, the data suggest that the reason for enrolling is not significantly associated with psychological well-being in the sample analyzed.

5.3 Psychological well-being scores according to teaching aspiration

Psychological well-being scores according to whether participants had teaching as a career aspiration at the beginning of their university studies are presented below.

The results presented in Table 3 indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in most dimensions of psychological well-being according to whether students had the goal of pursuing a teaching career from the beginning of their university studies (p > .05).

Table 3. Psychological well-being scores according to teaching aspiration.

*Significant value p < 0.05.

Cohen's d effect size.

The Yes category corresponds to participants who reported that, since beginning their university studies, teaching had been among their career aspirations. The No category corresponds to participants who reported that the idea of becoming a teacher emerged at a later stage.

In Table 3, the results indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in most dimensions of psychological well-being depending on whether students had the goal of becoming teachers from the start or not (p > .05). However, a significant difference is identified in the “Purpose in Life” dimension (t = −3.63; p < .001), where the group that did have an initial teaching vocation score higher (4.88 versus 4.48). Additionally, the effect size is close to moderate (d = -.47). This suggests that an early orientation towards teaching is associated with a greater sense of life purpose.

In the remaining dimensions, although the group with an early teaching aspiration showed slightly higher scores in self-acceptance, positive relations with others, and environmental mastery, these differences did not reach statistical significance.

With regard to overall psychological well-being, no statistically significant differences were observed (p = .065), although a tendency towards higher well-being was evident among participants with an early teaching aspiration.

Overall, the results indicate that having teaching as an initial career aspiration significantly influences only the Purpose in Life dimension, whereas the remaining differences are not statistically conclusive.

5.4 Intrinsic motivation scores according to employment Status

The intrinsic motivation scores according to participants’ employment status are presented below.

The results presented in Table 4 indicate that there are statistically significant differences in some dimensions of intrinsic motivation according to employment status. Specifically, the other group obtained significantly higher scores in Interest/Enjoyment (p = .023), Perceived Choice (p = .034), and the Mean IMI Score (p = .030) compared with the Seeking Employment group.

Table 4. Intrinsic motivation scores according to employment status.

*Significant value p < 0.05.

Cohen's d effect size.

Other consists of the following categories: “student and unemployed, not seeking employment/student and employed by another person or organisation/student and self-employed/other”.

In contrast, the Value/Usefulness dimension did not show statistically significant differences (p = .333), indicating that both groups perceived the usefulness of the activity in a similar manner.

At a descriptive level, the other group obtained higher scores across all dimensions analysed, suggesting greater intrinsic engagement, particularly in terms of enjoyment and perceived autonomy in decision-making. Also, the effect sizes (Cohen's d) indicate small to moderate effects.

Overall, these findings suggest that employment status influences intrinsic motivation, with lower levels of intrinsic motivation observed among participants who were seeking employment.

5.5 Intrinsic motivation scores according to the reason for enrolment

The intrinsic motivation results according to the reason for enrolment are presented below.

The results presented in Table 5 indicate that there are statistically significant differences in some dimensions of intrinsic motivation according to the reason for enrolment. Specifically, the Other Reasons group obtained significantly higher scores in Perceived Choice (p = .01) and the Mean IMI Score (p = .021) compared with the Employment-related group.

Table 5. Intrinsic motivation scores according to the reason for enrolment.

*Significant value p < 0.05.

Cohen's d effect size.

Other reasons consist of the following categories: “to improve my knowledge/other reasons”.

In contrast, the Interest/Enjoyment (p = .141) and Value/Usefulness (p = .155) dimensions did not show statistically significant differences, suggesting that both groups reported similar levels of enjoyment and perceived usefulness of the activity.

At a descriptive level, the Other Reasons group obtained higher scores across all dimensions, indicating greater overall intrinsic motivation, particularly in terms of autonomy and perceived choice.

Likewise, the effect sizes (Cohen’s d) suggest small effects except for a moderate effect, especially in choice perception, which reinforces the practical relevance of these differences.

Overall, the results indicate that the reason for enrolment partially influences intrinsic motivation, particularly the perception of autonomy, with higher levels observed among participants who enrolled for reasons other than employment-related motives.

5.6 Intrinsic motivation scores based on initial aspiration to pursue a teaching career

The following section presents the intrinsic motivation scores according to whether participants reported an aspiration to pursue a teaching career at the beginning of their university studies.

