Breaking the global plateau in strawberry production: the potential for utility scale agrivoltaics

Introduction

By 2050, the Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that feeding a global population of 10 billion people will require a 50% increase in food production and 25% more freshwater compared to 2012 levels (FAO, news article, 2025). Enhancing food security requires an increase in production for local and regional food systems (Balis et al., 2024). Efforts to meet this demand will be challenged by a changing climate fueled by the use of fossil fuels. The on-going changes derived from increased carbon emissions include several stressors, like more frequent and intense droughts, that will make agriculture even more challenging into the future (Soeder, 2020). Solar energy generated from ground-mounted photovoltaic (PV) panels can replace energy generated from fossil fuel combustion but requires land especially when installed at a large scale (Heremans et al., 2017). Solar developers seek land that features plentiful solar radiation, with flat, well-drained soils (Adeh et al., 2019). This can generate conflict between renewable energy and agriculture in how land is used; a situation that occurs not only where arable land is limited (Asa'a et al., 2024) but also where farmland is abundant (Karhoff et al., 2023). There is public support for solar energy, but it is coupled with a concern for the potential loss of farmland (Chen et al., 2023). This concern could be mitigated by integrating solar energy with farming, through agrivoltaic practices. Agrivoltaic systems combine agriculture with photovoltaic electricity generation, providing both agronomic and economic benefits while reducing land-use competition (Campana et al., 2025); however, they require careful selection of crops suited to the unique microclimate of a solar farm.

High-value crops, especially strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa), may be a suitable candidate for an agrivoltiac-based production system. Strawberries are cultivated in a range of specialized environments depending on climate suitability and market proximity. Strawberry production is commonly concentrated in temperate coastal regions (e.g. California, United States), high-altitude mountain areas (e.g. Cameron Highlands, Malaysia) and in greenhouse-based systems near major cities in East and Southeast Asia (Nishizawa, 2021). However, strawberries are facing a global production plateau despite consumer demand, improved management practices and new cultivars (Zacharaki et al., 2024). This plateau is most noticeable in Europe and the Americas (Figure 1A). In the United States, 24,239 hectares were planted with strawberries in 2014, and the planted area remained approximately the same in 2024, at 24,767 hectares (FAO, 2026). This plateau is maintained by increasing land use competition and exacerbated by climate related stressors, including rising temperatures, prolonged drought, shifting interactions between crops, pests, pathogens, and flooding. When combined, these factors have resulted in yield stagnation, both in terms of per plant productivity and overall industry scale production at both regional and global scales (Altieri et al., 2015, Zacharaki et al., 2024). Several physiological and logistical constraints also contribute to this production plateau. First, strawberries are highly perishable and sensitive to shipping conditions (Moghadas et al., 2025), which limits the distance they can be transported without significant loss in quality. Second, as non-climacteric fruits, strawberries do not ripen after harvest (Yu et al., 2025), meaning they must be picked when fully ripe and sold quickly, leaving a narrow marketing window and limiting postharvest flexibility. Third, urbanization has further constrained strawberry production by reducing available agricultural land near major markets. For example, urban expansion has largely eliminated the industry in southern California, historically a significant strawberry growing region (Holmes, 2024). Given that solar farms may be located near cities facilitated by a proximity to existing electrical infrastructure, a strategic connection can be made in addressing these challenges. Positioning strawberry production closer to urban areas would enable faster delivery of fresh strawberries to nearby markets, reducing postharvest losses. With demand for strawberries continuing to grow due to their nutritional value and popularity (Hernández-Martínez et al., 2023; Sangiorgio et al., 2023), global import volumes further reflect this sustained consumer demand across all major regions (Figure 1B). The divergence between the production plateau and rising import volumes suggests that existing production systems are failing to keep pace with global demand, reinforcing the need for alternative production environments. Making the question of where and how to sustainably expand production increasingly urgent. In this review, we describe the context for how ground-mounted solar farms may be suitable for strawberry production.

