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Frontiers in Environmental Health ·

Volume 5 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvh.2026.1793607

Effect of regulated military training on physical performance and body composition of Swedish soldiers

  • Jonas Larsson1,2,3,4*corresponding author
  • M. Charlotte Olsson2
  • Ann Bremander5,6
  • Magnus Dencker1
  1. 1Department of Medical Imaging and Physiology, Skåne University Hospital, Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
  2. 2Department of Environmental and Biosciences, School of Business Innovation and Sustainability, Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden
  3. 3Swedish Armed Forces, Eksjö, Sweden
  4. 4Department of Radiology, Medical Diagnostics, Highland Hospital, Eksjö, Sweden
  5. 5Department of Clinical Sciences, Section of Rheumatology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
  6. 6Department of Regional Health Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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Abstract

Military service places high physical demands on conscripts, requiring adequate aerobic capacity, strength, power, and body composition. This study examined longitudinal changes in body composition and physical performance among Swedish conscripts during military training. A total of 218 Swedish conscripts completed 12 weeks of Basic Military Training (BMT) followed by 32 weeks of Specialized Military Training (SMT). Physical assessments were conducted at baseline, after BMT, and after SMT. Outcomes included aerobic capacity (V̇O₂peak), muscular strength and power, multitest performance, and body composition measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis. BMT elicited marked improvements in endurance, with V̇O₂peak increasing by 6.4%. By the end of service, V̇O₂peak had increased by 9.8% overall. Multitest performance improved by 35% across the full training period, with most gains occurring during BMT. Lower-body power showed modest unilateral improvements. Body composition changes included increased skeletal muscle mass and reduced body fat. Military training substantially improved aerobic fitness and overall physical performance, particularly during the initial BMT phase. However, improvements in muscle mass and power were limited. These findings highlight the need for training strategies that better optimize physical readiness and reduce fatigue-related risk during modern military operations.

Keywords

Introduction

Despite developments in modern technology, military operations remain physically demanding and often require high levels of aerobic endurance and muscular strength (1). Tasks such as sprinting short distances, negotiating obstacles, lifting, carrying, and dragging heavy equipment necessitate a combination of aerobic capacity, muscular strength, and power (2). Previous research has examined recruits' baseline physical fitness, their response to basic military training (3, 4), and short-term changes in physical performance (5). However, studies investigating changes in physical performance and body composition throughout the full duration of military service with longer follow-up periods are limited (6).

The primary objective of military physical training is to improve or maintain soldiers’ physical capacity to ensure operational readiness (7). Adequate physical work capacity is essential to operate effectively and decrease the risk of fatigue, which may compromise mission success (8). Moreover, insufficient physical fitness has been associated with an increased risk of injury and premature discharge from military service (9).

Evidence regarding the effectiveness of different military training programs is mixed. Several studies have demonstrated improvements in aerobic capacity and muscular strength, particularly during the first 6–12 weeks of training (3, 10), or 6–12 months (11). In contrast, other studies have reported stagnation or declines in maximal oxygen intake (V̇O2peak) and muscle strength during the latter phases of training (12). Similarly, findings on body composition changes are inconsistent, with reports of both increases and decreases in body weight and body fat during the initial stages of military training (13).

Previous research has predominantly focused on a single phase of military service: basic military training (9, 12), which is designed to establish the foundational physical capacities required for combat and subsequent specialized training. However, military service comprises multiple phases with differing physical and operational demands. Examining changes in physical performance and body composition across these phases is important, as structured physical training may not fully prepare soldiers for certain field-based military activities over the course of their military service, potentially affecting operational readiness. The aim of this study was to investigate changes in body composition and cardiovascular and neuromuscular performance among soldiers across three phases of service: basic training, specialized military training, and continued military service.

Material and methods

Experimental approach to the problem

A longitudinal study design was used to examine changes in body composition, cardiovascular performance, and neuromuscular performance in soldiers throughout military service. Assessments were conducted using standardized testing methods at three time points: baseline (within the first two weeks of service), after completion of basic military training, after specialized military training at the end of service. This design allowed evaluation of training-induced adaptations across different phases of military service and identification of differences in physical performance over time.

