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Frontiers in Environmental Engineering ·

Volume 5 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fenve.2026.1867033

Small organic molecules through biomass valorization: sustainable routes and applications

  • Sushmita Bhatia1
  • Shruti Rai Bhardwaj2
  • Ram Singh1*corresponding author
  1. 1Department of Applied Chemistry, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
  2. 2Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Delhi, India
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Abstract

Historically, the process of preparing complex organic compounds has relied on non-sustainable, petroleum-based raw materials. The present review aims to explore the trend towards using biomass feedstocks, such as lignocellulose, carbohydrates, and bio-waste, as sustainable sources for the synthesis of organic molecules. These biomasses are used to generate platform compounds such as furfural, levulinic acid, glycerol, succinic acid, and sorbitol, etc. Furthermore, these platform molecules are used as building blocks to produce various value-added products. Recent developments in catalytic reactions and greener methods of activation, such as photocatalysis, microwave-assisted synthesis, and grindstone chemistry, to use platform molecules, have also been discussed. Such advancements have enabled the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients and other heterocyclic compounds. The use of biomass valorization contributed in minimization of waste, wastewater, effluents, and hazardous emissions compared to petroleum-based raw materials. These achievements will contribute to implementing the transition towards circular economy approaches, to produce bulk chemicals from biomass.

Keywords

1 Introduction

Organic chemistry focuses on the synthesis of complex molecules with tailored physical, chemical, and biological properties (Nicolaou, 2016; Yue et al., 2023). These advancements depend on transforming simple starting materials into complex structures. The starting materials are mainly obtained from non-renewable petroleum-derived resources (Sheldon, 2017). This process is accompanied with limitations like wastewater generation, resource non-renewability, global warming, and associated environmental challenges, raising significant concerns regarding long-term sustainability (Clark and Macquarrie, 2008; Haveren et al., 2008). The associated environmental concerns include climate change, water pollution, depletion of natural resources, deforestation, and biodiversity loss which necessitated the development of more sustainable chemical processes (Tonini et al., 2021). A major contributor to global warming is the continuous increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This results from the combustion of fossil fuels for energy and chemical production (Cabernard et al., 2022).

In this context, biomass-derived resources have emerged as sustainable alternatives to petroleum-based feedstocks (Rajendran et al., 2025). Biomass can be broadly defined as any organic material derived directly or indirectly from the photosynthetic process (Jacobsson and Johnson, 2000). It encompasses a wide range of naturally occurring resources, including plants, algae, agricultural residues, and organic waste streams (McKendry, 2002; Jena and Singh, 2022; Yadav and Singh, 2024). Chemically, biomass consists primarily of carbohydrates, along with lignin, lipids, and proteins, which contribute to its structural diversity and reactivity (Isikgor and Becer, 2015). The vast biomass reserve on Earth is spread over both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. This makes it the most abundant renewable carbon resource available (Bozell and Peterson, 2010). Despite its widespread availability, biomass remains underutilized as chemical feedstocks compared to fossil-based resources. Its sustainable nature, wide availability, and structural complexity make it an attractive alternative for the production of organic molecules (Corma et al., 2007). At least 30% of bulk chemicals are expected to be derived from renewable biomass feedstocks by the year 2050 (Dornburg et al., 2008).

Biomass contains not just plant-derived materials, but also agricultural waste (i.e., leftover crops), wood from forests (also called forestry waste), animal waste, waste from homes and communities, and waste from marine flora and fauna (Climent et al., 2014; Gusiatin and Pawlowski, 2016; Anju et al., 2024). The different types of feedstocks provide a broader set of options for recycling materials that would otherwise go to a landfill and turning them into chemicals (Dessie et al., 2020; Hoang et al., 2024). Biomass-based materials are typically biodegradable because they are made from natural materials. Biomass-based chemicals contain high oxygen content compared to petroleum-based materials (Opia et al., 2021). Therefore, they are less harmful than petroleum-based chemicals. Such approaches are very important in the context of green chemistry and overall circular economy (Sharma and Basera, 2025). The differences between biomass and traditional petroleum-based feedstocks differing in terms of sustainability, material composition, and reactivity have been discussed in Table 1 (Liu et al., 2012). Small organic molecules are required as key intermediates in medicines, pesticides, and other functional materials (Blakemore et al., 2018). Developing a sustainable way to obtain small organic molecules through biomass valorization is important for sustainability. The discharge of waste, wastewater, and effluents using biomass as a source possesses less contamination compared to petrochemical sources (Islam et al., 2024). Also, this discharged water being rich in phosphorus and nitrogen repurposed as nutrient which can be further used in cultivation without undergoing pre-treatment to help in circular economy. The isolation of small molecules also helps in diverting lignocellulose waste to carbon feedstock avoiding landfills (Pessiot, 2025). This review discusses the utility of biomass to obtain small organic molecules and their applications as platform molecules giving emphasis on catalytic strategies, and mechanisms.

TABLE 1. Biomass vs. petroleum based feedstocks.

ParameterBiomassPetroleum based feedstocks
SourceRenewableNon-renewable
OriginDerived from natural sourcesGeological transformation over millions of years
Carbon natureCarbon neutralNet CO2 emission contributor
CompositionOxygen-richHydrocarbon-rich
Environmental impactLow, biodegradableHigh, persistent pollutants
AvailabilityAbundant and widely distributedLimited and geographically restricted

2 Types of biomass feedstocks

Biomass feedstock comes from various types of renewable organic materials. It can vary in origin, composition, and chemical structure (Lakó et al., 2008; Queneau and Han, 2022). Based on these characteristics, biomass is classified into three major classes, lignocellulosic, carbohydrate-based, and waste-derived biomass. Lignocellulosic biomass is the predominant type of biomass and is primarily composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin (Bajpai, 2016). It originates from the walls of plants. On the other hand, carbohydrate-based includes simple sugars and starches. They provide higher reactivity and can be more quickly converted to value-added chemicals than lignocellulosic biomass (Chen, 2014; Krasznai et al., 2018; Yousuf et al., 2020). Waste-derived biomass is sourced from agricultural residues, food waste, and municipal solid waste. It provides an inexpensive and sustainable alternative by enabling the conversion of low-value or discarded material to a higher value through valorization (Briens et al., 2008).

