From following to caring and acting: analyzing social media's role in shaping mindsets and transforming habits for sustainable living

1 Introduction

Following the industrial revolution, food and goods consumption has become rampant (Håkansson, 2014). While this demonstrated a sign of development and wellbeing across multiple nations, overconsumption has nevertheless become prevalent and has caused numerous damages, repletion of resources, as well as environmental risks and threats (Håkansson, 2014; Joshua, 2017). Among the efforts to reduce the risks of such phenomenon, was the launching of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals during the Rio Summit in 2015 (Carlsen and Bruggemann, 2022; United Nations, 2015). In particular, SDG 12, on “responsible consumption and production” embodies a global agreement on the necessity for profoundly changing production and consumption practices. Consequently, this has pushed nations to scrutinize, question, and change consuming patterns and behaviors through the adoption of various approaches and initiatives—including educational ones (Abo-Khalil, 2024; Angelaki et al., 2024; Arora and Mishra, 2023).

Through several initiatives enshrined in the realization of the role of education in changing mindsets and affecting behaviors in the long run, different governments sought to embed notions related to SDGs and sustainability across various educational levels. This was in the aim to disseminate awareness among their citizens and attempt to meet the SDGs agenda by 2030. Such efforts spanned across elementary, secondary and tertiary education with various programs, pedagogies and curricula designed to integrate sustainability learning, knowledge, and competencies within such educational systems and settings (Al-Hail et al., 2024; Fekih Zguir et al., 2021, 2022). Despite these global efforts and initiatives though, to this day, no nation has completely accomplished these objectives, highlighting the necessity for enhanced social engagement and transformation to tackle ongoing environmental issues. Furthermore, many efforts have focused on raising awareness rather than embedding sustainability, limiting their long-term impact.

Several studies have delved into how the aforementioned environmental issues may be addressed by changing human behavior towards more environmental sustainability through technology, and notably social media (Amoako et al., 2023; Liao, 2024; Meng et al., 2023). Despite the role it plays in advocating sustainable practices, research on how social media (SM) platforms influence young adults' sustainable consumption habits remains limited, particularly in the Gulf region, where the use of such tools is prevalent (Aissani et al., 2026; Al-Mulla et al., 2022; Parvez, 2019; Rabah et al., 2025). Hence the need to investigate how SM platforms might be effectively leveraged to promote sustainable habits.

In context of digital transformation for behavioral change, recent studies have explored the role of SM platforms, as intervention toward stimulating sustainable behavioral choices and encouraging pro-environmental behavior (Confetto et al., 2023; Liao, 2024; Meng et al., 2023; Mosca et al., 2024; Stieglitz et al., 2023). Studies suggest that digital interventions can influence sustainability-related behaviors through mechanisms such as nudging, gamification, immersive technologies, digital monitoring, and targeted communication. In particular, studies explored how SM may play an important role in shaping sustainable consumption, awareness, engagement, and advocacy, especially among younger populations (Li and Fang, 2022; Manca, 2020; Oliveira et al., 2021; Rakib et al., 2022; Xu and Han, 2019). Furthermore, several studies highlight how SM platforms can serve as a medium to promote positive behavioral change through engaging strategies such as gamification, digital nudging, emotional and visual narrative, and storytelling (Abbas et al., 2019; Koroleva and Novak, 2020; Kramar and Knez, 2025; Lim et al., 2024; Mbodila et al., 2014; Oliveira et al., 2021).

When it comes to structured education settings such as higher education institutions (HEIs) and systems, sustainability can be addressed in curricula and teaching by providing solutions to urgent global challenges while developing students' sustainability competencies (SCs) (Ahonen and Kinnunen, 2015; Basheer et al., 2024; Buchanan, 2012; Leal Filho et al., 2019). Aligning this with Industry 4.0 requires a holistic university structure embedding sustainability into curriculum through a variety of pedagogical methods to achieve lifelong learning opportunities (Benešová et al., 2019). In this way, HEIs may become crucial stakeholders to equip students with the skills for the optimal transition on the course of the 21st century, urging them to act as sustainable change agents.

The pressing environmental issues mentioned previously necessitate significant changes at both social and individual levels, prompting governments, HEIs and other establishments to shift to technological innovations to meet visions toward sustainability (Giesenbauer and Müller-Christ, 2020). In the case of HEIs, integrated problem-solving, anticipatory skills, and systems thinking (to name a few) are core to this shift and should be integrated into HEI courses using an interdisciplinary approach to drive the development of sustainability practices (Shaya et al., 2026; Žalėnienė and Pereira, 2021). HEIs can also promote sustainable development directly and indirectly by producing sustainable development on campus and in the community, as well as promoting active citizenship (Koroleva and Novak, 2020; Mellado-Moreno and Burgos, 2025; Pedro et al., 2024). Research emphasizes HEIs as important settings for enhancing sustainability literacy by supplying the young adult population with the competencies and attitudes needed to develop a sustainability-oriented mindset using SM to support sustainable behavior (Abo-Khalil, 2024; Menon and Suresh, 2020; Pedro et al., 2024).

The primary challenge in adopting new technologies in education remains educators' capacity to effectively incorporate technology into the curriculum (Al-Hail et al., 2023; Aramburuzabala et al., 2024; Suchita et al., 2023). Hence, as the scholarship suggests, HEIs need to embed sustainability into their agendas as well as new technologies to prepare students to be aware and effective advocates for sustainable development (Angelaki et al., 2024).

In light of dearth of studies covering the intersection between SM and HEIs as settings striving to promote sustainability competencies, we propose a pedagogically grounded approach that integrates Instagram-based strategies into higher education. The objective of the study is to encourage sustainable consumption behaviors. Building on previous research, and through the provisioning of an empirical analysis, we address the existing research gap on how these platforms can be effectively integrated into higher education to encourage sustainable consumption behaviors. In this study, we explore how strategies such as gamification, digital nudging, and emotional visual storytelling can be incorporated into higher education settings to encourage positive behavioral change toward sustainable consumption.

Through this paper, we seek to address the following research questions: The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides the literature review of the study following a scoping review approach. Section 3 describes the authors’ positionality. Section 4 outlines the research methods, including the development of the Instagram-based d-EfS intervention, pilot testing, pre-survey, the six-month intervention, and post-survey. Section 5 presents key findings and results, while Section 6 discusses the findings in relation to the existing literature and theoretical framework. Section 7 presents the theoretical contributions, and in Section 8 we discuss the practical implications. Section 9 discusses existing limitations and proposing future research directions. Finally, Section 10 concludes the study.