Subjects

Soldiers from one Swedish regiment were invited to participate in the present study, which was conducted over four consecutive service years (2016/2017, 2017/2018, 2018/2019, 2019/2020). A total of 218 soldiers participated. All participants received written and oral information regarding the study purpose, procedures, and potential risks, and provided written informed consent prior to inclusion. Sixty-one soldiers were excluded from follow-up analyses due to premature discharge, transfer to specialized training at other regiments, injury, or illness. The study was approved by the Regional Ethical Review Board in Sweden.

Sweden has compulsory military service for both men and women. During military service, conscripts complete approximately 12 weeks of basic military training (BMT), conducted in accordance with the Swedish Armed Forces military handbook, (H GSSU, 2016) (Table 1). This is followed by approximately 32 weeks of specialized military training (SMT). During specialist training, soldiers learn specific technical and physical tasks such as bridgelaying: assembling and deploying bridges so that friendly vehicles and troops can cross waterways or obstacles. Destructive Fieldworks: Blowing up bridges, destroying roads, or felling trees to slow down the enemy's advance. Mine Handling: Laying minefields for defense or clearing mines to create safe paths. Machinery Service: Operating heavy vehicles and machines, such as excavators and bridgelayers, to build protective fortifications or roads. Being an Engineer Soldier provides a lot of military based physical training during SMT. The job involves manual labor—shoveling, handling heavy mines, and assembling tactical bridges—which builds a specific type of rugged, functional durability (Table 1). During these activities, soldiers carried their personal equipment and combat gear weighing between 18 and 45 kilograms.

Table 1. Physical training during basic and special military training.

ActivitiesBasic military training 12 weeksSpecialized military training period 6–8 months
Regular physical training (running, strength training, ball games, orienteering, other activities)3 h per week and in addition short-term training (approx. 15 min) 2–4 times per day2–3 h per week dependent on military branch
Military-related physical trainingApprox. 20 h of combat training and marching per weekCombat training and marching, training 10–25 h per week dependent on different posts
Other scheduled activities (e.g., shooting, material handling, skill training, theoretical education.Remaining hours of the week (maintenance, administration)Remaining hours of the week (maintenance, administration)

In Sweden, conscription is based on mandatory registration followed by selection procedures that include medical, psychological, and physical assessments. The number of individuals called to service varies annually according to personnel requirements of the Armed Forces; therefore, conscripts represent a selected subset of the total age cohort. Participants in the present study were conscripts assigned to a single regiment during the study period.

Study protocol

The V̇2peak, muscle strength, body mass, skeletal muscle mass (SMM), fat-free mass (FFM), and body fat (BF) were assessed on three different occasions using identical protocols, primarily based on standardized testing procedures within the Swedish armed forces. Baseline testing (Test 1) was conducted within the first two weeks of military service, Test 2 after 12 weeks of BMT, and Test 3 at the completion of SMT. The participants were instructed to refrain from eating or smoking for at least two hours prior to each testing session and to avoid any strenuous physical activity 48 h before the aerobic and strength assessments. Before the body composition measurements, participants were advised to refrain from eating after 23:00 the preceding evening.

Aerobic capacity

The V̇2peak was estimated using the Swedish Armed Forces multistage 20-meter shuttle run test (FM Beep-test) (14). Participants ran back and forth on a 20-meter course and had to touch the 20-meter line before the audible signal from a pre-recorded audio track. The frequency of the signal was increased 0.5 km h−1 each minute from a starting speed of 8.5 km h−1. When the subject could no longer keep up the pace, the last stage number that was announced was used to predict V̇2peak (Y, mL kg−1 min−1) from the speed (X, km h−1) corresponding to that stage (speed = 8 + 0.5 stage no.) (14).

Neuromuscular performance was assessed using the Swedish Armed Forces Multitest, which consisted of five subtests performed consecutively within a maximum time of 45 min under the supervision of a certified test leader. Each subtest required participants to achieve a predefined minimum performance level, with no time limits for each subtest.

The five subtests included: push-ups (maximum number of repetitions); sit-ups (maximum number of repetitions); static back extensions (maximum holding time); static chin hold (maintaining chin above the bar after assisted positioning for maximum holding time); vertical jump (3 approved attempts, with the best performance recorded).

Each subtest result was multiplied by a weighted score (Table 2) to generate a final subtest score, with a maximum of 100 points per test. A total minimum score of 175 points across all subtests was required to pass the multitest (Table 2) (14). All tests were supervised by certified test leaders, and standardized criteria for correct technique were applied.