2.1 Lignocellulosic biomass

Lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) is one of the highly prospective raw materials for chemical, fuel, and materials production in the coming future because of its abundance and non-edible nature (Cai et al., 2017). Lignocellulosic biomass is composed of three biopolymers, cellulose (40%–60%), hemicellulose (20%–40%) and lignin (10%–25%), (Scheme 1), along with trace amounts of minerals and extractives make up lignocellulosic biomass (Deng et al., 2023). Upon the hydrolysis reactions of the polysaccharides, the resulting sugars are used as the raw material in producing furans through the dehydration process (Steinbach et al., 2017).

Composition of lignocellulosic biomass.
Figure 1. Composition of lignocellulosic biomass.

Hemicellulose functions as a link between cellulose and lignin. It is being utilized for the synthesis of furfural (Świątek et al., 2020). Furfural is used as a starting material for different furan-based products such as, furoic acid, tetrahydrofuran, methyl tetrahydrofuran, dihydropyran, tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol, methylfuran, and furfuryl alcohol (Yong et al., 2022).

2.2 Carbohydrate-based biomass

Biomass based on carbohydrate consists of polysaccharides and sugar. These carbohydrates are chemically reactive and structurally defined forms of renewable feedstock materials for the production of value-added organic compounds (Mika et al., 2018). The carbohydrates included in biomass originate mostly from starch-rich agricultural products and starch-derived plant reserves, defined by the chemical composition of their sugar components (Zhang and Huber, 2018). This specifically includes monosaccharides (such as glucose or fructose), disaccharides (sucrose) or polysaccharides (such as starch) (Marques et al., 2017).

2.3 Waste-derived biomass (biowaste)

Waste biomass includes agricultural residue (e.g., rice husks, bagasse, corn stover), food waste, forestry, and animal wastes (Kalak, 2023). Unlike conventional biomass feedstocks, waste biomass is characterized due to its heterogeneous composition, consisting of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and lignin derived components (Tuck et al., 2012).

Waste biomass has a lot of potential from a chemical perspective as it is abundant, inexpensive, renewable resource that can be used to obtain small organic molecules. Therefore, using waste biomass helps reduce the amount of pollution caused by the disposal of waste and promotes the ideas of sustainable chemistry and circular economy (Tripathi et al., 2019). Depending on the composition of the waste biomass, there are various processes that the waste biomass can go through to change its form into a product, such as hydrolysis, fermentation, pyrolysis, and treatment with a catalyst (Begum et al., 2024). These products range from organic acids, alcohols, furans, and many more oxygenated products. The major barrier to effectively using waste biomass to create new value-added products is that the waste biomass has a different composition each time it is produced (Gallezot, 2008). There are also impurities present in the waste biomass. Despite these limitations, ongoing advancements in process optimization have improved feasibility of converting waste biomass into useful chemicals.

3 Biomass-derived platform molecules

The fossil fuel reservoir continues to be the primary source of functionalized carbon frameworks for chemical industry, along with applications in energy and thermal transfer. But due to major environmental concerns, there is a greater need for molecules from renewable sources. Biorefineries will probably become more important in this regard in the near future (Change, 2007). In this context, biomass derived platform molecules play a major role as key intermediates for value added products (Serrano-Ruiz et al., 2011). Upon undergoing biological or thermochemical and catalytic treatments for the lignocellulose-like biomass, the formation of various organic products like sugars, polyols, furans, and different types of acids (levulinic acid, succinic acid, 3-hydroxypropionic acid, etc.) is very easy to achieve (Deuss et al., 2014). These bio-derived compounds can be utilized as novel intermediates and starting materials known as platform chemicals.

3.1 Furfural and its derivatives

Furan-2-aldehydes like furfural (furan-2-carbaldehyde), 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF), and its chlorinated analog 5-(chloromethyl)lfurfural (CMF) are among the most promising sugar-derived platform chemicals. These furan-2-aldehyde derivatives are considered as widely used feedstock materials and intermediate chemicals in the preparation of organic chemicals and monomers which can further be used in the preparation of polymers and other pharmaceutical compounds (Wang et al., 2018). Since 1921, furfural has been synthesized commercially from lignocellulosic feedstocks utilizing mineral acids as catalysts in amounts of about 200,000 tons annually, usually using inexpensive hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sulfuric acid (H2SO4) (Karinen et al., 2011; Kabasci and Bretz, 2011). Hemicellulose, an important component of lignocellulosic biomass serves as the main source for the production of furfural (Scheller and Ulvskov, 2010). It is due to its high content of pentose sugars such as xylose and arabinose. Synthesis of furfural from hemicellulose is a series of two steps. In the first step, hemicellulose (2) undergoes acid catalyzed hydrolysis to release monomeric pentose sugar, xylose (4) (Luo et al., 2019) (Scheme 2). Further, the liberated pentose sugar (4) undergoes dehydration involving removal of three molecules of water to form furfural (6). The formed furfural is recovered by steam distillation and fractionation. Biomass-based sources for furfural production include sugarcane bagasse, crop straws and corncob (Bao et al., 2024).

Synthesis of furfural from lignocellulosic hemicellulose.
Figure 2. Synthesis of furfural from lignocellulosic hemicellulose.