• To what extent can SM support sustainability awareness and self-reported sustainable consumption behaviors among young adults?
• How can gamification and participatory strategies on Instagram encourage engagement with sustainability education and embed sustainability practices into the cultural norms of young people in educational settings such as higher education institutions?

2 Literature review procedure

2.1 Scoping review

Based on the necessity to explore how learning settings such as higher education institutions can benefit from the social and interactive aspect of SM platforms, we conducted a scoping review to map the extent and nature of the literature on the interplay between the themes of SM, higher education, and sustainability behavioral change, notably responsible and sustainable consumption (Mak and Thomas, 2022; Munn et al., 2018). Moreover, the scoping review provided a theoretical framework based on numerous theories on behavior change and learning. Using various databases such as Google Scholar, Qatar National Library (QNL), and Science Direct, we allocated key studies on the themes addressing the research questions. Keyword searches included a combination of terms such as: “social media”, “higher education”, “sustainability education”, “sustainable consumption”, “sustainable behavior”, “environmental behavior”, “behavioral change”, “digital learning”, and “gamification”. We then screened the resulted studies and filtered based on the relevance to the study's topic. This approach also allowed us to identify areas of gaps and limitations in the literature.

2.2 Sustainable consumption and environmental behavioral change among young adults and university students

Sustainable consumption has become increasingly important in addressing environmental challenges such as the environmental impacts of overconsumption. Beyond individual practices, sustainability can be understood as a “mindset” that shapes how individuals interact with their surroundings and guides their everyday behaviors (Bonnett, 2002). However, promoting sustainable consumption remains complex due to challenges related to consumer education, changing preferences, and resource constraints (Oates et al., 2016).

The literature shows growing concern over how sustainability challenges are placing increasing pressure on societies to reconsider consumption behaviors and their environmental impacts (Arora and Mishra, 2023; Kağıtcı, 2022). With rising globalization, technological progress, and economic expansion, the relationship between consumption behavior and environmental sustainability has become an important area of research (Nezakati, 2013). Young consumers, particularly Millennials and Generation Z, play an important role in this context, as their attitudes, behaviors, and digital engagement increasingly shape patterns of consumption and sustainability-related choices (Akello, 2024; Ghaffar and Islam, 2023; Salam et al., 2024).

At the same time, growing awareness of the environmental impacts of human activities has encouraged greater adoption of sustainable practices. These include recycling, walking, using bicycles or public transportation, and purchasing sustainably sourced products (Falke et al., 2022; Qureshi, 2020). This trend reflects broader shifts toward reducing harmful environmental impact and engaging in more ethical consumption practices. In this regard, environmental education can support behavioral change by strengthening intrinsic motivation, environmental responsibility, and the adoption of sustainable practices (Esteban Ibáñez et al., 2020). Nonetheless, environmental education initiatives often place greater emphasis on increasing knowledge and awareness than on providing systematic, holistic, and action-oriented interventions that can translate awareness into sustained behavioral change.

An emerging literature investigates young people's environmental awareness, sustainable behaviors, and actions to better understand current environmental practices and sustainable lifestyles (Ghaffar and Islam, 2023; Kadic-Maglajlic et al., 2019; Kağıtcı, 2022; Oinonen and Paloniemi, 2023; Piscitelli and D'Uggento, 2022; Qureshi, 2020; Ziesemer et al., 2021). Studies have identified several factors that positively influence sustainable consumption behavior among young adults. These include: environmental knowledge, social pressure, and health consciousness (Ghaffar and Islam, 2023), perceived responsibility and environmental attitudes (Kağıtcı, 2022), environmental cultures and willingness to voluntarily participate in ecological practices (Piscitelli and D'Uggento, 2022), physiological factors (Ruby et al., 2020), emotional intelligence (Kadic-Maglajlic et al., 2019), perceived financial affordability and ability to purchase sustainable products (Schnack and Gan, 2024), environmental knowledge and materialism (Dimitrova et al., 2022), and inner or personal transformation such as awareness, compassion, and empathy (Wamsler, 2020). Furthermore, previous research shows that nature-based pedagogy, consumer education, and emotional intelligence contribute to the development of pro-environmental attitudes, increased trust in eco-labeled products, and more sustainable consumption behaviors (Collado et al., 2020; Kadic-Maglajlic et al., 2019; Otto and Pensini, 2017; Panopoulos et al., 2023). Building on these mechanisms, findings also highlight the potential of SM platforms to engage young people, strengthen environmental awareness, and support the adoption of sustainable consumption practices.

The literature findings also suggest that awareness and positive attitudes alone may not be sufficient to encourage wider adoption of sustainable consumption, as engagement strategies and supportive conditions can play an important role in translating intentions into behavior. At the same time, the studies remain relatively limited in their examination of how SM can influence broader sustainable consumption practices, despite indications that consumer engagement and interactive approaches such as gamification may help promote awareness and behavioral change. This gap supports further investigation of SM strategies, particularly Instagram-based engagement, as a means of encouraging sustainable consumption among young adults (Ertmanska, 2021; Falke et al., 2022; Kağıtcı, 2022).

2.3 Social media and pro-environmental behavior

More recently, researchers have investigated the correlation between SM usage for environmental information acquisition and pro-environmental behaviors (Liao, 2024; Vergura et al., 2023; Xu and Han, 2019). These studies emphasize in their bibliometric analysis the role of consumer behavior, including the influence of SM usage in promoting sustainability by shaping sustainability habits and awareness to adopt sustainable habits. Additionally, previous studies demonstrate that media effectively convey information to the public, enhancing awareness of sustainability issues and shaping behavioral intention. They have also shown that SM usage for collecting such environmental information is positively associated with pro-environmental behaviors through raising awareness and facilitating green consumption (Liao, 2024; Vergura et al., 2023; Xu and Han, 2019). Moreover, according to the literature, various SM platforms have a significant role in adopting green behaviors and the growth of sustainability awareness. This is manifested by being an invasive and persuasive way for interaction and connecting those with low-expensive alternatives and brand to develop awareness and purchasing interest in products and services (Agrawal et al., 2023).