Varying scales of solar development

Solar energy is produced at multiple spatial scales from individual homeowners (typically less than a MW) to community and utility scale (1 MW or more). The scale of these latter forms is defined in part by energy production, with 1 MW typically requiring 0.7–1 hectare (Ong et al., 2013; Wear et al., 2025). Community scale solar systems typically produce less than 5 MW and serve neighborhoods with a focus on delivering local benefits to both a grid and end-users (Csereklyei et al., 2024; Waechter et al., 2024). Utility-scale solar systems produce 1 MW and beyond, supplying power directly to a grid (Mendelsohn et al., 2012). At either community or utility-scale, the generation of energy is maximized by configuring PV panels to capture solar irradiance either by tracking the sun (single-axis tracking) or in a fixed-tilt system. The former produces shade that moves throughout the day, the later produces a fixed shade profile. While utility scale solar farms have traditionally favored fixed tilt configurations, densely packing panels to maximize energy yield and cost efficiency (Dupraz et al., 2011), since 2015, projects using single-axis tracking have consistently outperformed these systems; by 2023, 96% of new installations adopted tracking configurations (Seel et al., 2024). As solar power expands, utility scale farms are predicted to have the largest footprint encroaching on land currently used for agriculture (Maguire et al., 2024).

Agricultural-centric vs energy-centric solar farm designs

Solar farms can be categorized by systems optimized for agricultural productivity or energy generation designs (Macknick et al., 2013; Pascaris et al., 2020; Zainol Abidin et al., 2021). In an agriculture-centric approach, the PV panels are deployed so that they have limited impact on crop production. This can be achieved by increasing panel height (Amaducci et al., 2018), adjusting spacing between PV panels (Marrou et al., 2013a, 2013b), or using semi-transparent modules to enhance light penetration and microclimatic conditions (Trommsdorff et al., 2022). For example, PV panels were deployed on a single-axis tracking system elevated 6.1 m to accommodate conventional methods used to cultivate corn (Zea mays) at a commodity scale (Gupta et al., 2024). Despite the partial shading, corn cultivated under the panels yielded 10,182 kg/ha compared to 10,955 kg/ha in unshaded areas, a reduction of just under 8% (Gupta et al., 2024). Similarly, tracking PV panels were installed 5 m above the ground (1.5 m above the tree canopy) in an apple orchard in southern France. This system reduced peak daytime air temperatures by up to 3.8 °C and increased relative humidity by 14%, creating a less stressful microclimate for apple trees. Irrigation demand dropped by 6–31% due to lower evaporation, while the panels’ adaptive shading (averaging 50–55% coverage) helped mitigate frost damage and alternate bearing (Juillion et al., 2022). Solar panels elevated 4.5 m above the ground and spaced 4.5 m apart allowed sufficient light penetration and air circulation for raspberry plants, resulting in improved microclimate conditions, 41% reduction in water usage, and a 32% increase in marketable yield compared to plastic tunnels (Juillion et al., 2024). In these three examples the PV systems were fitted to the agricultural systems, adding to the cost of solar farm construction. This accommodation for agrivoltaics increases total capital expenditures for installation as high as 38% (Schindele et al., 2020).

In contrast, energy-centric solar farms prioritize power generation by employing PV arrays in configurations designed to optimize energy production, an approach favored for utility scale. This includes the use of a single-axis tracking system, with the height, row spacing, and ground coverage ratio (GCR) of PV panels designed to maximize energy production while minimizing construction costs. Unlike agriculture-centric designs, an energy-centric farm has significant shadows that shift across the ground throughout the day, reducing available light by as much as 38% (Kannenberg et al., 2023). Significant crop production is possible in an energy-centric farm with shade tolerant crops (Macknick et al., 2013). Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), the range of wavelengths best suited for crops, may be sufficient under and between panels for plant growth (Dinesh and Pearce, 2016; Zainol Abidin et al., 2021). Despite the reduction in available light, significant plant growth has been observed under PV panels configured within an energy-centric design, though these data are limited to non-crop plants within an arid environment (Beatty et al., 2017; Sturchio et al., 2022). Using GCR as an indicator of crop-level light availability, A meta-analysis using GCR as an indicator of potential crop productivity suggests that a GCR of approximately 25% is required to generate a crop yield that is comparable to 80% of an un-shaded equivalent (Dupraz, 2024). However, no strawberry yield data were used in this estimate. Because there is limited empirical evidence of strawberry production in energy-centric, utility scale solar farms, we reviewed the existing literature on plant response to shade to estimate if the conditions in a solar farm could support strawberry production.

