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Frontiers in Environmental Chemistry ·

Volume 7 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvc.2026.1854369

Future of green sorbents for water and wastewater treatment

  • Sidra Iftekhar1*corresponding author
  • Muhammad Bilal Asif2
  1. 1Department of Technical Physics, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
  2. 2Sologenix Engineering, London, United Kingdom
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Abstract

The last decade has witnessed the influx of significant research output in the area of green sorbents for water and wastewater treatment. These sorbents, which are derived from environmentally friendly, renewable, and locally available sources, such as lignocellulosic materials and biomass, have shown promising results in removing organic dyes, heavy metals, and micropollutants. With recent reports of upscaling efforts in literature, it is timely to critically review the advancements in green sorbents for future research prospects. This study provides a summary of the application of green sorbents prepared from lignocellulosic materials, animal waste, and marine biomass in water treatment. In addition to discussing sorbent regeneration and kinetic modeling, mechanistic insights are presented to elucidate the sorption mechanisms. The focus is on scale-up efforts and identifying future research needs to highlight the potential of green sorbents in the water industry.

Keywords

1 Introduction

Water is integral to sustaining life and is essential for economic actions including industrial and agriculture activities. Owing to unequal water distribution and erratic rainfall patterns, water scarce regions are developing effective water resource management systems. In this context, the removal of heavy metals and emerging organic pollutants (OMPs, e.g., antibiotics and pesticides) from wastewater is critical to ensure safe disposal and recycling (Antonelli et al., 2026; Molebatsi et al., 2025).

Several technologies, such as chemical precipitation (Kim et al., 2022), coagulation–flocculation (Aghdam et al., 2022), membrane-based separations (Kujawska et al., 2022; Ji et al., 2023), advanced oxidation processes (Asif et al., 2023; Ly et al., 2023), and adsorption (Iftekhar et al., 2022) have been developed and investigated for water and wastewater treatment. Due to process simplicity, non-selectivity, and cost-effectiveness, the adsorption processes have been extensively investigated at the lab scale (Diniz et al., 2023), pilot-scale (Astuti et al., 2022), and full-scale (Campinas et al., 2022). Among the commercially available sorbents, such as silica gel, zeolites, and polymeric sorbents, activated carbon (AC)-based sorbents are commonly employed in water and wastewater treatment (Osman et al., 2023; Iftekhar et al., 2021). Notably, because the cost of AC-based sorbents is high and rising, regeneration challenges and environmental footprint limit their long-term sustainability.

Research over the last decade has mainly focused on developing low-cost, green sorbents from environmentally friendly, renewable sources. These materials offer several advantages, including biodegradability, low environmental impact, and alignment with circular economy principles. Numerous studies have reported promising adsorption capacities of green sorbents for a wide range of contaminants, including dyes, heavy metals, and OMPs. Despite these advances, the majority of studies remain confined to laboratory-scale investigations under simplified and idealized experimental conditions. Figure 1 illustrates the publication trends of green adsorbents for adsorption, indicating the sharp increase in publication trends investigating the application of green adsorbents.

Trends in publicatons related to green adsorbent for adsorption application from 2015 to 2025 (based on [Scopus.com](https://scopus.com/) - accessed on 30.06.2026).
Figure 1. Trends in publicatons related to green adsorbent for adsorption application from 2015 to 2025 (based on Scopus.com - accessed on 30.06.2026).

Although several review articles have summarized the synthesis and adsorption performance of biomass-derived sorbents, important gaps remain insufficiently addressed. The previous studies have reported high sorption capacities for green sorbents, the majority remain limited to idealized laboratory conditions. Moreover, inconsistencies in experimental protocols and reporting standards hinder meaningful comparison across studies, limiting the translation of laboratory findings into practical applications.

A critical synthesis is needed to evaluate the reliability, comparability, and scalability of these findings. The novelty and contribution of this review lie in providing an integrated assessment of green sorbents beyond conventional performance metrics. In this context, the review presents a succinct overview of the research progress in the development of green sorbents (excluding biochar) from lignocellulosic materials, animal waste, and marine biomass. In addition to their preparation and performance, research trends involving process modeling and mechanistic insights are explained. Current research on green sorbents is limited by a lack of standardized testing and an overreliance on simplified systems that fail to capture real wastewater conditions. Additionally, challenges related to regeneration, structural stability, and potential environmental risks such as leaching remain insufficiently addressed. Furthermore, most studies are confined to early-stage development, with limited consideration of scale-up through TRLs, techno-economic feasibility, and life-cycle impacts. By bridging the gap between laboratory-scale research and real-world implementation, this review aims to provide actionable insights and future research directions to advance green sorbents toward practical and sustainable water treatment applications.