Evidence from Qatar and the wider Arab region further supports the role of SM in shaping sustainability awareness and behavior. In Qatar, sustainability discourse on SM is strongly linked to national development, institutional initiatives, and Qatar National Vision 2030, although citizen engagement appears to remain more limited and less critical compared with other regional contexts (Al-Hail et al., 2024; Al-Mulla et al., 2022; Fazza and Mahgoub, 2021; Rabah et al., 2025). At the behavioral level, an Instagram-based sustainability intervention in Qatar showed that SM combined with sustainability education, persuasive design, and gamification can move beyond awareness, with participants reporting increased knowledge and the adoption of sustainable habits (Al-Mulla et al., 2022). However, evidence suggests that this transition is not always achieved, as Arab youth often engage with sustainability content mainly through viewing, liking, and resharing rather than through active forms of participation. Together, these findings suggest that while SM has strong potential to support sustainability awareness and pro-environmental behavior in Qatar and the region, its effectiveness depends on moving beyond information exposure toward more interactive and localized forms of engagement.

2.4 Higher education and sustainability competencies

Studies suggest that although students commonly engage in mandatory sustainable practices, voluntary environmentally responsible behaviors are less frequent, suggesting a need to strengthen intrinsic motivation toward sustainability (Agrawal et al., 2023; Piscitelli and D'Uggento, 2022). Accordingly, it is recommended that higher education institutions leverage SM to enhance environmental awareness and normalize sustainable behaviors among students. The literature also divulges how environmental knowledge and materialism are important determinants of sustainable consumption and notes that these relationships may vary across cultural contexts, recommending the use of mixed methods to gain a deeper understanding of sustainable consumption behaviors (Dimitrova et al., 2022). Other studies also show that young adults' sustainability actions vary in terms of effort, commitment, and visibility and are shaped by a combination of individual, collective, and structural factors (Oinonen and Paloniemi, 2023). Nevertheless, while these studies broaden the understanding of youth sustainability agency, the examination of how these factors can be translated into practical pedagogical interventions that encourage sustainable behaviors is still limited.

2.5 Theories of behavior change and learning

Amidst the evolution of digital learning, multi-theoretical integration offers a substantial base for utilizing SM tools to significantly enhance sustainability education and promotion. For example, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) is fundamental in explaining the intention-behavior gap. The theory, which focuses on subjective norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control, states that those three constructs affect the possibility of adopting sustainable behaviors. TPB can also be used to inform the design of learning content appealing to community norms, such as the sharing of posts on waste reduction and conserving resources in SM learning environments. Designed like Instagram or TikTok, platforms whose content is concise, eye-catching, and backed with social endorsement, can be more alluring for users to integrate sustainable practices into their lifestyles. The Norm Activation Theory (Schwartz, 1977), developed earlier, is a theory that can complement the TPB by addressing the role of personal responsibility, moral obligation.

In an era dominated by SM and observational learning, the Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 2001) is arguably one notable theory that delineates human learning. By watching influencers, other peers, and community leaders acting out these behaviors, this theory argues that individuals pick up sustainable habits through this social interaction.

Bloom's Digital Taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2000) extends traditional hierarchies of learning to the digital sphere. Similar to how lessons can layer activities, SM platforms have the capability to group education into an interactive experience instead of passive scrolling.

Another theory we rely on is the Narrative Engagement Theory (Busselle and Bilandzic, 2009). Rooted in the belief that stories are inherently emotional objects containing the power to initiate behavioral change, this theory explains how SM content with a visual storytelling component, rendering intangible sustainability concepts to be more relatable and memorable.

Moreover, the Digital Nudging (Huang et al., 2018) theory leverages the ability of psychological nudging to promote sustainable behavior. For example, embedding reminders in posts or stories about turning lights off or using reusable products can nudge users subconsciously over time. It is especially important for engagement with the digital age (Deterding et al., 2011). Gamifying sustainability interventions with rewards, badges and leader boards can give SM platforms where these could live an interactive environment that motivates participation.

According to Self-Regulation Theory (Zimmerman, 1989), goal-setting and self-monitoring are avenues for changing behavior. Examples of this might be challenging users to commit to short- or long-term personal sustainability achievements, posting reports on progress (or lack thereof), or other mapping and tracking through SM tools — e.g., water conservation, recycling, etc.

Together, these abovementioned theories can shape a holistic and integrative framework that can help utilize the potential of SM as a means for sustainability education.

Accordingly, in the present study, we address the aforementioned gaps by examining Instagram as a structured educational intervention within higher education. This is effectuated using interactive and behavior-oriented strategies to move beyond awareness toward more sustained sustainable consumption practices. In this study, we further integrate multiple theories of learning and behavior change into a holistic framework to guide the design of the intervention and examine its potential within the culturally specific context of Qatar.

3 Positionality statement

We are an interdisciplinary research team with backgrounds in sustainability, education, engineering, and digital learning, and with different relationships to the Qatari context. As the first author, I am Qatari and is affiliated with the Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering at Hamad Bin Khalifa University. I also teach environmental science at the Community College of Qatar, giving me an insider perspective on Qatar's cultural, educational, sustainability, and Islamic context. The second author, affiliated with Qatar's Ministry of Education and Higher Education, was raised in Qatar and has long-standing familiarity with the country's education system, cultural practices, and Islamic social context. The third author, also affiliated with Hamad Bin Khalifa University, has taught and worked in Qatar for more than ten years and brings extensive academic and professional experience of the country's higher-education and sustainability landscape. These perspectives informed the design of WeSustainQtr, including its bilingual content, locally relevant sustainability topics, Islamic principles such as khalifah (stewardship), wasatiyyah (moderation), and avoidance of israf (waste), as well as culturally significant occasions such as Ramadan and Eid. We recognize that our involvement in conceptualizing, developing, delivering, and evaluating the intervention may have influenced the survey questions, educational content, and interpretation of the findings. To reduce this influence, the third author reviewed the survey instruments and provided academic feedback during the study. Stakeholder feedback was also obtained during the pilot stage from sustainability educators, graduate students, environmental researchers, and digital content developers, informing revisions to terminology, content, cultural appropriateness, and survey clarity. Where differences in interpretation arose, we discussed the findings collectively and reached agreement by reviewing the survey results, intervention context, and supporting evidence before finalizing the interpretation. We also interpreted self-reported and group-level outcomes cautiously.