Table 2. Description of the points in multitest.

ExerciseUnitMinimumMaximumScore = over min level
Push-upsNumber of reps8285 points/reps
Sit-upsNumber of reps10602 points/reps
Unloaded vertical jumpcm30505 points/cm
Static back suspensionSeconds601601 point/s
Static chin holdseconds15652 points/s

Passed multitest is that minimum levels for each test is reached and for a combat support soldier, this is 175 points.

Lower body muscle power was evaluated using a loaded vertical squat jump (LVSJ) with a barbell (30 kg) placed across the shoulders connected to a Smith machine. A linear Encoder (MuscleLab Encoder, Ergotest, Porsgrunn, Norway) was attached to the barbell to record power output. Participants began from an upright standing position with extended knees and performed a squat to 90 degree knee angle while maintaining an upright torso, followed immediately by a maximal vertical jump. Participants were instructed to land with both feet simultaneously. The best score of 3 attempts was recorded. The subject then performed 3 single-leg squat jumps on each leg. Each trial was measured with the MuscleLab linear encoder (M-encoder) to obtain average power (AP), average force (AF), average velocity (AV), and distance (D). The M-encoder is a reliable method of recording and registering power output and has been previously validated by Hansen, Cronin (15).

Body composition

Body mass (BM) and body fat (BF) was measured using a bio impedance device (InBody 770, Biospace Co., Ltd., Seoul, South Korea). The validity of the InBody device is comparable to such methods as dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (16). Body height was measured by a stadiometer.

The bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) method is also practical in studies with limited time for examining each subject. From the InBody 770 Body Composition Analyzer, the following analyses were derived: body mass (kg), fat percentage (fat %), body FM (kg), fat-free mass (FFM, kg), lean body mass (kg), and skeletal muscle mass (SMM, kg).

Statistical analysis

Standard statistical methods were used for the calculation of means and SD. Changes over time across the three measurement points were evaluated using one-way repeated measures ANOVA (main effect of time). For planned pairwise comparisons between two dependent time points, paired t-tests were used. The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. No a priori sample size calculation was performed; the sample size was based on the number of available conscripts. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Statistics (Version 25, IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

Results

A total of 168 soldiers completed all testing occasions. All soldiers did not complete all the different tests (Table 4). Anthropometric data for these participants are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Mean ± SD age, height, body mass, and body mass index (BMI) of participants at baseline.

VariablesMean ± SD
Number of participants168
Age (years)20 ± 3
Height (cm)182 ± 7
Body mass (kg)77 ± 12
BMI (kg*m−2)23.2 ± 3.1

Aerobic capacity

During the 12-week BMT training period, the soldiers improved their V̇2peak (mL/kg/min) capacity with 6.4% (p < 0.001). After the subsequent period of SMT, soldiers' improvement was 3.2% (p = 0.039), and a total improvement of 9.8% (p < 0.001) was seen for all soldiers after completion of military service. The soldiers improved their V̇2peak with 9.1% (p = 0.023) over the entire training period.

Multitest

Basic military training increased the total score from 333 ± 91 to 416 ± 65 (+25%) (p < 0.001). The subsequent SMT period resulted in a statistically significant increase, but not to the same extent, from 416 ± 65 to 451 ± 54 points (8%, p < 0.001). Overall, the total period of military training raised the multitest score with 118 points or 35% (p < 0.001) (Table 4).

Table 4. Mean ± SD and effect size values at baseline (Test 1), post-BMT (Test 2), and post-SMT (Test 3).