1.1 Literature search and scope of review

The literature included in this review was identified primarily through searches in major scientific databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect, using combinations of keywords such as “green sorbents”, “biosorbents”, “biomass adsorbents”, “water treatment”, “wastewater treatment”, “heavy metals”, “organic micropollutants”, and “adsorption”. The review focuses mainly on peer-reviewed studies published during the last decade involving lignocellulosic materials, animal waste, and marine biomass. The studies summarized in Table 1 were selected as representative examples illustrating recent developments in sorbent preparation, modification, regeneration, and adsorption performance and are not intended to constitute an exhaustive compilation of all published studies in the field. Biochar-based materials were excluded from the primary scope of the review; however, selected biochar studies were occasionally referenced for comparative discussion of adsorption mechanisms, performance trends, or broader contextual analysis.

TABLE 1. Selected recent examples of green sorbent preparation and performance in water and wastewater treatment. n.a. = not applicable.

Raw materialPreparation methodModificationPollutantRemoval (%)/adsorption capacityRegeneration methodCycles (sorption decline)Ref.
Hopbush plant (Dodonaea viscosa)Crushing, grinding, washing, drying, and sievingn.aMethyl red40n.an.aGul et al. (2022)
Lupine seedsWashing, drying, and sievingn.aAcid blue 193145n.an.aHashem et al. (2022)
Apricot seed shells (Prunus armeniaca L.)Washing, grinding, and dryingn.aAcid blue 193105n.an.aHashem et al. (2024)
Oak wood chippingsGrinding and sievingn.aTrimethoprim0.16n.an.aConde-Ci et al. (2019)
EggshellsCrushing, grinding, washing, and dryingn.aCu2+90.1 M Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)4 (<5%)Mohammad et al. (2022)
Date pitsWashing, grinding, and sievingn.aMethyl violet136n.an.aWakkel et al. (2018)
Peach wood branchesCrushing and grindingUltrasonication and hydroalcoholic-freezingMethylene blue3440.1 M HCl and 50% ethanol5 (14%)Zhang et al. (2022)
Paulownia woodNaOH extractionPhosphoric acidNi2+1300.1M HNO35 (34%)Huo et al. (2022)
Baker’s field (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)Washing and centrifugationEncapsulation in calcium alginateCr6+, Cd2+, and Pb2+72, 31, and 179n.an.aDe Rossi et al. (2020)
Coconut fibersCrushing, grinding, and sievingSaccharomyces cerevisiae yeastPb2+85Acetic acid or citric acid5 (n.a.)AlOmar et al. (2022)
Blue-green algae (Oscillatoria princeps)Washing and dryingTetraethylene tetramine, or para-amino benzamidine, or polydopamineReactive Red 120687, 452, and 26020 mM NaOH +0.5 M NaCl7 (10%–13%)Bayramoglu et al. (2022)
Orange peelsChemical activation by ZnCl2 and carbonizationCetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)Congo red667n.an.aKaraman et al. (2022)
Seaweed (Kappaphycus alvarezii)Washing, drying, milling, and sievingUltrasonicationMethylene blue1,095Ethanol5 (40%)Kumar et al. (2022)
Fish scalesWashing and dryingAcid-base treatment using HCl and NaOHBisphenol A74n.an.aAziz et al. (2022)
Grape wasteMilled and sieving3-aminopropyl triethoxysilaneMethyl orange3621 M NaOH5 (20%)Cavalcante et al. (2022)

2 Preparation of green sorbents and mechanistic insights

Green sorbents from renewable sources can be prepared using the following steps (Figure 2a): (a) washing and sorting; (b) crushing and grinding to increase the surface area; (c) pyrolysis and torrefaction; and (d) physicochemical pre- or post-synthesis modifications. Recent examples of green sorbents used in water and wastewater treatment include peach wood (Zhang et al., 2022), paulownia wood (Huo et al., 2022), baker’s yeast (De Rossi et al., 2020), coconut fibers (AlOmar et al., 2022), orange peels (Karaman et al., 2022), chicken feathers (Zubair et al., 2022), eggshells, blue-green algae (Bayramoglu et al., 2022), seaweed (Kumar et al., 2022), and fish scales (Aziz et al., 2022). These green sorbents have been reported to achieve efficient contaminant removal over multiple cycles, with sorption capacities ranging from 0.16 mg/g to 1,095 mg/g (Table 1).