4 Methods

In this study, we adopted Design-Based Research (DBR) method (Tinoca et al., 2022) that integrated qualitative and quantitative data collection methods to develop, implement, refine, and evaluate an Instagram-based Digital Education for Sustainability (d-EfS) intervention. This approach was selected because it supports iterative cycles of design, implementation, evaluation, and refinement within authentic learning environments.

We built upon the developed Digital Learning, Teaching and Assessment (D-LTA) framework, which was adapted into a revised multi-theoretical framework to guide the design and delivery of sustainability education through Instagram (Al-Hail et al., 2024). We also sought to develop an educational model capable of translating sustainability knowledge into meaningful everyday sustainable practices.

To this end, we used a structured curriculum with defined learning outcomes and objectives to examine whether an SM-based sustainability intervention could improve knowledge, engagement, and sustainable behavior. However, because the intervention was delivered through an open SM platform within a semi-controlled setting, participation extended beyond the intended student and youth population to include employees from academia and industry. Accordingly, the analysis also included non-student responses, while distinguishing these from student-specific findings where relevant. Furthermore, the empirical findings of this study are interpreted in relation to the broader participant population rather than exclusively as outcomes among university students, except when clearly stated.

The overall research process consisted of five sequential phases: (1) development of the d-EfS curriculum and the WeSustainQtr Instagram platform; (2) pilot testing and refinement of the educational materials and survey instruments; (3) administration of a baseline pre-survey; (4) implementation of the six-month Instagram intervention; and (5) administration of a post-survey to evaluate learning experiences, engagement, and self-reported behavioral outcomes. The overall study workflow is presented in Figure 1.

4.1 Development of the d-EfS course and WeSustainQtr

We built our intervention based on d-EfS curriculum delivered through WeSustainQtr; an educational Instagram account we created specifically for this study. We developed the curriculum following a proposed sustainability framework (See Figure 2), a review of sustainability education literature, digital learning theories, and sustainable consumption research.

Sustainable consumption was selected as the central theme because it encompasses everyday environmental decisions, including food waste, plastic pollution, textile waste, paper consumption, energy conservation, water conservation, responsible purchasing, and waste reduction. We organized the curriculum into weekly sustainability themes that combined scientific evidence, practical recommendations, locally relevant examples, and culturally appropriate narratives (See Supplementary Appendix 1).

In the WeSustainQtr account we incorporated educational posts, reels, infographics, carousel posts, stories, quizzes, polls, discussion prompts, gamification elements, digital nudging, and weekly sustainability challenges. We presented sustainability concepts using concise language, visual storytelling, and practical examples to promote accessibility, sustained engagement, and gradual habit formation.

We culturally adapted the intervention by integrating Islamic perspectives on environmental stewardship, Qur'anic teachings, and principles such as khalifah (stewardship and human responsibility toward the Earth), wasatiyyah (moderation and balance), and avoidance of israf (wastefulness and excessive consumption) with the SDGs, bilingual Arabic–English content, and culturally significant occasions such as Ramadan and Eid. This cultural framing increased the relevance and relatability of the content while keeping the underlying sustainability themes and educational strategies adaptable to other contexts.

4.2 Pilot testing and refinement

Prior to implementation, the proposed framework, Instagram platform, and survey instruments underwent a pilot phase involving ten stakeholders, including sustainability educators, graduate students, environmental researchers, and digital content developers.

We conducted semi-structured interviews to evaluate the clarity, relevance, cultural appropriateness, communication style, instructional design, and educational effectiveness of the intervention. We summarize the main outcomes of the pilot testing in Figure 3. Consistent with the iterative principles of DBR, stakeholder feedback informed successive refinements to both the framework and course design. The revised framework we developed guided the design, delivery, and evaluation of the intervention is presented in Figure 4.

The pilot phase resulted in several improvements, including simplifying sustainability terminology, improving bilingual (Arabic-English) accessibility, adopting a minimalist visual design, strengthening visual storytelling, and integrating culturally relevant examples and Islamic perspectives. We have also used the feedback to inform the revisions to the pre-survey questionnaire and to improve clarity and content validity before large-scale implementation.

4.3 Baseline assessment (pre-survey)

Following refinement of the intervention materials, we administered an online baseline survey through the WeSustainQtr Instagram account using SurveyMonkey prior to releasing any educational content. The survey generated 420 responses and assessed participants' sustainability knowledge, environmental awareness, attitudes, consumption behaviors, Instagram engagement patterns, and learning needs.

Beyond establishing baseline conditions, we used the survey as a needs assessment that guided refinement of the curriculum. Findings identified misconceptions regarding waste management, preferred learning formats, and prioritizing sustainability topics requiring greater emphasis. Consequently, we reorganized the curriculum around participants' interests, introducing weekly themes covering food waste, plastic waste, textile waste, paper consumption, energy conservation, water conservation, and responsible consumption. The structure of the baseline survey is illustrated in Figure 5. Although we primarily designed the intervention for higher education students in Qatar, the open-access nature of the Instagram account meant that individuals outside this target group could also engage with the educational content and complete the pre- and post-intervention surveys. Accordingly, the overall dataset included responses from both university students and other participants from other age groups and backgrounds, and these responses informed the broader study findings. However, using SurveyMonkey's response-filtering function, we conducted additional analyses specifically for respondents who identified as university students, as discussed in Section 4.

4.4 Instagram-based educational intervention

We implemented the educational intervention over six consecutive months using WeSustainQtr as the primary learning platform (see Supplementary Appendix 2). For each week, we introduced a new sustainability theme through a coordinated combination of educational posts, reels, stories, quizzes, polls, and interactive challenges. We archived stories within dedicated highlights, allowing participants to revisit educational content throughout the intervention. We have also incorporated weekly sustainability challenges, digital nudging techniques, practical checklists, and gamification elements to reinforce engagement and encourage gradual adoption of sustainable behaviors. The weekly Instagram content dissemination strategy is presented in Figure 6.

4.5 Post-intervention evaluation

Following completion of the six-month intervention, a post-survey was distributed through a SurveyMonkey link between 1 October and 1 November 2024 to the account's 3,949 followers. Based on this population size, the minimum required sample was estimated at 335 respondents using a 95% confidence level, a 5% margin of error, and a 50% response distribution (Martínez-Mesa et al., 2014). The final sample of 415 respondents therefore exceeded the recommended minimum sample size.