TestNumber of participantsTest 1Mean ± SDTest 2Mean ± SDTest 3Mean ± SDp-valueEffect size (g)
FM Beep-test
(VO2peak mL/kg/min)5445.43 ± 6.147.92 ± 5.549.56 ± 4.9<0.0010.256
Multitest (points)
70339 ± 91414 ± 66449 ± 55<0.0010.718
LVSJ (Peak Power W)
Both legs combined76944 ± 184998 ± 1521,010 ± 4200.2770.019
left leg76488 ± 93526 ± 83512 ± 860.0010.096
right leg76518 ± 93527 ± 78526 ± 1000.6550.006
Body mass (kg)7578.2 ± 11.478.4 ± 1079.1 ± 10.40.1270.029
Skeletal muscle mass (kg)
Whole body7538.4 ± 4.839.2 ± 4.439.2 ± 4.5<0.0010.173
Fat free mass (kg)
Whole body7567.4 ± 868.9 ± 7.568.6 ± 7.8<0.0010.151
right leg7510.7 ± 1.410.8 ± 1.310.7 ± 1.30.0030.080
left leg7510.7 ± 1.410.8 ± 1.310.6 ± 1.30.0010.090
right arm753.80 ± 0.63.95 ± 0.53.96 ± 0.5<0.0010.162
left arm753.83 ± 0.63.94 ± 0.53.95 ± 0.5<0.0010.152
Body fat percent (%)7513.4 ± 5.511.9 ± 4.212.9 ± 4.9<0.0010.164

P-values refer to the main effect of time across Test 1–3 (one-way repeated measures ANOVA). FM Beep-test, 20 m shuttle test; LVSJ, loaded vertical squat jump.

Loaded body muscle power

Lower body muscle power was assessed with a LVSJ. A total of 76 soldiers completed all three tests during military training. No significant changes were found in bilateral peak power (p = 0.318, ES = 0.015).

Unilateral jump showed lower power output for the left leg compared to the right leg at the initial test occasion, with a 5.3% difference, but showed a higher increase in power from baseline to Test 3 with a 5% (p = 0.010) difference compared to 1% (p = 0.609) for the right leg. During Test 3, there was no difference in peak power between the left and right leg, 507 ± 89 vs. 516 ± 112 W, respectively (p = 0.124). Between Test 1 and Test 2, participants showed a significant increase in peak power (+54 W, p = 0.025), but no significant difference was observed between Test 1 and Test 3 (Table 4).

Body composition

Body mass did not change significantly from baseline to end of SMT (p = 0.087, Table 4). The soldiers demonstrated a significant increase in SMM of 0.8 kg (p < 0.001) from baseline to the end of SMT (Table 4). FFM increased with 0.9 kg (p < 0.001) corresponding to a decrease in BF of 0.3%, (p < 0.001) during the entire military service. Basic military training reduced BF for soldiers with 1.5%, p < 0.001, followed by an increase during SMT of 1%, p < 0.001.

Discussion

The principal findings of the present study were that military training significantly improved aerobic capacity and overall multitest performance in soldiers. In contrast, changes in lower body muscle power and body composition were modest. These findings suggest that while military training effectively enhances endurance and overall fitness, adaptations in strength and body composition are more limited. High physical performance capacity is important for operational readiness, both during active service and prior to specialized military training. Previous studies have shown that lower aerobic capacity has unfavorable effects on soldiers' physical performance levels (17), and the use of combat gear is known to further impair (18) aerobic capacity and exercise performance level (19). Previous studies have demonstrated varied results of different training program designs. Some reported increases in soldiers' aerobic capacity, especially during the initial 6–12 weeks of military training (3, 20). The plateau in later phases may reflect a shift from controlled training to field training (21).

All of the soldiers in our study experienced significantly improved aerobic capacity, with an overall increase of +9.8% over the course of their military training. The greatest improvement occurred after BMT, followed by a smaller but significant increase in V̇2peak after SMT. This is similar to a study of Santtila, et al. (3) who showed an increase of 8.5% after BMT and other studies that reported a 6%–10% improvement in aerobic capacity (22, 23).

Traditionally, there has been a focus on the development of cardiorespiratory endurance for soldiers during basic military training (24). However, the most common physically demanding tasks within the armed forces are manual materials handling tasks, which primarily require the development of muscular strength (1). Therefore, muscular strength should be considered an essential focus in basic military training (24).

Our study indicates that while BMT significantly enhances multitest scores, subsequent specialized training yields a more modest improvement. The number of push-ups is one of the factors leading to higher performance in the multitest and is common in military training (4). Sit-ups are also included in daily physical training, in both BMT and SMT. This could potentially explain the high increase in multitest points during the entire test period.