Strawberries in agrivoltaic systems: suitability and physiological responses to shade

Crops with different photosynthetic pathways (C3 vs. C4 plants) are likely to respond differently to the conditions within in an energy-centric solar farm where prolonged shadows occur. Shade-tolerant C3 photosynthetic crops may thrive from the modified microclimate under agrivoltaics systems, potentially benefitting from improvements in water use efficiency. Plant species employing C3 pathways demonstrate superior adaptation to dynamic light, maintaining higher quantum yields, especially in cooler temperatures by minimizing photorespiration and slowing deactivation of enzymes like RuBisCO, which supports rapid recovery of CO₂ assimilation during light fluctuations (Kubásek et al., 2013). Additionally, they exhibit greater plasticity in structure and biochemistry, such as increasing chlorophyll b and reallocating nitrogen from RuBisCO under shade (Sage and McKown, 2006; Xie et al., 2020). In contrast, species with a higher dependence on intense light, often associated with the C4 pathway, may experience stress-related symptoms, reduced growth, or lower yields unless management strategies are adapted, as seen in agriculture-centric designs. Plants employing a C4 pathway face limitations under shade due to their dependence on the ATP-driven CO₂-concentrating mechanism and rigid Kranz anatomy. Shade increases bundle sheath leakiness (φ) disrupts the coordination between C3 and C4 cycles, resulting in lower photosynthetic efficiency (Kubásek et al., 2013). Photosynthesis using a C4 pathway is less efficient under low light because it incurs higher ATP costs per CO₂ fixed. Under low light, this extra energy demand is not met, and C4 plants often underperform compared to C3 species in such conditions (Yamori, 2016). Ecologically, these differences explain why uncultivated C4 plants are rare in shaded environments, while uncultivated C3 species dominate forest understories and other low-light habitats (Sage, 2000). Leveraging plant shade responses is essential for selecting crops most compatible for the growing conditions within an energy-centric solar farm.

Among C3 horticultural crops, strawberries are particularly well-suited for agrivoltaic practices in an energy-centric solar farm. In general, strawberry plants are sensitive to high temperatures (Klamkowski and Treder, 2008; Okimura and Igarashi, 1996; Ledesma et al., 2008). Elevated temperatures (25-30 °C) reduce pollen viability, inhibit pollen germination and pollen tube elongation, and increase ovule unfertilization in heat-sensitive strawberry cultivars, thereby decreasing reproductive success and potential fruit set (Ledesma & Sugiyama, 2005). They are also sensitive to water stress (Ünal and Okatan, 2023), which makes them an ideal candidate for the moderated conditions that occur under PV panels.

Strawberry plants respond in several ways to varying degrees of shade, including increase in specific leaf area without an increase in total leaf area (Awang and Atherton, 1995; Wagstaffe and Battey, 2004; Tabatabaei et al., 2008). Moderate shading can preserve leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, net photosynthetic rate, and PSII photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) under water-deficit conditions, while simultaneously improving water use efficiency and reducing membrane damage in strawberry plants (Cordoba-Novoa et al., 2022). Recently, several studies have investigated the response of strawberry’s from shade derived from PV panels (Table 1). Tang et al. (2019) explored strawberry production in greenhouses with PV-equipped rooftops with either an opaque PV (OPV) covering 25.9% of the roof, a semi-transparent PV (STPV) covering 20%, or no covering. Strawberries grown under both PV types exhibited higher soluble solids (16.4 mg/g for OPV, 15.7 mg/g for STPV) compared to unshaded controls, with OPV shading producing higher quality fruit and greater yield relative to STPV. Semi-transparent photovoltaic (STPV) modules were installed in greenhouses producing strawberries, generating comparable number of leaves and flowers, and although fruit size was slightly smaller, total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were enhanced (Petrakis et al., 2024). In a controlled indoor environment simulating the outdoor conditions of a solar farm, Jamil and Pearce (2025) observed increased fresh weight, yield, flower count, and leaf number in strawberry plants under semi-transparent photovoltaic modules. The study was conducted under artificial lighting and regulated settings, not in an outdoor agrivoltaic system. When these conditions were applied in an outdoor field setting, strawberries grown under 44% and 69% transparent c-Si PV modules outperformed the control in fruit production, averaging 46.0 and 43.0 fruits per plant respectively, compared to 42.3 fruits in the control group (Jamil et al., 2025). It is important to note that strawberries were not planted in soil, but in pots placed beneath custom-built PV module structures designed for experimental purposes. Overall, we could not find any study that explored strawberry production within utility scale solar farms using an energy-centric design, a combination that is anticipated to occupy the greatest amount of land used for solar energy production. The expansion of strawberry production into such farms will likely not include variation in shaded due to the use of PV panels with varying transparency, nor the use of pots for production. More conventional approaches to the production of strawberries within an energy-centric solar farm have not been fully explored. For instance, Mishra et al. (2025) estimated the profitability of producing strawberries within an agrivoltaic system using hypothetical yields varying from 50% below to 50% above benchmark, in place of empirical data. This highlights a need for validation of strawberry production in solar farms with a more industry-standard design, to confirm these outcomes under varying environmental conditions. Despite these limitations, the existing data suggest that maintaining optimal yield while producing a fruit of equal or higher quality is possible within an agrivoltaic setting (Table 1).