Another important furfural derivative obtained from biomass resources is (HMF) (14). HMF is crucial because it can be produced from both fructose and glucose. HMF is a highly helpful intermediate for the synthesis of key chemicals including levulinic acid, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA), 2,5-diformylfuran (DFF), dihydroxymethylfuran, and 5-hydroxy-4-keto-2-pentenoic acid, as well as the biofuel dimethylfuran (DMF) and other molecules (Fan et al., 2019). Since cellulose contains anhydro-D-glucopyranose units joined by β-1,4-glycosidic linkages, hydrolytic breakdown is required to liberate the sugar monomers. During 1800s, Düll (1895) demonstrated the synthesis of HMF through acid catalyzed dehydration of inulin using oxalic acid solution under pressure. In the same year, Kiermayer reported a similar approach, but starting from sugar cane (Kiermayer, 1895; Lewkowski, 2001). The hydrolysis of cellulose, glucose isomerization, and fructose dehydration are all part of the catalytic processes that convert cellulose into HMF (Svendsen et al., 2009; Liang et al., 2024) (Scheme 3A). During the synthesis of HMF, several side reactions also occur like formation of insoluble humins, soluble polymerized HMF, and rehydration reactions to levulinic acid. CMF (15) is another furfural derivative obtained from biomass. CMF was proposed as a target platform chemical in place of HMF in order to overcome HMF’s instability in reaction mixtures and issues with HMF isolation. For the dehydration of hexoses, CMF is more stable and less hydrophilic in acidic environments (Scheme 3B). These characteristics make CMF a strong contender for the primary 5-substituted furfural-based biorefinery product (Mascal, 2019).

**(A)** Synthesis of HMF from glucose and fructose **(B)** Nucleophilic substitution of hydroxyl group of HMF into CMF.
Figure 3. (A) Synthesis of HMF from glucose and fructose (B) Nucleophilic substitution of hydroxyl group of HMF into CMF.

3.2 Levulinic acid

Levulinic acid (LA) and levulinate esters are two of the many potential lignocellulosic biomass derivatives that could be used as raw materials to replace petroleum-based fuels and derivatives (Bozell et al., 2000). The National Renewable Energy Laboratory has recognized LA as key value-added platform chemicals coming from biomass (Werpy et al., 2004). Because of its acidic carboxyl group and ketone carbonyl group, LA can react with a variety of functional groups and be transformed into numerous chemicals that are relevant for various market segments. LA (16) is typically produced via the acid-catalyzed dehydration of C6-sugars to HMF (14), which is thereafter hydrolyzed to LA (16) (Van Putten et al., 2013) (Scheme 4A). Moreover, LA can also be produced via C5-sugars route, involving furfural (6) as the initial hydrolysis intermediate which is subsequently reduced to furfuryl alcohol (19) and further hydrolyzed to form LA (16). This pathway is less commonly employed because of lower yield and complexity of the additional processing steps (Zhao et al., 2021) (Scheme 4B). Besides acids, various heterogeneous catalysts like zeolites, organo silica nanotubes, porous aluminosilicate catalysts have been investigated for the synthesis of levulinic acid (Ramli and Amin, 2015; An et al., 2018; Taghavi et al., 2023).

**(A)** Conversion of HMF to Levulinic acid *via* rehydration **(B)** Conversion of furfural to levulinic acid *via* two step approach.
Figure 4. (A) Conversion of HMF to Levulinic acid via rehydration (B) Conversion of furfural to levulinic acid via two step approach.

3.3 Glycerol

Glycerol, also referred to as glycerin, is formed by the chemical or enzymatic transesterification of oils and is present in all natural fats and oils as fatty esters (Scheme 5A) (Checa et al., 2020). Because of its reactive nature, a wide range of derivatives, including glyceric acid, propylene glycol, 1,3-propandiol, polyols, and epichlorohydrin, can be produced through esterification, oxidation, hydrogenolysis, and polymerization processes (Sheldon et al., 2000). Glycerol and its derivatives are used in a variety of industrial processes. For example, propylene glycol is used to make unsaturated polyester resins, coolants and antifreeze, paints and coatings, epoxy resins, and water purification using epichlorohydrin (Clomburg and Gonzalez, 2013). The discovery of glycerol dates back to 1779 when Carl Wilhelm Scheele was investigating saponification products of olive oil (Ghosh, 2016). The French chemist Chevreul, during his research on Scheele’s product isolated glycerol in water phase and named it as glycerin. Scheme 5B illustrates various platform chemicals synthesized from glycerol.

**(A)** Synthesis of glycerol from transesterification of fatty acids **(B)** Various platforms chemicals from glycerol.
Figure 5. (A) Synthesis of glycerol from transesterification of fatty acids (B) Various platforms chemicals from glycerol.

3.4 Succinic acid

Succinic acid has been considered as a vital platform molecule, owing to its extensive range of applications within industries. It has been identified as one of the twelve platform chemicals by the US Department of Energy (Janesan and Van Gulik, 2014). It aids in the synthesis of butanediol, Tetrahydro furan (THF), γ-butyrolactone, adipic acid, surfactants and additives. In addition, succinic acid can be used as a precursor for polyethylsuccinate and polybutylene succinate (PBS) (Ferone et al., 2019). These are biodegradable polymers, which possess properties like polyethylene terephthalate. It has been observed that due to the depletion of crude oil as well as the effects of global warming, over 15% of the capital required to produce succinic acid will be invested using biological raw materials. Therefore, the use of renewable energy sources is currently being utilized to ensure adequate succinic acid availability. Glucose, xylose, or glycerol extracted from cellulose and hemicellulose is transformed into succinic acid through metabolic engineering with bacteria like Actinobacillus succinogenes (Pateraki et al., 2016), Mannheimia succiniciproducens, or recombinant E. coli (Song and Lee, 2006). They metabolize through the reductive branch of the citric acid cycle, fixing carbon dioxide for efficient carbon usage.

There are several biomass-based routes to produce succinic acid from lignocellulosic substrates, including pine needles, rice husk, and sugarcane (Scheme 6) (Cok et al., 2014). Pretreatment of the biomass includes bleaching of the substrate followed by its depolymerization using catalysts to produce cellulose (1) and hemicellulose (2). Both polysaccharides are subjected to hydrolysis to form glucose. Dehydration of glucose (7) using acids produces furfural (6), which is converted to LA (16). Oxidation of LA (16) results in the formation of maleic anhydride, further hydrogenated or hydrolyzed to succinic acid (30).