In contrast to endurance-related outcomes, lower-body muscle power showed limited adaptation. Bilateral loaded squat jump performance did not improve significantly across the study period. Although unilateral left leg jump test showed a significant improvement in peak power for the whole period (+5%), with 7% during BMT, a non-significant decrease of 2% was seen during SMT. Our findings correspond with previous studies reporting no significant changes in lower extremity power during military training (25, 26). The method we used to measure power was quite different from the method used by Oliver, et al. (26), which used the Lewis formula to estimate power output (26). Although, similar to our study, Oliver, et al. (26) evaluated recruits, and their results found no improvements in lower extremity power, whereas improvements were seen in upper body strength.

The lack of improvement in lower body power could potentially be explained by the structure of military training, which primarily emphasizes aerobic training, military-oriented combat training, and strength training. To increase power output, an individual requires a combination of high-intensity strength training combined with speed- and explosive-based exercises (27), which appear to be underrepresented in the military training program (28).

The results show that BMT affects body composition. Participants experienced an increase in SMM/FFM, particularly during BMT (2%) but no further change during SMT. These results correspond with previous research, which has shown increases in SMM/FFM following BMT (6, 29). However, these findings contrast with Margolis, et al. (30), who reported reductions in FFM in men, and with Piirainen, et al. (31), who observed no changes following eight weeks of BMT.

Body fat percentage decreased during BMT by 11.2% but increased after SMT by 8.5%, no doubt reflecting less aerobic and anaerobic training during SMT. These findings correspond to previous research showing that training during BMT improves aerobic capacity and fat percentage loss (7). Previous studies with a training period varying from 8 weeks to 12 months showed a decrease in body fat percentage ranging from 1.2% to 20.3% (6, 10, 29). In contrast to Piirainen, et al. (31), we did not see any changes in body fat following eight weeks of military basic training. There might be an interesting connection between the increases in peak power with 5%, of unilateral left leg in the LVSJ corresponding with an small increase in FFM for the left leg after BMT that would be interesting to study more comprehensively in future studies.

Our results were similar to the results of Santtila, et al. (10), which examined body fat changes from eight weeks of basic military training followed by eight weeks of continued military training. Their study demonstrated a decrease during BMT and no change during continued military training. Whereas, our study showed a decrease from Baseline to BMT, but in contrast to Santtila, et al. (10) BF increased to Baseline levels after SMT.

Interestingly, FFM was maintained during SMT despite the increase in body fat. This might be explained by the low levels of resistance training needed to maintain gains in muscle mass (32). This also indicates that SMT offers sufficient physical training to maintain muscle mass gains achieved during BMT but not enough for further improvements.

The current study has some limitations. The distribution of participants across BMT and SMT phases was uneven, making it difficult to fully disentangle phase-specific effects from cumulative training exposure. Future studies should standardize testing time points within each phase or use repeated measures across phases. The study design also did not allow comparisons between different branches of SMT, which may vary in physical demands. Grouping the participants by their branch would have enabled a more thorough examination of different SMT. Additionally, participants were not identical across all test modalities, reducing the ability to perform direct between-test comparisons.

A suggestion for future research should be a new research project that includes female soldiers. In addition, future research, could investigate the impact of basic military training on efficiency and physical performance of the upper extremities.

Practical applications

The present study demonstrates that military training effectively improves aerobic capacity and muscular performance, particularly during basic military training, supporting soldiers' ability to perform physically demanding tasks while wearing combat gear. However, the limited changes observed in lower body power and body composition indicate that current programs place insufficient emphasis on strength and power development. Incorporating more targeted resistance and explosive training, especially during basic training, may better prepare soldiers for strength-demanding military tasks while maintaining aerobic fitness across all phases of service.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Nurka Pranjic, University of Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Reviewed by: Stephen A. Foulis, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM), United States

Evan Donald Feigel, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, United States

Kai Pihlainen, Finnish Defence Forces, Finland

Statements

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This study was funded by Halmstad University and the Swedish Armed Forces.

Data availability

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics approval

The studies involving humans were approved by Regionala etikprövningsnämnden i Lund. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

JL: Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Investigation. CO: Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Methodology. AB: Writing – review & editing. MD: Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all subjects who volunteered to participate in this study and demonstrated great motivation and commitment.

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Citation

Larsson, J., et al. (2026). Effect of regulated military training on physical performance and body composition of Swedish soldiers. Frontiers in Environmental Health, Volume 5. https://doi.org/
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Accepted
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5 - 2026

Copyright

© 2026 Larsson, Olsson, Bremander and Dencker.

License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

*Correspondence: Jonas Larsson

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