The survey consisted of 23 questions, including single-choice, multiple-choice, rating, Likert-scale, and open-ended items. Through the survey, we examined five broad themes: participant demographics; Instagram engagement; educational impact of WeSustainQtr; perceptions of local sustainability influencers; and self-reported behavioral and societal impacts. We administered the survey anonymously to respect participants’ privacy and encourage participation, particularly within the cultural context of Qatar. Consequently, pre- and post-survey responses could not be matched at the individual level, and the findings should therefore be interpreted as group-level trends rather than direct measures of individual behavioral change.

The post-intervention survey themes are presented in Figure 7. The pre- and post-survey questions are provided in Supplementary Appendix 3.

5 Results

For analytical clarity, we distinguish between digital engagement, perceived educational outcomes, and self-reported behavioral outcomes. Digital engagement refers to interactions with the platform, perceived educational outcomes refer to participants’ reported gains in sustainability knowledge and understanding, and behavioral outcomes refer to reported adoption of sustainable practices. Accordingly, we do not suggest that Instagram exposure alone produced learning; rather, we state through our findings how they indicate that a structured and pedagogically designed SM intervention may support perceived sustainability learning and engagement when educational content, interaction, and practical application are intentionally integrated.

5.1 Baseline sustainability awareness

The baseline survey included 420 respondents, providing an overview of participants' sustainability awareness, Instagram engagement, and existing sustainable lifestyle practices prior to the intervention. The sample consisted of 53.0% females and 47.0% males, with 52.6% Qatari and 47.4% non-Qatari respondents. Most participants held a bachelor's degree (47.4%), 23.6% represented students from local universities in Qatar, while 42.6% were employed in industry and 65.7% had resided in Qatar for more than ten years, indicating familiarity with the local environmental context. Table 1 shows the demographic profile of respondents.

Table 1. Demographic profile of the pre-survey respondents.

Instagram was already deeply integrated into participants' daily routines. The majority of respondents reported spending at least two hours per day on Instagram as depicted in Figure 8 below, while Qatari respondents demonstrated slightly higher usage than non-Qataris, with 21% spending 3–4 h daily and 10% exceeding six hours per day. Furthermore, 49.86% reported that the evening was their preferred time for using Instagram, supporting the decision to schedule educational posts during peak engagement hours.

Instagram was primarily used as a source of information and social interaction. Specifically, 61.7% of respondents used Instagram for information seeking, 59.8% for maintaining social connections, 43.0% for sharing content, 40.7% for learning lifestyle routines, 39.4% for posting personal content, 33.5% for purchasing products, 31.1% for learning and personal development, and 30.5% for following influencers.

Despite high levels of Instagram use, exposure to sustainability-related educational content remained relatively limited. Although 69.4% of respondents reported following at least one sustainability-related Instagram account, many followed only a small number of environmental pages, and sustainability content represented only a minor proportion of their overall SM experience.

Nevertheless, participants demonstrated considerable interest in expanding their environmental knowledge. Approximately 87% expressed interest in seeing more sustainability-related content on Instagram, while 71.6% indicated willingness to actively follow and engage with the WeSustainQtr account. Furthermore, 66.8% reported following sustainability influencers, suggesting that respondents viewed SM as a credible source of environmental information and were receptive to receiving sustainability education through digital platforms. From the 99 participants who identified themselves as students at one of the universities in Qatar, the percentage was considerably high for this group when they were asked about their interest in sustainability as about 64% reported they follow at least an Instagram account with sustainability content. Results also show that they are interested in learning more about topics related to sustainability with 80% expressing an interest to see more content on sustainability when interacting with this platform. One observation worth reporting though, is that when comparing students from a higher education institutions with employees from industry on questions related to how exposed these individuals are to sustainability content and influencers, generally a higher percentage among the latter is observed.

5.2 Post-intervention participant profile

We present the demographic profile of the post-survey respondents in Table 2 to provide context for interpreting the post-intervention findings. The sample comprised 63.13% females and 36.87% males, with 58.55% Qatari and 41.45% non-Qatari respondents. Participants represented a broad range of age groups, educational backgrounds, occupations, and residency durations in Qatar, with the 21–30-year age group remaining the largest. Out of the total number of respondents, 81 identified as students at a higher education institution in the State of Qatar. Compared with the baseline survey, the post-survey included a slightly higher proportion of female and Qatari respondents, while maintaining a similarly diverse participant profile. These similarities suggest that the post-survey continued to capture a broad cross-section of Instagram users engaged with the WeSustainQtr initiative. This also provides an appropriate basis for interpreting the post-intervention findings.

Table 2. Demographic profile of the respondents (followers of WeSustainQtr).

5.3 Engagement with WeSustainQtr

Engagement data collected during the post-survey demonstrated that followers interacted with WeSustainQtr beyond simply viewing content. Specifically, as shown in Figure 9, approximately 68.48% of respondents followed the account, 58.79% liked posts, 30.30% commented, 26.58% tagged others, 26.06% participated in quizzes, 25.45% reposted sustainability content, 24.24% participated in weekly sustainability challenges, and 23.64% created and shared their own sustainability-related content.

We supported this engagement further through interactive learning strategies, including gamification, digital nudging, and visual storytelling. Sustainability topics receiving the highest engagement were water conservation (56.36%), food waste reduction (39.39%), and plastic waste reduction (37.58%), indicating that participants were most responsive to practical, action-oriented content directly applicable to everyday life (See Figure 10).

An interesting pattern emerged when we compared participants from a selected local university with respondents employed in industry and academia who completed the survey. The university students reported more sustained engagement with the intervention, with a larger proportion indicating that they had interacted with the Instagram page for three to four months, while the respondents from the other two groups reported shorter periods of interaction. This pattern was also reflected in the extent and nature of their engagement. Approximately 60% of the university student group reported participating in the daily quizzes and weekly challenges, representing the highest proportion among the three groups, albeit the statistical analysis showed no significant difference through further average means tests (see Figure 11). Student engagement, as was reported, also extended beyond passive forms of interaction, such as viewing, liking, or sharing content, to more participatory behaviors, including commenting on posts, tagging influencers and other accounts, and contributing or sharing their own content through the page as shown in Figure 12.

5.4 Social diffusion and community influence

Beyond reporting an increased sustainability knowledge (61.21%) and more developed sustainability-related skills (43.03%), more than half of respondents (53.94%) reported sharing what they learned with others as shown in Figure 13. The findings also highlighted opportunities to strengthen sustainability communication through local influencers. More than half of respondents perceived influencers' current contribution to sustainability awareness to be low (34.84%) or very low (20.65%), as shown in Figure 14, despite recognizing their potential to encourage environmentally responsible lifestyles.