**(a)** Preparation and functionalization of green sorbents; **(b)** mechanisms of contaminant removal by green sorbents.
Figure 2. (a) Preparation and functionalization of green sorbents; (b) mechanisms of contaminant removal by green sorbents.

It is worth highlighting that the lignocellulosic materials contain organic moieties on their surfaces, which facilitate enhanced sorption of contaminants from wastewater (Wakkel et al., 2018). To further improve the surface area and sorption sites, functionalization of green sorbents has been proposed. For instance, in a study by Cavalcante et al. (2023), grafting of 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane onto grape waste resulted in significantly improved sorption (362 mg/g) of methyl orange dye as compared to other sorbents such as biochar from grape seeds (111 mg/g), waste cellulose fibers derived porous carbon (337 mg/g) and polyaniline powder (147 mg/g) (Cavalcante et al., 2022). This was attributed to the enhanced electrostatic interaction between the ammonium groups of the functionalized adsorbent and the adsorbate. Although other mechanisms such as π−π interactions, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals interactions exist, electrostatic interactions remain the dominant sorption mechanisms as reported in studies on the sorption performance of the Hopbush plant (Gul et al., 2022), seed powders (Hashem et al., 2022), apricot seed shells (Hashem et al., 2024), and olive waste (Ferkous et al., 2022) for organic dye removal. On the other hand, green sorbents remove heavy metals from wastewater by ion exchange, electrostatic interaction, and chelation (Aniagor et al., 2021). Since the heavy metals are charged, their sorption onto green sorbents such as sugarcane waste, husk cedar cones, walnut, and pectin has been highlighted to be caused mainly via electrostatic interaction and ion-exchange (Kwikima et al., 2021). In order to facilitate complexation mechanisms, green sorbents could be modified using acetamide, carboxyl, phenolic, and ester functional groups (Kwikima et al., 2021) as the performance of green sorbents are strongly governed by their physicochemical properties. Notably, the relationship between adsorption performance and surface chemistry remains inadequately understood. Surface modifications with various functional groups may influence sorption via electrostatic interactions, complexation, and hydrogen bonding; meanwhile, pore structure dictates accessibility and diffusion limitations. Regardless, many studies interpreted the adsorption mechanism without combining and correlating spectroscopic (e.g., FTIR, XPS) and surface analysis (e.g., BET) data systematically. As a result, the underlying structure–function relationships remain insufficiently understood, limiting the rational design of high-performance green sorbents. A more rigorous understanding of the correlations among structure, functionality, and contaminant-specific interactions is required to advance rational sorbent design. To elucidate these mechanisms, a range of characterization techniques is commonly employed before and after adsorption, as enlisted in Table 2.

TABLE 2. Common characterization techniques used for green sorbents and their relevance to adsorption performance (Iftekhar et al., 2020a; Iftekhar et al., 2017a; Iftekhar et al., 2017b; Asif et al., 2021a; Iftekhar et al., 2018a; Iftekhar et al., 2018b; Gao et al., 2018; Srivastava et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018).

TechniqueInformation obtainedAdsorption mechanism correlation
FTIRFunctional groups (–OH, –COOH, –NH2)Identifies active adsorption sites and possible binding mechanisms
XPSSurface elemental composition and oxidation statesConfirms contaminant binding and surface chemical changes
BETSurface area, pore volume, pore size distributionEvaluates accessibility of adsorption sites and diffusion pathways
SEMSurface morphology and textureReveals structural changes and pore development
EDS/EDXElemental mappingConfirms contaminant accumulation on sorbent surface
Elemental analysis (CHNS/O)Bulk elemental compositionAssesses functionality and modification efficiency
Zeta potentialSurface charge characteristicsPredicts electrostatic interactions with contaminants
pHpzcPoint of zero chargeDetermines favorable pH range for adsorption
XRDCrystallinity and mineral phasesIdentifies structural changes and active mineral components
TGAThermal stability and compositionEvaluates sorbent stability during regeneration