The results presented in Table 6 indicate that there are statistically significant differences in all dimensions of intrinsic motivation according to whether students had an early aspiration to pursue a teaching career (p < .001 in all cases).

Table 6. Intrinsic motivation scores according to teaching aspiration.

*Significant value p < 0.05.

Cohen's d effect size.

The Yes category corresponds to participants who reported that, since beginning their university studies, teaching had been among their career aspirations. The No category corresponds to participants who reported that the idea of becoming a teacher emerged at a later stage.

Specifically, participants who reported an early teaching aspiration obtained significantly higher scores in Interest/Enjoyment, Value/Usefulness, and Perceived Choice, indicating greater engagement, a stronger recognition of the value of the activity, and a greater sense of autonomy throughout their educational experience.

Furthermore, the overall mean intrinsic motivation score was also significantly higher in this group (6.04 vs. 5.53), indicating a stronger motivational profile.

With regard to effect size, Cohen’s d values suggest moderate to large, and in some cases large, effects, reinforcing the practical significance of the observed differences.

Overall, the results indicate that an early aspiration to pursue a teaching career is associated with higher levels of intrinsic motivation across all its dimensions, confirming the importance of the vocational component in the education of future teachers.

6 Discussion and conclusions

The aim of the present study was to analyse the levels of psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation among students enrolled in the Master's Degree in Teacher Education, taking into account variables such as employment status, the reason for enrolment, and vocational orientation towards the teaching profession. The findings provide a deeper understanding of these students’ motivational and vocational profiles, as well as the relationships between key psychological variables within the context of initial teacher education.

First, the findings indicate that only a minority of students had an initial aspiration to pursue a teaching career before entering university, whereas the majority did not consider teaching as a primary career option. This finding suggests that, for many students, teaching is not established as an early vocation but rather emerges as a professional alternative that is discovered or redefined during their academic training. In this respect, the Master's Degree in Teacher Education functions as a context for the development of professional teacher identity, enabling students without a prior vocational orientation towards teaching to incorporate the profession as a viable, and in some cases preferred, career pathway through their educational experience.

Consistent with this finding, the primary reason for enrolment was largely related to improving employment opportunities, highlighting the importance of extrinsic factors in students’ educational choices. However, this orientation does not preclude the presence of intrinsic motivation, understood as individuals’ interest, enjoyment, and personal engagement in an activity (Orbegoso, 2016), which constitutes a key determinant of effective professional performance. This issue is particularly relevant given that teaching involves a high level of social responsibility. As noted by Collado and Navarro (2021), the teaching profession is characterised by its vocational, ethical, and transformative nature. In this regard, Cachón Zagalaz et al. (2022) highlighted the need to examine whether teaching can be effectively practised in the absence of adequate motivation, emphasising the importance of satisfying basic psychological needs for professional performance and development.

With regard to psychological well-being, the findings indicate generally favourable levels across all its dimensions. This result is consistent with previous research linking psychological well-being to life satisfaction, personal development, and the quality of interpersonal relationships (Diener et al., 1999; Muñoz Campos et al., 2018). Furthermore, psychological well-being has been shown to be closely associated with job satisfaction (Romeiro, 2015), a relationship that is particularly relevant within the teaching profession, where emotional stability and vocational certainty may predict higher levels of future professional satisfaction.

However, differences in psychological well-being according to employment status and reason for enrolment were not statistically significant. Early teaching aspiration was the only variable associated with a statistically significant difference in psychological well-being, specifically in the Purpose in Life dimension. Students who had identified teaching as a career aspiration from the beginning of their university studies reported a stronger sense of purpose in life. This finding suggests that an early vocational orientation towards teaching may be particularly associated with the construction of meaningful professional goals and a clearer sense of direction.

On the other hand, intrinsic motivation showed a more differentiated pattern. In this case, employment status emerged as a significant variable, indicating that students who were not actively seeking employment reported higher levels of intrinsic motivation, particularly in the Interest/Enjoyment and Perceived Choice dimensions. This finding can be interpreted in light of Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000), which posits that the absence of external pressures promotes greater autonomy and engagement with the task. Accordingly, students who were less constrained by the urgency of finding employment appeared more willing to engage autonomously in the learning process.