An interesting pattern and observation also emerged when it comes to social diffusion and community influence among different groups, albeit further statistical analyses with larger samples need to be computed to detect statistical significances. In a question asking participants about which habits they adopted after following WeSustainQtr on Instagram and comparing between three groups: students at a local university, employees in academia, and employees in industry, with options ranging from changing some habits and/or acquiring new ones such as reducing the use of single use plastic bags for instance to more socially oriented behaviors, including encouraging others to adopt sustainable practices; the student group had the highest percentages in answers of participatory nature (36% versus 25% and 19% from the other groups respectively) (see Figure 15).

5.5 Perceived educational impact and self-reported learning

The post-intervention findings indicate that participants reported improved understanding across multiple sustainability-related domains. The perceived educational value of WeSustainQtr was reflected in participants' self-reported learning outcomes. More than half (51.52%) indicated that the account improved their understanding of strategies for reducing paper, plastic, food, textile, and water waste. Almost half (47.88%) reported learning about sustainable transportation options, while 40.0% stated that they had developed a better understanding of the environmental impacts of consumer choices. Additional learning outcomes included supporting ethical and local businesses (35.76%), effective waste management (30.30%), sustainable purchasing (29.09%), and strategies for reducing energy consumption and carbon footprints (26.67%). Table 3 shows the follower's responses to key lessons they reported were learned through WesustainQtr.

Table 3. Responses to key lessons in sustainable living: insights gained from the WeSustainQtr Instagram.

5.6 Behavioral transformation

While increasing sustainability awareness was a primary objective of the intervention, WeSustainQtr also aimed to encourage participants to translate knowledge into everyday sustainable practices. Table 4 presents the sustainability habits reportedly adopted by participants following the WeSustainQtr intervention.

Table 4. Response to new habits adopted by followers after following WeSustainQtr.

5.6.1 Food waste reduction and responsible consumption

Approximately 30.07% of respondents reported planning meals to reduce food waste, while 31.47% purchased only what was necessary and avoided impulse buying. In addition, 25.17% reported buying locally grown and seasonal produce. These findings suggest increased awareness of sustainable consumption and waste prevention.

5.6.2 Plastic waste reduction

Avoiding single-use plastics was the most commonly reported new habit, adopted by 51.75% of respondents. A further 14.69% minimized packaging or used refill options, indicating a shift toward reducing plastic consumption at its source.

5.6.3 Recycling, reuse, and waste prevention

Proper recycling was reported by 41.26% of respondents, making it one of the most widely adopted behaviors. Participants also reported repairing, reusing, or donating clothing (26.57%), using digital documents (19.58%), and purchasing second-hand goods (14.69%). Composting remained the least adopted behavior with 12.59%.

5.6.4 Water conservation

Water conservation practices were commonly reported, with 31.47% using water-saving fixtures or repairing leaks and 23.08% taking shorter showers.

5.6.5 Energy conservation

Half of the respondents (50.35%) reported turning off lights and unplugging devices when not in use, while 28.67% selected energy-efficient appliances and lighting.

5.6.6 Sustainable mobility and ethical consumption

Approximately 24.48% of respondents reported using public transportation, carpooling, or cycling instead of driving alone. Additionally, 23.08% supported companies with strong sustainability practices, while 14.69% adopted eco-friendly cleaning products.

5.6.7 Socially oriented sustainability practices

Behavioral changes extended beyond individual actions, with 27.97% of respondents sharing sustainable practices with others, 18.88% promoting sustainability through SM, and 17.48% participating in local environmental activities.

Overall, participants most frequently adopted behaviors that were practical, low-cost, and easily incorporated into daily routines, such as avoiding single-use plastics (51.75%), reducing household energy use (50.35%), and recycling (41.26%). Behaviors requiring greater resources or infrastructure, including composting and purchasing second-hand goods, showed lower adoption rates.

The post-survey findings indicate that the sustainability practices adopted by participants extended beyond individual behavior to their immediate social circles. Participants reported encouraging family members and friends to adopt these practices as part of their daily routines, particularly simple and accessible actions such as turning off lights and unplugging unused devices (48.95%), recycling paper, glass, plastic, and metal (41.26%), and avoiding single-use plastics (39.16%) (See Figure 16). This aligns with Social Learning Theory, where observational learning drives behavior change, and Bloom's “Creating” level, as followers innovate and share practices.

5.7 Exploratory comparison of behavioral outcomes

Because the pre- and post-surveys were designed differently, the responses could not be treated as directly equivalent pre–post measures. In the pre-survey, participants rated existing behaviors using a Likert scale, whereas the post-survey asked them to select behaviors they had newly adopted after following WeSustainQtr. For this reason, a post-survey selection could not simply be treated as equivalent to a “strongly agree” response in the pre-survey.

To allow a cautious comparison, only behaviors with a high degree of similarity across the two surveys were included. For the pre-survey, “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” we combined responses to represent the presence of the behavior. We then compared these baseline proportions with the percentage of post-survey respondents who reported the corresponding behavior as newly adopted.

We show exploratory comparison of selected behavioral domains between baseline prevalence and reported new adoption in Table 5. We calculated Cohen's h as an exploratory measure of the difference between these proportions. The values were 0.44 for recycling, −0.52 for food-waste reduction, 0.00 for refillable packaging, 0.27 for responsible purchasing, and 0.28 for sharing sustainability practices. In terms of magnitude, these indicate a small-to-moderate difference for recycling, a moderate difference for food-waste reduction, a negligible difference for refillable packaging, and small differences for responsible purchasing and sharing sustainability practices.

Table 5. Exploratory comparison of selected behavioral domains between baseline prevalence and reported new adoption.

These values should be interpreted cautiously. They do not represent conventional intervention effect sizes because the pre-survey measured behaviors that were already present, while the post-survey measured behaviors reported as newly adopted. For example, the negative value for food-waste reduction does not indicate that the intervention reduced this behavior; it may simply reflect that food-waste reduction was already relatively common at baseline, leaving less opportunity for participants to report it as newly adopted. Similarly, higher post-intervention proportions for recycling, responsible purchasing, and sharing sustainability suggest greater reported new adoption in these areas, but they should not be interpreted as confirmed individual-level change.