Sorption of OMPs by green sorbents and the performance governing factors remain largely unexplored. Nevertheless, agricultural waste-based green sorbents have been assessed to efficiently remove OMPs such as the pharmaceuticals tetracycline, trimethoprim, and diclofenac, as well as the ingredient of the personal care product bisphenol A (Mat Lazim et al., 2021; Li et al., 2019; Vázquez-Durán et al., 2021). These OMPs were observed to be removed by the green sorbents via electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interaction, complexation, and hydrophobic interactions (Mat Lazim et al., 2021; Li et al., 2019; Vázquez-Durán et al., 2021; Conde-Ci et al., 2019). Based on the above discussion, it could be inferred that green sorbents have demonstrated sufficient efficacy in water and wastewater treatment. Their physicochemical properties can be tuned by introducing functional groups that could improve their sorption capacity via both electrostatic and non-electrostatic interactions (Figure 2b).

Although the adsorption capacities reported in Table 1 span several orders of magnitude (0.16–1,095 mg/g), a direct correlation is nearly impossible because the experimental outcomes depend on selected operating parameters such as initial pH, contact time, sorbent dosage, initial concentration, and temperature. For instance, higher initial concentrations generally yield inflated qmax values due to increased driving force. Consequently, high adsorption capacities alone should not be considered definitive indicators of superior performance without considering the testing conditions and mechanistic evidence supporting the reported results. Standardized testing protocols are needed to enable meaningful benchmarking of sorbent performance.

Despite the promising results, green sorbents could not generate a significant impact by gaining attention from industries and regulatory authorities to promote and incentivize their commercialization. This is because previous studies (Table 1) have predominantly evaluated the performance of green sorbents using a single model contaminant in synthetic wastewater. However, the real wastewater systems contain multiple competing ions (e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+), natural organic matter (NOM), suspended solids, and fluctuating pH and salinity. These factors can significantly reduce sorption efficiency due to site competition, pore blockage, and electrostatic screening effects. For instance, lower sorption capacities is one of the major issue in multicomponent system due to competitive adsorption. Likewise, the presence of NOM can form surface coatings on sorbents, reducing accessible active sites, while high ionic strength can suppress electrostatic interactions. Consequently, results obtained under simplified laboratory conditions may overestimate actual performance (Parida et al., 2026; Kamal et al., 2026).

The studies demonstrating the applicability of green sorbents at pilot scale under real wastewater conditions are scarce, highlighting the critical research gap. Testing green sorbents in batch mode using real water samples does not adequately capture the complexity of continuous-flow systems, competitive adsorption, and long-term operational stability. Unless these green sorbents demonstrate efficacy under environmentally relevant conditions, their widespread acceptance will be limited (Hussien, 2026). Future research must prioritize testing under environmentally relevant conditions, including real wastewater samples and dynamic flow systems.

3 Sorption isotherms and kinetics

Sorption behavior and sorbent-sorbate interaction could be predicted using isotherm models. The performance of the adsorption technique and the pollutant-adsorbent design might be greatly improved with a deeper understanding of the isotherm models (Karaman et al., 2022; Abbasi et al., 2021). Among those, most widely used isotherm model are Langumuir, Freundlich, and Sips isotherm models, while less commonly reported are Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, and BET isotherms.

On the other hand, functional performance, sorbent-sorbate correlations, and insights into the multidimensional sorption process can be gained with the aid of kinetic models (Wakkel et al., 2018; Mat Lazim et al., 2021; Li et al., 2019). It is to be noted that there are three phases to the kinetics of contaminant transfer to the sorbent during the sorption process. First, the molecules diffuse outward, allowing the contaminant to disperse into the aqueous medium close to the sorbent. The concentration difference between the sorbent surface and the rest of the contaminated media plays a role in this outward diffusion. Second, contamination spreads internally through internal diffusion, traveling through the pores of the sorbent. Sorption of contaminants into the active pore volumes of the sorbent constitutes the third and final step (Elgarahy et al., 2021).