Synthesis of Succinic acid from lignocellulosic biomass.
Figure 6. Synthesis of Succinic acid from lignocellulosic biomass.

Another path to the production of succinic acid involves the transformation of glucose (7) via the action of oxygen and decarboxylation into tartaric acid (TA) (31), which undergoes further transformations to become fumaric-maleic acid (FMA) (32). The compound (32) becomes the starting molecule for hydrogenation to obtain succinic acid (30) (Dou et al., 2022). In addition to the above methods for obtaining succinic acid from biomass, fermentation-based techniques may also play an important role due to the ability of (31) to be produced naturally in tomato and grapefruit. In addition to succinic acid, fermentation also allows producing glycolic and lactic acids (Li et al., 2016).

3.5 Sorbitol

Sorbitol (D-glucitol) is a six-carbon polyhydroxylated alcohol that is considered one of the most valuable biomass-based platform chemicals (Ochoa-Gómez and Roncal, 2017). Its use is very widespread as a sweetener in food industry, in the pharmaceutical industry as a humectant, and as a stabilizer in cosmetic industry (Marques et al., 2017) (Scheme 7). Moreover, sorbitol is an important intermediate to produce isosorbide, propylene glycol, and ethylene glycol, among other chemicals. The conventional process of sorbitol production includes catalytic hydrogenation of glucose (7) (García et al., 2020). Glucose (7) undergoes hydrogenation using heterogeneous catalysts like Raney nickel, Ru/C, or platinum-based catalysts in the presence of hydrogen gas, where the aldehyde functional group of glucose is selectively hydrogenated to form a primary alcohol group, yielding sorbitol (35) with high selectivity (Van Gorp et al., 1999; Kusserow et al., 2003). The other way that has recently gained interest is a one-pot method that entails direct conversion of (1) into (35) through its hydrolytic hydrogenation (Zhou et al., 2024). Such conversion of cellulose into sorbitol requires simultaneous hydrolysis and hydrogenation of cellulose within one reactor utilizing bifunctional catalysts, such as ruthenium on carbon or metal-acid catalysts (Ding et al., 2010). Besides that, the biological pathway for producing sorbitol using microorganism engineering technology in which glucose is reduced to sorbitol through aldose reductase enzyme have also been investigated (Scheme 7) (Shockley et al., 1956).

Different pathways for the synthesis of sorbitol along with its applications.
Figure 7. Different pathways for the synthesis of sorbitol along with its applications.

3.6 Xylitol

Xylitol is a pentitol that is produced from biomass and is extensively used as low-caloric sugar in food, toothpaste, and pharmaceutical products owing to its anti-cariogenic nature as well as due to its ability to undergo insulin-independent metabolism (Ur-Rehman et al., 2015; Umai et al., 2022). From green chemistry perspective, xylitol has been proven to be very significant in biomass-based green chemistry since it is obtained from xylose, one of the most abundant sugars in biomass. Traditional industrial synthesis of xylitol is performed via catalytic hydrogenation of xylose (Du et al., 2023). Xylitol can also be synthesized via biological process by fermenting xylose using microbes (Onishi and Suzuki, 1969). Xylose is converted into xylitol using enzymes such as xylose reductase in Candida tropicalis, Candida guilliermondii, and engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Kumar et al., 2022).

3.7 Lactic acid

Lactic acid is another important biomass-based platform chemical possessing applications in many sectors such as food industry, pharmaceuticals, and as polymeric materials. Lactic acid is found to exist in two different forms such as D-lactic acid and L-lactic acid (Castillo Martinez et al., 2013). The predominant pathway for lactic acid production from biomass is through microbial fermentation of fermentable sugars obtained from lignocellulosic biomass (John et al., 2007). The fermentable sugars, such as glucose (7) and xylose (4), are converted to lactic acid (33) through microorganisms such as Lactobacillus, Bacillus, and genetically modified E. coli bacteria via glycolysis and subsequent reduction of pyruvic acid to lactic acid by lactate dehydrogenase (Li et al., 2021). The second pathway to produce lactic acid from biomass is through catalytic conversion of biomass intermediates. Catalytic biomass conversion for lactic acid production involves selective oxidation of glycerol, obtained from biodiesel. It is converted to lactic acid through Pt, Au, and other alkaline catalysts (Gao et al., 2011). Another approach to produce lactic acid through an alkaline hydrothermal process involves conversion of glucose from biomass carbohydrates to lactic acid through retro-aldol cleavage and rearrangements (Scheme 8) (Ren et al., 2022).

Synthesis of Lactic acid from lignocellulosic biomass.
Figure 8. Synthesis of Lactic acid from lignocellulosic biomass.

3.8 Hydroxypropionic acid

3-Hydroxypropanoic acid (3-HPA) is a structural isomer of lactic acid. Its dual functional groups, hydroxyl- and carboxyl groups, provide potential as an organic synthesis reagent. Moreover, 3-HPA serves as a cross-linker in coatings, lubricants, and antistatic additives for textiles. Further applications emerge in the food processing industry, cosmetic products, and fertilizers. The production of 3-HPA from biomass usually starts with lignocellulose sources, such as agricultural waste products, that go through a process of pretreatment and hydrolysis, resulting in fermentable sugars, including glucose and xylose (Jers et al., 2019). The first one gets converted via glycolytic pathway into glycerol or malonyl-CoA and then is synthesized into 3-HPA by employing enzymes glycerol dehydratase and malonyl-CoA reductase. Various strains of recombinant bacteria E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and S. cerevisiae have been thoroughly engineered for optimizing 3-HPA production (Van Maris et al., 2004). Glycerol is transformed via dehydration reaction with coenzyme B12-dependent glycerol dehydratase into 3-hydroxypropionaldehyde, which is further oxidized to 3-HPA (Jeevitha et al., 2021).