Overall, the analysis provides an exploratory indication of group-level behavioral patterns across a limited number of comparable domains. A longitudinal design following the same participants over time would provide stronger evidence of how the intervention may influence individual behavioral change, including whether practices are adopted, maintained, strengthened, or discontinued.

6 Discussion

In this research, we designed and evaluated a culturally tailored six-month Instagram intervention that integrated sustainability literacy, participatory learning, behavioral change strategies, and cultural adaptation to promote sustainability awareness and sustainable practices in Qatar. The findings suggest that SM can support sustainability learning, self-reported behavioral adoption, and the diffusion of sustainability knowledge across social networks (Agrawal et al., 2023; Liao, 2024; Vergura et al., 2023; Xu and Han, 2019).

One of the key findings was the progression from baseline awareness to engagement, learning, and self-reported behavioral adoption, despite participants initially showing several misconceptions about sustainable consumption. In particular, many viewed recycling as the main environmental solution, reflecting the broader awareness–action gap reported in previous research (Falke et al., 2022; Kağıtcı, 2022; Piscitelli and D'Uggento, 2022). Rather than assuming that increased awareness automatically produces behavioral change, through the present intervention we sought to bridge this intention-behavior gap by combining educational content with practical guidance, interactive learning, and continuous behavioral reinforcement. This observation supports the evidence synthesized in the scoping review, which highlighted environmental knowledge, consumer engagement, and social interaction as important drivers of sustainable consumption (Dimitrova et al., 2022; Falke et al., 2022; Ghaffar and Islam, 2023; Kadic-Maglajlic et al., 2019; Kağıtcı, 2022; Oinonen and Paloniemi, 2023; Piscitelli and D'Uggento, 2022; Ruby et al., 2020; Schnack and Gan, 2024; Wamsler, 2020; Ziesemer et al., 2021).

Following the intervention, participants reported greater understanding of sustainable consumption, increased confidence in adopting environmentally responsible practices, and greater awareness of how everyday decisions contribute to broader environmental outcomes. These findings can reinforce previous research suggesting that environmental education is most effective when learners are provided with practical opportunities to apply knowledge within authentic real-life contexts rather than simply receiving theoretical information (Collado et al., 2020; Esteban Ibáñez et al., 2020; Leal Filho et al., 2019; Otto and Pensini, 2017; Panopoulos et al., 2023; Pedro et al., 2024).

Through this study, we also demonstrate that SM such as Instagram can function as considerably more than a platform for information dissemination. Existing literature increasingly recognizes the educational potential of SM for promoting sustainability awareness and influencing environmentally responsible behavior across various regional settings (Agrawal et al., 2023; Al-Mulla et al., 2022; Confetto et al., 2023; Liao, 2024; Vergura et al., 2023; Xu and Han, 2019). Our results also support previous research emphasizing the importance of culturally responsive approaches to sustainability education (Angelaki et al., 2024; Wamsler, 2020). However, much of this research has focused primarily on exposure to sustainability information or the influence of digital content on environmental attitudes. In this study we demonstrate that SM can be intentionally designed as a structured educational intervention that integrates curriculum design, participatory learning, visual storytelling, gamification, digital nudging, and continuous learner interaction. Participants actively engaged with sustainability content through quizzes, discussions, challenges, reposting, and peer interaction, which supports deeper and collaborative learning.

The educational outcomes we observed throughout the intervention further support the principles of EfS. Contemporary EfS literature emphasizes that sustainability education should extend beyond knowledge acquisition by developing critical thinking, systems thinking, values, competencies, and responsible citizenship (Angelaki et al., 2024; Esteban Ibáñez et al., 2020; Giesenbauer and Müller-Christ, 2020). The findings of the present study align closely with these objectives. Participants reported learning practical sustainability concepts and becoming more aware of their consumption choices, household resource use, food waste, and purchasing decisions. These findings suggest that sustainability became more integrated into participants' everyday decision-making rather than remaining an isolated environmental concept.

Through this study, we also further reinforce theories such as the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991), and Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 2001). The reported adoption of practices such as reducing food waste, minimizing single-use plastics, conserving water, and reducing household energy consumption suggests that combining knowledge with practical implementation strategies may reduce the intention-behavior gap frequently reported in sustainability research (Falke et al., 2022; Kağıtcı, 2022). Furthermore, Instagram, as an SM platform, may facilitate social learning around sustainability by enabling users to observe, exchange, and discuss environmentally responsible practices. Reported activities such as reposting sustainability content, participating in challenges, and encouraging others suggest that these practices can be reinforced through repeated social interaction. Accordingly, social media may complement formal educational activities by extending sustainability learning into peer-based digital environments. Similar observations have been reported by Confetto et al. (2023) and Liao (2024) who identified SM as an important mechanism for promoting sustainable consumption among younger generations.

Another important finding concerns the broader social diffusion of sustainable practices. Participants reported encouraging family members and friends to adopt sustainable practices, particularly simple and accessible actions such as turning off lights and unplugging unused devices. This suggests that relatively low-effort practices may be easier to communicate, model, and integrate into everyday routines, allowing sustainable behaviors to extend beyond individual participants into their immediate social networks. This interpretation is supported by findings from the scoping review emphasizing the importance of peer influence and social interaction in encouraging sustainable consumption (Confetto et al., 2023; Liu and Li, 2021; Meng et al., 2023; Vergura et al., 2023).

We find the intervention results to be consistent with previous studies on sustainability education in higher education and SM. The literature showed that using SM and other interactive digital tools can support student engagement, strengthen intrinsic motivation, and help them embrace sustainable behaviors that are more socially accepted and visible (Piscitelli and D'Uggento, 2022; Wamsler, 2020). We show how SM can be especially useful because students are able to observe, share, and discuss sustainable practices with others rather than only receive information about them (Abbas et al., 2019; Alamri et al., 2020).

The intervention also demonstrated the value of integrating digital nudging (Huang et al., 2018) and gamification into sustainability education (Kramar and Knez, 2025). The findings are also consistent with recommendations to use gamification and consumer engagement strategies to promote sustainable consumption among young adults (Kağıtcı, 2022). Furthermore, the intervention promoted achievable actions that participants could gradually incorporate into existing routines, supporting behavioral science literature supporting behavioral research suggesting that repeated, achievable actions may contribute to the gradual development of sustainable habits (Mosca et al., 2024). However, the role of gamification and incentives still requires further study. While quizzes, challenges, and rewards may encourage participation, it remains unclear whether they can build a true intrinsic motivation and lasting behavior change or only encourage short-term participation due to external incentives. Therefore, future research should examine how gamified activities can contribute to helping students develop more self-driven sustainable behaviors.