The interpretation of isotherm and kinetic models is often oversimplified, i.e., high correlation coefficients (R 2) are frequently used as the sole criterion for model selection, which may lead to incorrect mechanistic conclusions. For example, pseudo-second-order kinetics is often incorrectly interpreted as evidence of chemisorption, despite lacking direct mechanistic validation. Similarly, linearization of isotherm equations can introduce statistical bias, and adsorption mechanisms are often inferred solely from isotherm fitting without complementary characterization. Therefore, mechanistic conclusions reported in different studies should be interpreted cautiously unless supported by independent experimental evidence. Future studies should combine model fitting with independent experimental validation to ensure mechanistic reliability.

4 Regeneration of green sorbents

After wastewater treatment, the green sorbents have been separated by either filtration or centrifugation. The recovered sorbents are then cleansed and regenerated multiple times. It is possible to drastically lower the production costs of the green sorbents by developing an efficient recovery method for their recycling (Osman et al., 2023; Iamsaard et al., 2022). According to available literature (Table 1), the sorption capacity of used sorbents, however, declines (5%–40%) with each reuse in comparison to that of pristine sorbents. This is because the saturated sorbents could not be fully recovered or could not completely remove the sorbate. Factors such as sorbent type, contaminant type, sorption capacity, sorbent toxicity, and the energy required for recycling all play a role in determining whether industrial-scale use of the tested green sorbent is feasible (Osman et al., 2023; Juela et al., 2022). While thermal regeneration is suitable for carbonaceous sorbents (e.g., biochar), biomass-based green sorbents have predominantly been regenerated chemically (Table 1). For instance, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (0.1 M), HCl (0.1 M)/ethanol (50%), HNO3 (0.1 M), acetic acid/citric acid, NaOH (20 mM)/NaCl (0.5 M), ethanol, and NaOH (1 M) have been assessed to regenerate several green sorbents prepared using eggshells (Mohammad et al., 2022), peach wood branches (Zhang et al., 2022), paulownia wood (Huo et al., 2022), coconut fibers (AlOmar et al., 2022), blue-green algae (Bayramoglu et al., 2022), seaweed (Kumar et al., 2022), and grape waste (Cavalcante et al., 2022). During regeneration, the metals are recovered and can be used in various industrial applications. On the other hand, the safe disposal and breakdown of organic contaminants following desorption needs to be considered and factored into future research.

Additionally, structural degradation of biobased sorbents is a common issue due to repeated regeneration, reducing the sorbent’s performance over consecutive cycles (Iftekhar et al., 2020a; Iftekhar et al., 2018c). Moreover, regeneration involves the use of strong bases, acids, or chelating agents, thereby increasing operating costs and generating secondary waste streams. Therefore, the trade-offs between material stability, regeneration efficiency, and environmental impact must be systematically evaluated (Molebatsi et al., 2025).

5 Structural stability and environmental risks

Despite the growing interest in green sorbents, their structural integrity and environmental safety during operation remain insufficiently evaluated. Biomass-derived sorbents are inherently heterogeneous and contain soluble organic fractions that may leach into treated water, leading to the release of secondary contaminants (Asif et al., 2021b). Leaching problem and surface degradation has been reported for various bionanocomposites (Iftekhar, 2019), for example, CL/LDH (Iftekhar et al., 2017b), xanthan gum-layered double hydroxide nanocomposite (Iftekhar et al., 2018b; Iftekhar et al., 2020b), GA-LDH (Iftekhar et al., 2018c). Such leaching can deteriorate effluent quality and promote undesirable downstream treatment challenges. In addition, chemical modification strategies commonly employed to enhance sorption performance, such as amine grafting, surfactant loading, or metal impregnation (Iftekhar et al., 2018a), may introduce new risks associated with the release of residual reagents or toxic by-products during operation. The stability of these materials is further compromised under variable pH, ionic strength, and oxidative conditions typically encountered in real wastewater systems, which can induce structural degradation or loss of active functional groups. Moreover, regeneration processes, particularly those involving strong acids, bases, or chelating agents, can promote the leaching of sorbed pollutants or modifier species, thereby generating secondary waste streams and reducing long-term sorbent performance (Farhan et al., 2024; Iftekhar et al., 2025; Iftekhar et al., 2023). Although some studies report minimal leaching under controlled conditions (Bessaies et al., 2021), systematic assessments of sorbent stability (Iftekhar et al., 2025), long-term reusability (Iftekhar et al., 2018a; Iftekhar et al., 2018b; Rahmani et al., 2022), and ecotoxicological impacts remain scarce (Srivastava et al., 2018). These issues are rarely assessed in adsorption studies, highlighting a critical gap in evaluating the true environmental sustainability of green sorbents. Consequently, future research should prioritize comprehensive stability testing under realistic operating conditions, including evaluation of release of contaminants, structural degradation, and potential secondary pollution, to ensure that the environmental benefits of green sorbents are not offset by unintended risks.