3.9 Bioethanol

Ethanol or ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is a clear and transparent liquid substance used as a multi-purpose fuel and an important raw material for various industries. Traditionally made using ethylene and water, both obtained from non-renewable sources, ethanol production has changed drastically due to current environmental concerns, shifting the focus from synthetic ethanol to bioethanol (Gray et al., 2006). Chemically the same but produced from renewable sources through the process of fermentation of sugars with the help of microorganisms, bioethanol is used not only as pure ethanol fuel but also as an additive to regular gasoline (E10 or E85) (Edeh, 2021).

First generation bioethanol production is obtained through fermentation of food sources such as maize and sugarcane, where the starch and sucrose are readily available for hydrolysis to glucose by fermentation using yeasts, mainly S. cerevisiae (Dias et al., 2013). To overcome competition between the source of food and bioethanol, there has been an increased emphasis on second generation bioethanol. Second generation bioethanol production entails utilization of non-food lignocellulosic feedstock such as agricultural waste, woodchips, and switchgrass (Scheme 9) (Aditiya et al., 2016).

First- and second-generation synthesis of bioethanol.
Figure 9. First- and second-generation synthesis of bioethanol.

3.10 Biohydrocarbons

Biohydrocarbons are biofuels which occur in liquid form, are made up of organic matter, and have chemical composition equal to that of hydrocarbons in crude oil. As a result of this chemical composition, biohydrocarbons act as substitutes for gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. Biohydrocarbons include molecules like isoprene and farnesene, which are obtained from fermentation of carbohydrates. Isoprene is employed in the production of polyisoprene and butyl rubbers used in manufacturing surgical gloves and car tires (Chiaramonti et al., 2016). Conversion of biomass into hydrocarbons is achieved through the following approaches.

3.10.1 Thermochemical conversions (gasification and fischer-tropsch process)

Here, the biomass is heated under high temperatures (>700 °C) along with small quantities of oxygen to produce syngas. Syngas then undergoes chemical conversion through a catalyst (usually iron/cobalt), wherein the carbon-hydrogen molecules are converted to long-chain hydrocarbons via gas to liquid reaction. The great flexibility associated with this conversion pathway allows the processing of any type of dry biomass (Dobbelaere et al., 2014).

3.10.2 Pyrolysis and hydrodeoxygenation

This conversion involves heating biomass without oxygen to produce bio-oil. However, the produced oil is reactive and contains large amounts of oxygen, making it unsuitable for further use (Pinto et al., 2014). Hence, hydrodeoxygenation is applied to strip away oxygen as water using high-pressure hydrogen and a catalyst, resulting in production of stable green oil which is further used to generate gasoline or diesel.

3.10.3 Metabolic engineering of microbial pathways

This is another approach involving metabolic engineering of microbes that convert sugar produced from biomass into hydrocarbons rather than ethanol. The conversion is usually performed using genetically altered microorganisms that excrete lipids or certain hydrocarbon precursors such as farnesene (Fu et al., 2015).

4 Advances in biomass-assisted organic synthesis

In recent years, there have been improvements in the use of biomass to assist with organic synthesis. It is largely because of a global shift to use more green and sustainable means to produce chemicals and materials. Current advances in research have led to a focus on using renewable resources as feedstocks as well as reagents for the synthesis of structurally diverse organic compounds (Qi et al., 2019; Pasreja et al., 2024; Dabas and Singh, 2025; Yadav and Singh, 2025). Innovative catalytic systems that have been advanced since last few years include biomass-derived heterogeneous catalysts, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and bio-templated nanomaterials, which have enhanced the efficiency, selectivity, and recyclability of reactions (Amarasekara, 2023; Yadav et al., 2024; Gupta et al., 2025). In addition to the developments in synthetic processes, the use of biomass for catalyzing organic reactions also aids in environmental process integration by ensuring that the feedstock used is obtained from waste products rather than non-renewable sources. This ensures the development of integrated biorefinery processes, whereby waste products are constantly recycled to form value-added chemicals. The reactions discussed below have been classified into three types, namely, C-C bond forming reactions, C-N bond forming reactions, and functional group transformations. This classification is based on the primary transformation involved in the first reaction step using biomass-based substrates.

4.1 C-N bond forming reactions

A study reported the synthesis of N-pyrrolidones using biomass-derived levulinic acid (16) (Scheme 10) (Li et al., 2024). In the first step, nitrobenzene (40) is hydrogenated to aniline (41), followed by condensation of (41) with (16) to form an imine intermediate (42). In the last step, cyclization and hydrogenation occurs to synthesize 5-methyl-N-phenyl-2-pyrrolidone (44). For this reaction, various catalysts were tested like Al2O3, CeO2, NiAl2O4, etc., out of all, Pt/NB2O5 emerged as the most efficient one. Pt-nanoparticles facilitate hydrogenation whereas NB2O5 support activation of carbonyl group, promoting condensation. Under mild reaction condition of 30 °C and 1 MPa H2 (44) was produced in 96%.

Synthesis of 4-methyl-N-phenyl pyrrolidone from levulinic acid.
Figure 10. Synthesis of 4-methyl-N-phenyl pyrrolidone from levulinic acid.

Isoindolinone scaffold is a very important scaffold in medicinal chemistry. It is present in drugs such as indoprofen and pazinaclone (Rana et al., 2024). Xu and coworkers obtained isoindolinones (46) from furfurals (4), biomass-derived precursors, via tandem intramolecular Diels–Alder (DA) cycloaddition reaction (Scheme 11). In the first step, hydroamination and acylation of (4) was performed to obtain (45). Further, the reaction was performed at 120 °C for 3 h using Zn-BTC-SA (defective MOF modified by stearic acid (SA)) as catalyst in [Hmim]HSO4 as a Brønsted acidic ionic liquid, facilitating aromatization, leading to the formation of (46) (Xu et al., 2023).