Although the intervention was developed in Qatar, several elements, including interactive engagement, gamification, participatory learning, and structured digital sustainability content, may be transferable to other educational and cultural settings. However, locally tailored components such as bilingual communication, Islamic sustainability principles, and culturally relevant occasions should be adapted to the specific linguistic, cultural, social, and environmental context rather than transferred directly.

Interestingly, participants also identified significant opportunities for improving sustainability communication through collaboration with local influencers. Although respondents perceived that sustainability currently receives limited attention within influencer-generated content, they also recognized influencers' substantial potential to shape environmental attitudes and normalize sustainable lifestyles among younger audiences. Similar observations have been reported by Agrawal et al. (2023), who argue that SM personalities increasingly influence consumer purchasing decisions and environmental awareness. Future sustainability initiatives may therefore benefit from partnerships between educators, governmental organizations, and trusted digital influencers capable of extending the reach and credibility of sustainability communication.

Building on the empirical findings, through this study we propose a Holistic Integrated Framework for Digital Sustainable Learning (Figure 14) as a broader extension of the updated framework that was reviewed, refined, and subsequently tested through the WeSustainQtr intervention. While the tested framework provided the operational basis for designing, delivering, and evaluating sustainability education within the Instagram environment, the holistic framework was developed after the intervention by integrating the key insights emerging from the study findings. It expands the tested framework beyond an SM–centered approach by incorporating interactive engagement, localized content, structured educational delivery, community co-creation, and behavioral assessment. We position this framework within a broader system of collaboration involving educational institutions, local influencers, communities, and sustainability stakeholders.

Overall, through the present findings we demonstrate that Instagram, as an SM platform, may have the potential to become an educational environment that supports sustainability literacy, encourages self-reported behavioral adoption, and facilitates community-level knowledge sharing.

Because the pre- and post-intervention surveys were anonymous, the observed differences reflect group-level trends rather than individual-level change and should not be interpreted as evidence that each participant experienced the same change. Longitudinal research highlights the value of tracking the same participants over time to assess whether behavioral changes are sustained and how they vary across individuals (Bervian et al., 2026; Collado et al., 2021).

Overall, through the findings, we report positive group-level trends in sustainability awareness, perceived learning, digital engagement, and self-reported sustainable practices following the WeSustainQtr intervention. However, because the pre- and post-surveys were anonymous and respondents could not be matched, these findings should not be interpreted as confirmed individual-level behavioral change. Future longitudinal studies following the same participants over time would provide a stronger basis for assessing individual behavioral trajectories and the persistence of reported sustainable practices.

7 Theoretical contributions

This study contributes to the growing field of d-EfS by extending the application of the Theory of Planned Behavior, Social Learning Theory, and Digital Nudging within an SM context. The findings demonstrate that a culturally tailored Instagram intervention can promote sustainability knowledge, support behavior adoption through interactive learning and gamification, and facilitate peer learning and knowledge dissemination.

8 Practical implications

The findings provide several practical implications for educators, universities, policymakers, environmental organizations, and sustainability practitioners. Educational institutions may consider integrating SM into sustainability curricula to complement traditional classroom instruction and support lifelong learning. Policymakers and governmental agencies can leverage digital platforms to disseminate sustainability messages that are culturally relevant, visually engaging, and practically applicable to everyday life. Furthermore, future initiatives should collaborate with trusted local influencers and community leaders to extend the reach of sustainability communication and normalize environmentally responsible behaviors across broader segments of society. Finally, educational materials should be adapted to local cultural values, religious beliefs, and communication preferences to maximize their relevance and acceptance within diverse communities.

9 Limitations and future research

A key limitation of this study concerns the measurement of behavioral change. Most behavioral outcomes were based on participants' self-reported responses and may therefore be affected by measurement error, including social desirability bias. Participants may be more likely to report behaviors that they perceive as environmentally responsible or socially expected. Previous research has highlighted this concern in environmental psychology and has shown that self-reported pro-environmental behavior does not always correspond closely with objectively observed behavior (Koller et al., 2023; Kormos and Gifford, 2014; Vesely and Klöckner, 2020).

Although Instagram metrics confirmed digital engagement with the intervention, they should not be treated as direct evidence of offline behavioral change, since recent research distinguishes online engagement, knowledge, intentions, and actual behavior (Varni et al., 2024).

Because the pre- and post-intervention surveys were anonymous, the findings reflect group-level trends rather than individual behavioral change. Future longitudinal research should link responses confidentially across multiple time points to assess whether reported sustainable practices are adopted, maintained, strengthened, or discontinued over time.

Although the Qatar-specific design strengthens the cultural relevance of the intervention, it may limit the direct generalizability of the findings. Future studies should therefore examine the framework across different cultural and educational settings and assess which components remain effective when locally adapted.

Finally, this study can support the development of a more formal higher-education sustainability course that integrates SM into learning, assessment, and longitudinal evaluation within an appropriate pedagogical framework (Al-Hail et al., 2024).

10 Conclusion

Through this study, we suggest that Instagram-based d-EfS can support sustainability awareness, perceived learning, and self-reported sustainable consumption when used as a structured educational environment. Gamification and participatory strategies in WeSustainQtr, guided by the d-EfS syllabus, further supported engagement and the reported adoption and sharing of sustainability practices.

The findings should be interpreted cautiously. Because the pre- and post-intervention surveys were self-reported, anonymous and unmatched, the observed differences represent group-level patterns rather than confirmed individual-level change.

Our main contribution is to demonstrate how a syllabus-based, culturally contextualized, and pedagogically designed Instagram intervention can combine sustainability education, digital participation, and practical action. The study provides a more educationally grounded and cautious understanding of social media's potential role in sustainability learning.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2026.1947733/full#supplementary-material

Supplementary material Supplementary material at the source

Footnotes

Edited by: Ahmed Lachheb, University of Kansas, United States

Reviewed by: Justyna Ziobrowska-Sztuczka, University of Wrocław, Poland

Petra Koudelková, Charles University, Czechia