6 Upscaling green sorbents

Research on green sorbents has primarily been conducted by assessing their performance in beakers rather than in packed-bed columns (Cheong et al., 2024; Sorroche-del-Rey et al., 2026; Nandik et al., 2026; Gagnon-Poirier et al., 2023). The literature on the scale-up of green sorbent-based columns is scarce. Nevertheless, there have been a few attempts in the last 5 years to scale up green sorbent-based columns. For instance, Vilardi et al. (2019) investigated a pilot/large-scale (30–70 L volume) fixed-bed column containing an iron-modified olive stone sorbent for Cr6+ removal (Vilardi et al., 2019). Under the tested operating conditions, they were able to achieve 64% Cr6+ removal and developed models to predict the breakthrough curve shapes and sorption kinetics (Vilardi et al., 2019). In a recent study, upscaling of sugarcane bagasse-based sorbent was successfully achieved (Juela et al., 2022). The mechanistic models developed for both lab-scale (10.5 L) and pilot-scale (105 L) columns accurately predicted the breakthrough shape and time. Importantly, the breakthrough time at the pilot scale was longer than at the lab scale. This is an important finding, which implies that observations and results from lab-scale sorption systems may not be directly applicable to pilot-scale systems. Moreover, future studies on green sorbents should assess and report the breakthrough curves of the sorption systems (Juela et al., 2022).

7 Technology readiness levels and scale-up challenges of green sorbents

Despite extensive academic research, the production of green or biobased sorbents from laboratory to industrial scale remains a major challenge. The maturity level is evaluated using the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) framework, i.e., from development stage to commercialization potential. The TRL classification was derived from the level of experimental validation reported in the literature rather than from formally assigned TRLs. Laboratory-scale batch adsorption studies conducted under controlled conditions were considered representative of TRL 1–3, while studies involving continuous-flow, fixed-bed, or column validation were categorized as TRL 4–5. Pilot-scale demonstrations using realistic wastewater matrices were considered indicative of TRL 6–7, whereas TRL 8–9 correspond to full-scale implementation and commercial deployment. Since most studies do not explicitly report technology readiness levels or commercialization metrics, the proposed classification should be regarded as a qualitative assessment of technology maturity intended to highlight the gap between laboratory research and practical application. Figure 3 summarizes the current status of green sorbents, from development through laboratory studies to commercial implementation, and highlights the gap between research and industrial application.

Technology Readiness Level (TRL) framework for green sorbents in water and wastewater treatment.
Figure 3. Technology Readiness Level (TRL) framework for green sorbents in water and wastewater treatment.

A large number of publications fall under TRL 1–3 and are mainly focused on laboratory-scale batch experiments using synthetic wastewater and single-contaminant systems. The general pattern is from material synthesis to the optimization of operating parameters (pH, dose, contact time, temperature) and to the determination of adsorption capacity and equilibrium behavior, but often lacks validation under realistic operating conditions (Molebatsi et al., 2025). A limited number of studies have investigated green sorbents at TRL 4–5, which involves validation in continuous-flow systems, such as fixed-bed or packed-bed columns, where parameters such as breakthrough curves, mass-transfer limitations, and hydrodynamics become critical. Despite some recent pilot-scale demonstrations, the number of studies at TRL 6–7 (i.e., demonstration under real wastewater conditions in pilot-scale systems or operational treatment plants) remains extremely limited, highlighting a significant gap between laboratory research and practical implementation. Finally, TRL 8–9, corresponding to full-scale commercialization and integration into water treatment infrastructure, remains largely unachieved for most green sorbents.