Synthesis of isoindolinones from furfurals.
Figure 11. Synthesis of isoindolinones from furfurals.

In 2025, Zeng and coworkers carried out a synthesis of quinolines and pyridines using biomass derived lactic acid (33) as one of the substrates (Scheme 12). In the synthesis of 2-phenylquinoline (48), a combination of aniline (41), benzyl alcohol (47), and (33) undergo a reaction with ferrous chloride (FeCl3) and potassium persulfate [K2(SO4)2] (Zeng et al., 2025). The process takes place under microwave irradiation for 120 °C and 1 h, during which lactic acid forms acrylic acid intermediates, which further react with the imine formed in-situ. Additionally, in the preparation of the Cinchophen drug molecule (49), the reaction parameters are altered to avoid decarboxylation of the moiety (33). To achieve this, water is being used as solvent and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) as oxidant, leading to the formation of pyruvic from lactic acid via dehydrogenation. Subsequently, a Michael addition reaction with the imine intermediate takes place before intramolecular cyclization leading to the formation of 4-carboxyl-substituted quinoline (49).

Synthesis of 2-phenylquinoline and cinchophen from bio-derived alcohols.
Figure 12. Synthesis of 2-phenylquinoline and cinchophen from bio-derived alcohols.

An amination coupling between the vicinal diols like ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, 2,3-butanediol, derived from biomass was used for the synthesis of pyrazines (Scheme 13) (Zhou et al., 2025). This reaction proceeded via the use of a heterogeneous multifunctional catalyst 0.8Pt/13CeO2/Al2O3. This catalyst was employed in a reaction with vicinal diol (50) and ammonia to yield various pyrazines (51 and 52). The discussed approach demonstrates extensive applicability to various substrates and allows obtaining valuable N-heterocyclic compounds from biomass-derived vicinal diol in yields of up to 90%–94% in 12 h at a temperature of 180 °C–210 °C.

Synthesis of pyrazines from biomass-derived vicinal diols.
Figure 13. Synthesis of pyrazines from biomass-derived vicinal diols.

Liu and coworkers employed (53) along with alcohol (54) derived from biomass for the synthesis of alkoxyindole derivative (55) (Scheme 14) (Liu et al., 2026). The process features a simple cyclization under ambient temperature of 50 °C for 30 min. It provided an alkoxyindole derivative (55) in 86% yield. The process is highly atom economical and environmentally friendly, allowing for the effective conversion of alcohols produced from biomass to 3-alkoxyindoles, with the selective formation of C-O and C-N bonds.

Synthesis of 3-alkoxyindoles from nitrochalcone and biomass-derived alcohol.
Figure 14. Synthesis of 3-alkoxyindoles from nitrochalcone and biomass-derived alcohol.

Gurav et al. (2025) synthesized hydrazinylthiazole derivatives (59) using biomass-based furfural derivatives as the primary raw material (Scheme 15). The most significant aspect of this reaction was that the process was carried out under the concept of grindstone chemistry, where there is no use of solvent and any type of catalysts in the reaction mixture, thereby conforming to green chemistry criteria. This involved reaction between the aldehyde (56), thiosemicarbazide (57) and, α-tosyloxy ketone (58), to synthesize the thiazole derivatives (59). The process was highly rapid (less than 5 min) and gave yield of up to 92%.

Synthesis of hydrazinyl thiazole derivatives using biomass-based furfurals.
Figure 15. Synthesis of hydrazinyl thiazole derivatives using biomass-based furfurals.

4.2 C-C forming reactions

THF-derived amine derivatives (62) were synthesized from furfural (6) in the one pot cascade process. The reaction followed the aldol condensation pathway between (6) and methyl isobutyl ketone (60) to form an intermediate (61) (Scheme 16) (Jiang et al., 2019). For this step, Amberlyst-26 was used as the basic catalyst at 100 °C using EtOH as solvent. In the second step, intermediate (61) undergoes reductive amination using NH3. Further hydrogenation is catalyzed using Pd/Al2O3 to yield THF-derived primary amines (62) with yields of up to 91%.

Synthesis of THF-derived amine derivatives from furfural.
Figure 16. Synthesis of THF-derived amine derivatives from furfural.

A synthesis of unsymmetrically disubstituted furans (66) has been reported using a methodology based on the Pd-catalyzed decarbonylative/acylative Sonogashira cross-coupling strategy (Scheme 17). Herein, the feedstock 2,5-dicarbonyl dichloride (64) serves as an initial substrate (Yu et al., 2025) which is derived from FDCA (63), a biomass platform molecule.

Synthesis of unsymmetrically di-substituted furans using PdCl<sub>2</sub> and Xantphos.
Figure 17. Synthesis of unsymmetrically di-substituted furans using PdCl2 and Xantphos.

4.3 Functional group transformations

The selective oxidation of biomass-derived intermediates has witnessed many advancements based on rational design of heterogeneous catalysts. In this context, Au/CeO2 was employed as catalyst system for oxidation of 5-HMF (14) to FDCA (63) (Scheme 18) (Li et al., 2019). The oxidation progressed at 130 °C via conversion of HMF (14) to HMF-carboxylic acid (67) and later to FDCA (63).

Catalytic conversion of HMF to FDCA.
Figure 18. Catalytic conversion of HMF to FDCA.

In 2025, Li group explored an environmentally friendly approach using Ag nanoparticle-supported graphitic carbon nitride (Ag/g-C3N4) to photocatalytically convert furfural (6) into furoic acid (69) via visible light irradiation (Scheme 19) (Li et al., 2025). This research addresses some of the limitations of previous thermal and Cannizzaro-type methods that produced FA (69) under extremely harsh conditions and did not provide a high selectivity yield when making these compounds.

Photocatalytic conversion of furfural to furoic acid.
Figure 19. Photocatalytic conversion of furfural to furoic acid.