The reason for enrolment also showed a differentiated association with intrinsic motivation. Participants who enrolled for reasons other than employment-related motives reported significantly higher Perceived Choice and a higher overall IMI score, whereas no statistically significant differences were observed for Interest/Enjoyment or Value/Usefulness. This pattern suggests that enrolment motives may be particularly relevant to perceived autonomy and overall intrinsic motivation rather than to all dimensions of the construct. Furthermore, an early aspiration to pursue a teaching career was associated with significantly higher levels of intrinsic motivation across all its dimensions, supporting the findings of Grant and Dweck (2003) regarding the positive influence of personal goals on motivation and performance. Likewise, these findings are consistent with those reported by Llanes Ordóñez et al. (2021) and Figuera et al. (2018), who emphasised that motivations linked to personal fulfilment promote greater engagement and satisfaction with the university experience.

Overall, the findings highlight the complementary relevance of psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation within initial teacher education, consistent with previous research linking these constructs to adaptive academic and professional functioning (Chekola, 1974; Diener et al., 1999). Psychological well-being has been associated with more positive attitudes towards learning, whereas intrinsic motivation is related to engagement, self-regulation, and personal development (Chacón-Cuberos et al., 2019). Furthermore, the present findings suggest that an early vocational orientation towards teaching is particularly associated with a stronger sense of purpose in life and higher levels of intrinsic motivation. This pattern is consistent with previous research highlighting the relevance of purpose and vocational orientation to motivational development (Morán and García, 2019) and with McClelland’s (1958) achievement and personal development framework.

These results align with existing literature establishing the link between early teaching career orientation, a sense of purpose, and intrinsic motivation (Grant and Dweck, 2003; Llanes Ordóñez et al., 2021). However, the main contribution of this study lies in comprehensively examining contextual, motivational, and professional variables by simultaneously considering employment status, enrollment motivation, and career orientation.

The findings of the present study allow several relevant conclusions to be drawn regarding initial teacher education. Notwithstanding these contributions, the findings should be interpreted in light of several limitations that also open promising avenues for future research. First, the study was conducted with a sample drawn from two Spanish universities (Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha and Universidad Villanueva), which may limit the generalizability of the results to other institutional, cultural, or educational contexts. Previous research has highlighted that motivational processes, professional identity development, and psychological well-being can be influenced by contextual factors such as institutional culture, labour market conditions, and educational policies (Klassen and Chiu, 2011; Richardson and Watt, 2010). Second, the sample was restricted to students enrolled in a Master's Degree in Secondary Teacher Education, thereby excluding other teacher education pathways and disciplinary specializations that may exhibit different motivational and vocational profiles. Third, the cross-sectional nature of the study prevents the establishment of causal relationships between psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation, limiting the interpretation of their dynamic interaction over time (Ryan and Deci, 2020). A further limitation concerns the dichotomisation of employment status and reason for enrolment. Although this recoding was theoretically and methodologically justified by the study objectives and the small number of participants in some original categories, it necessarily entailed a partial loss of information and may have limited a more nuanced interpretation of differences across specific employment and motivational profiles. Future studies should therefore examine the original categories independently whenever adequate group sizes permit. Furthermore, the use of self-report measures may have introduced response biases associated with social desirability or subjective perceptions (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Future research should therefore consider larger and more diverse samples, including participants from different geographical regions, universities, educational systems, and disciplinary fields. Longitudinal and cross-cultural studies would also contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how psychological well-being, intrinsic motivation, and vocational commitment evolve throughout teacher education and the early stages of professional practice (Day and Gu, 2014; Fokkens-Bruinsma and Canrinus, 2014).

• First, students enrolled in the Master's Degree in Teacher Education reported adequate levels of psychological well-being and high levels of intrinsic motivation, providing a favourable foundation for their future professional practice.
• Second, teaching was not predominantly identified as an initial vocation but rather as an emerging career choice that may become consolidated throughout the university training process.
• Third, employment status significantly influenced intrinsic motivation, with higher levels observed among students who were not actively seeking employment, highlighting the influence of contextual factors on academic engagement.
• Furthermore, an early aspiration to pursue a teaching career was associated with a significantly higher score in Purpose in Life and with higher levels of intrinsic motivation.
• Reason for enrollment was not associated with significant differences in psychological well-being, but it was associated with specific aspects of intrinsic motivation, particularly Perceived Choice and the overall IMI score.
• Finally, the findings highlight the complementary relevance of psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation in understanding commitment and engagement during initial teacher education.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2026.1925054/full#supplementary-material

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Footnotes

Edited by: Prakasha G. S., Christ University, India

Reviewed by: Yue Gong, Shanxi Vocational College of Tourism, China

Anca Simion, Universitatea Babes-Bolyai Departamentul de Stiinte ale Educatiei, Romania