Beyond technical limitations, regulatory and market-related barriers also hinder commercialization, including the lack of standardized testing protocols, limited long-term performance data, and uncertainties surrounding environmental safety and disposal. Economic factors such as lifecycle cost, profitability, and supply chain constraints further restrict large-scale adoption. Overall, a clear gap exists between extensive laboratory research and practical implementation, highlighting the need for pilot-scale validation, long-term testing, and integrated techno-economic and life-cycle assessments to advance green sorbents toward industrial application.

8 Techno-economic and life-cycle considerations

The claims related to sustainability and low cost are often associated with green sorbents, which are overlooked in terms of techno-economic and life-cycle consequences linked with their production, use, and disposal. From a techno-economic perspective, the raw biomass material may be inexpensive, but converting this potential waste into sorbents involves energy-intensive steps such as drying, grinding, chemical activation, pyrolysis, or functionalization. This resulted in an increase in both capital and operational costs, along with a significant increase in their carbon footprint. In some cases, the cost of producing bio-based sorbents can be comparable to or even exceed that of conventional adsorbents (Molebatsi et al., 2025; Nishi et al., 2025).

Life-cycle assessment (LCA) provides a more comprehensive framework for evaluating the true environmental sustainability of green sorbents by considering impacts from cradle to grave. For instance, compared with conventional activated carbon, biochar produced from agricultural waste exhibits lower cumulative energy demand (CED) and global warming potential (GWP). However, high-temperature treatments and chemical activation (Shaheen et al., 2022; Saleem et al., 2025). Hence, life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies are needed to evaluate the overall environmental impact, including energy consumption, emissions, and waste generation. Similarly, techno-economic analysis should consider feedstock availability, scalability, and process integration (Nishi et al., 2025; Saleem et al., 2025).

9 Conclusion and outlook

This study provides a critical review of the progress made in the application of green sorbents (excluding biochar) for water and wastewater treatment. Green sorbents derived from lignocellulosic waste, animal waste, and marine biomass offer several advantages, including promoting a circular economy concept, being inexpensive, environmentally friendly, and locally available. Despite promising laboratory-scale performance, the practical application of green sorbents remains limited due to challenges posed by real wastewater conditions, material stability, sustainable regeneration, and scale-up feasibility. Regeneration methods, while improving cost-effectiveness, often lead to performance decline and secondary waste generation. Furthermore, the scaling up of green sorbents remains at an early stage, primarily due to the lack of breakthrough green sorbents and a notable gap between laboratory research and industrial implementation, as reflected in low technology readiness levels. Techno-economic and life-cycle assessments reveal that the sustainability and cost advantages of green sorbents are not yet fully realized due to energy-intensive processing steps and potential environmental impacts. Future research should prioritize standardized testing under environmentally relevant conditions, mechanistic validation through combined spectroscopic and surface analyses, development of sustainable regeneration techniques, comprehensive stability and ecotoxicological evaluations, and pilot-scale demonstrations supported by integrated techno-economic and life-cycle frameworks. Bridging these gaps is essential to transition green sorbents from promising laboratory materials to viable industrial solutions for sustainable water treatment.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. The author(s) verify and take full responsibility for the use of generative AI in the preparation of this manuscript. Generative AI was used only to prepare Figure 1b (mechanisms of contaminant removal by green sorbents) and Figure 2 (idea genertaion). AI-assisted tools (Microsoft Copilot) were used to refine and polish the language of Section 7 (Techno-economic and life-cycle considerations). No AI tools were used for the writing of scientific content, data analysis, interpretation.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Natalia Soares Quinete, Florida International University, United States

Reviewed by: Leticia Nishi, State University of Maringá, Brazil

Muhammad Shahzad Zafar, Sungkyunkwan University, Republic of Korea

Statements

Conflict of interest

Author MA was employed by Sologenix Engineering.

The remaining author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Author contributions

SI: Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. MA: Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing.

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Citation

Iftekhar, S. & Asif, M. B. (2026). Future of green sorbents for water and wastewater treatment. Frontiers in Environmental Chemistry, Volume 7. https://doi.org/
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7 - 2026

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Copyright © 2026 Iftekhar and Asif.

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*Correspondence: Sidra Iftekhar

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