A synthetic route has been reported for the synthesis of 2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuran (71) involving HMF (14). In this process, hydrogenation follows the sequence of reactions, starting with reduction of the aldehyde functional group in (14), which generates (70), and subsequent hydrogenation of the furan moiety to produce (71) (Arias et al., 2024). The catalyst performance was maximized under optimized conditions (160 °C, 20 bar H2 pressure), obtaining complete conversion of (14) to (71) with yield of up to 91% (Scheme 20).

Conversion of biomass-derived HMF to 2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuran.
Figure 20. Conversion of biomass-derived HMF to 2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuran.

Isosorbide (73) is most commonly produced by dehydration of sorbitol, and it is useful for making pharmaceuticals, polymers, and green solvents. This molecule has been directly obtained from glucose (7) by using a combination of microwave heating and one pot of catalytic reactions. The reduction of aldehyde group to alcohol group was done using ruthenium (Ru)-based catalyst to give (35) (Scheme 21) (Belluati et al., 2023). The dehydration (35) to obtain (73) was performed at a temperature of 190 °C, and it demonstrated good selectivity to (73), with low by-product generation. However, higher temperatures contributed to the destruction of molecule hence temperature conditions were highly important.

Synthesis of isosorbide from glucose.
Figure 21. Synthesis of isosorbide from glucose.

In the year 2024, Afanasenko and coworkers made use of platform molecules from lignin to make active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) (Scheme 22) (Afanasenko et al., 2024). They utilized a platform molecule guaiacol ethylene glycol acetal (C2-G-EG-acetal) (74) as the starting material. It is produced from softwood lignin using acid catalyzed depolymerization. First step involved the synthesis of the homovanillyl alcohol (75) from (74). It was achieved through reductive hydrogenation of (74) using Ru/Al2O3 catalyst in an aqueous environment, yielding excellent quantities of homovanillyl alcohol (75). This reaction was carried out at 90 °C under pressure of 20 bar H2 for 4.5 h and afforded (75) in 92% yield. Further this alcohol underwent a hydrogen-borrowing reaction using Shvo’s catalyst using various primary amines. In this step variety of dopamine analogues (76) were obtained bearing secondary amines. Further these got converted to tetrahydroisoquinolines (77) via Pictet-Spengler cyclization with a variety of aldehydes in a deep eutectic solvent, resulting in 35%–99% yields of tetrahydroisoquinoline derivatives (77).

Conversion of biomass-derived C2-G-EG-acetal to APIs.
Figure 22. Conversion of biomass-derived C2-G-EG-acetal to APIs.

These methods are even more compatible with environmental engineering objectives, as they use less solvent, require less energy, and generate less hazardous waste. These methodologies are especially important when considering wastewater-friendly processing systems that require less harsh operating conditions. To provide a comparative analysis, various aspects, including catalysts, reaction conditions, yields, and the range of products formed from biomass-based sources have been summarized in Table 2.

TABLE 2. Comparative analysis of reaction conditions and product formation.

Source of biomassProductStructureCatalyst usedYield (%)Temperature ( °C)
HMFFDCAStructural formula diagram showing a furan ring with two carboxylic acid groups attached at the second and fifth positions, representing the chemical structure of furan-2,5-dicarboxylic acid.Au/CeO288130
FurfuralFuroic acidChemical structure diagram showing a five-membered furan ring with a carboxylic acid group attached to one carbon, representing furoic acid. Double bonds and heteroatom oxygens are clearly indicated in the structure.Ag/g-C3N43080
Levulinic acidN-pyrrolidoneChemical structure diagram illustrating a molecule with a five-membered lactam ring containing a nitrogen atom, a benzene ring attached to the nitrogen, and a single methyl group on the ring adjacent to the carbonyl group.Pt/NB2O59630
HMF2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuranChemical structure diagram of tetrahydrofuran-2,5-diol showing a five-membered ring with an oxygen atom at the top position and hydroxyl groups attached to carbon atoms at both lateral positions.Co1Ni1@C91160
FurfuralTHF-derived amine derivativeStructural formula of pregabalin showing a five-membered ring with an oxygen atom, a six-carbon alkyl chain, an amino group labeled NH₂ in blue, and isobutyl side chain.Amberlyst 26, Pd/Al2O391100
2,5-Dicarbonyl dichlorideUnsymmetrically disubstituted furansStructural diagram of a furanone derivative with two phenyl groups attached via ethynyl linkers at positions one and three, and carbonyl and ether oxygen atoms marked by red circles.PdCl2/Xantphos7650
FurfuralIsoindolinone derivativeChemical structure diagram showing a bicyclic oxazolidinone compound with a fused five-membered ring containing oxygen, a carbonyl group, a phenyl group attached to nitrogen, and a hydroxyl group on a chiral center.Zn-BTC-SA92120
Bio-derived alcohols2-Phenylquinoline, cinchopheni) Chemical structure diagram showing a phenyl group attached to the second position of a quinoline ring system, with the nitrogen atom in the quinoline highlighted in blue. Black lines represent bonds and rings. ii) Chemical structure diagram illustrating a quinoline derivative containing a carboxylic acid group labeled COOH in red, a nitrogen atom highlighted in blue, and a phenyl substituent.i) FeCl3, [K2(SO4)2]ii) FeCl3, TBHPi) 82ii) 67120
Biomass-derived vicinal diolsPyrazinesChemical structure diagram displaying the general structure of a bipyridine molecule with two nitrogen atoms highlighted in blue and substituents labeled R1 and R2 at the four carbon positions adjacent to the nitrogens.0.8 P t/13CeO2/Al2O390–94180 °C–210 °C
Biomass derived alcoholAlkoxyindole derivativesStructural diagram of a chemical compound featuring an indole core with an ethoxy group, a benzoyl group, and a highlighted nitrogen atom shown in blue. Bonds and atoms are clearly outlined.Aq. NaOH8650
C2-G-EG-acetalTetrahydroisoquinolines derivativesChemical structure diagram of a substituted tetrahydroisoquinoline with a methoxy group and a hydroxy group marked in red, a nitrogen atom in blue bonded to an aryl group, and a generic R group attached.Ru/Al2O3, Shvo’s catalyst, DES35–9980–100
GlucoseIsosorbideChemical structure diagram showing a bicyclic molecule with four oxygen atoms, including three hydroxyl groups and one ether linkage, and two hydrogen atoms indicated as wedge bonds, representing tetrodotoxin.Ru/C4.2190
Furfural derivativeHydrazinyl thiazole derivativesChemical structure diagram showing a molecule with a five-membered aromatic ring containing an oxygen atom and generic group R1, connected by a hydrazone linker to a thiazole ring, which is fused to a pyridine and a phenyl ring with generic group R2.N/A, grindstone>92%Rt

The above literature analysis revealed that metal-based catalytic systems generally provide higher yields and selectivity than non-metal-based catalysts in most reactions. In contrast, using green activation methods such as photocatalysis, microwave-assisted synthesis, and solvent-free grindstone synthesis provides higher efficiencies and offers significant environmental advantages.

5 Challenges associated with biomass valorization

Though the field of biomass valorization has seen plenty of research, studies are limited to lab-scale processes rather than industrial-scale ones. The analysis shows that the scope of efficiency varies across biomass/feedstock types (Banerjee, 2023). Biomass from different sources possesses different concentrations of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and inorganic materials (Irmak, 2019). The sulfur compounds, alkali metals, and compounds derived from lignin act as contaminants which inhibit catalyst activity, altering reaction pathways and making reported efficiencies difficult to replicate under reaction conditions (Singhvi and Gokhale, 2019). Deactivation reduces catalyst lifespan and increases processing expenses (Argyle and Bartholomew, 2015). For example, variations in sugar yields from switchgrass, maize stover, and their combinations can be substantial and affect production costs (Li et al., 2022). The fact that catalytic systems are frequently designed for homogeneous model molecules rather than heterogeneous biomass clearly highlights a significant research problem.

Pretreatment methods are also another challenge. It introduces additional complexity and cost that is rarely incorporated into performance assessments (Meng et al., 2023). The pretreatment methods require substantial energy and produce by-products that may hinder subsequent reactions. The lack of uniform pretreatment procedures also makes comparison between studies problematic.

Another challenge is the scalability. This is the biggest hurdle in commercializing these methods of biomass conversion. Even though many reports show promising findings in terms of high yield and selectivity, same cannot be achieved on a bigger scale (Richard, 2010).

Biomass valorization should also focus on minimum use of water. Many valorization processes create an aqueous waste-stream that contains organic acids, residual sugars and degradation products, though its harmfulness is very less compared to petro-based processes. Therefore, it is important to effectively integrate wastewater treatment strategies, in order to avoid environmental burdens (Aladodo et al., 2026; Li et al., 2026).

6 Conclusion

Biomass-based sources are a pivotal landmark in the development of sustainable organic molecules leading to zero-waste approaches. As a source of renewable and unlimited diversity, biomass can help to reduce the consequences associated with non-renewable sources, including fossil fuels and carbon dioxide emissions. Researchers have managed to isolate platform molecules derived from the biomass raw materials, including lignocellulosic, carbohydrate-based, and waste biomasses. Platform molecules include furfural, levulinic acid, glycerol, and succinic acid, which have been used to develop valuable products through organic synthesis reactions. Recent advancements in this field include a shift from merely extracting platform molecules to synthesizing sophisticated organic compounds and APIs. The use of activation methods such as microwave assistance, photocatalysis, and grindstone chemistry can enable energy-efficient reactions. The use of biomass valorization contributed in minimization of waste, wastewater, effluents, and hazardous emissions compared to petroleum-based raw materials.

Despite these developments, several challenges must be addressed to enable industrial implementation of these processes. Challenges such as feedstock variability, catalyst deactivation continue to limit scalability. It is also noted that the heterogeneity and impurities contained in waste biomass have posed some problems that still require further process optimization. Many reported systems rely on laboratory conditions and may not translate effectively to industrial environments. Nevertheless, efforts in this direction can contribute to making biorefinery a more viable process. Future research should prioritize development of low cost catalytic systems with improved pretreatment technologies. Integrating the use of biomass with industrial operations, such as continuous-flow operations, waste management, and wastewater treatment, will play an important role in improving process sustainability.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Fazlurrahman Khan, Pukyong National University, Republic of Korea

Reviewed by: Mahesh Balasaheb Chougule, DKTE Society’s Textile and Engineering Institute, India

Shalley Sharma, Emory University, United States

Footnotes

API, Active pharmaceutical ingredients; C2H5OH, Ethanol; CMF, 5-(chloromethyl)lfurfural; CO2, Carbon dioxide; DA, Diels-alder; DFF, 2,5-diformylfuran; DMF, Dimethylfuran; FDCA, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid; FMA, Fumaric-maleic acid; H2SO4, Sulfuric acid; HCl, Hydrochloric acid; HMF, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural; 3-HPA, 3-Hydroxypropanoic acid; LA, Levulinic acid; LCB, Lignocellulosic biomass; MOF, Metal organic frameworks; PBS, Polybutylene succinate; TA, Tartaric acid; TBHP, tert-butyl hydroperoxide; THF, Tetrahydrofuran.

Statements

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. However, we received internal financial support through Faculty Interdisciplinary Research Project (FIRP) from DTU.

Author contributions

SuB: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Resources, Investigation. ShB: Formal Analysis, Visualization, Methodology, Writing – review and editing. RS: Supervision, Writing – review and editing.

Acknowledgements

The author SB is thankful to Delhi Technological University for fellowship. Authors SB and RS are thankful to Prof. Jai Gopal Sharma for fruitful discussions.

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Bhatia, S., et al. (2026). Small organic molecules through biomass valorization: sustainable routes and applications. Frontiers in Environmental Engineering, Volume 5. https://doi.org/
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*Correspondence: Ram Singh

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