Table 1. Summary of published strawberry cultivation within agrivoltaics systems.

^aThe operational scale includes several categories that vary by energy production and size, from largest to smallest: utility scale, community scale, behind the meter, greenhouse, and biome.

^bShading refers to the proportion of crop/ground surface covered by shadow, while transparency refers to the light transmitted through the PV module.

^cYield was estimated as maximum total fruit fresh weight for potted plants. The range in yield for agrivoltaics reflects differing PV transparency levels.

^dCumulative fruit weight per 20 plants.

^eAverage fruit weight.

^fTotal fresh weight per plant.

^gSoluble Solids Content (SSC), a measure of the sugar concentration in fruit, typically expressed as a percentage (%) or degrees Brix (°Brix). Higher SSC generally indicates sweeter, better quality fruit.

Beyond the physiological potential for strawberries to thrive in a shaded environment, there are other features that make them a suitable candidate for production within a solar farm. Their compact growth habit and shade tolerance offer advantages over other fruit crops in a solar farm. As a low-growing plant, strawberries are structurally compatible with solar infrastructure, posing limited to no interference with energy generation. Strawberry production requires labor during the harvest season due to the intensive, and time sensitive picking process (Guthman, 2017). If solar farms built near urban areas are targeted for strawberry production, a proximity to labor markets may help offset labor-related production constraints.

While energy-centric solar farms could expand strawberry production with limited to no changes to a solar farm’s design, accommodations are needed to ensure the possibility that agrivoltaics can be practiced on site. This will include design features that allow for irrigation and guarantee farmer access so that timely farming practices can be implemented throughout a growing season (e.g. planting, applying pesticides, harvesting). In the short-term, several immediate questions need to be answered before conducting strawberry production within a solar farm, regardless of its design. First, cultivar selection is critical. June-bearing varieties such as Jewel and Annapolis, which concentrate yield within a defined seasonal window, may be suitable for an agrivoltaic management systems. High temperatures above approximately 24 °C are known to inhibit short-day induction of flowering in these varieties, though cultivar-level variation in this threshold has been documented (Bradford et al., 2010; Sønsteby and Heide, 2017). The temperature moderation provided by solar infrastructure could benefit flowering reliability. Day-neutral varieties such as Albion are also particularly promising in agrivoltaic systems; unlike June-bearing varieties, they are insensitive to photoperiod and continue to flower as long as temperatures remain between 4 and 29 °C (Pritts et al., 1998; Pritts and Dale, 1989), making the temperature-moderating microclimate of solar infrastructure critical to sustaining their continuous production through the hottest periods of the growing season. Second, it is unclear what sub-sections of a solar farm are most suitable for production, and if the optimal location varies by cultivar. Plants respond to variations in light intensity and quality, modifying their growth and development to ensure survival in varied light environments (Bou-Torrent et al., 2014). Adjustments in crop selection and management may be necessary due to light limitations, altered microclimatic conditions, and physical constraints beneath solar structures (Zainol Abidin et al., 2021). Additionally, altered microclimates under solar panels may affect plant nutrient uptake and allocation, potentially influencing overall physiology, growth, and productivity and emphasizing the need for tailored management practices in agrivoltaic systems (Alomari et al., 2026). Light-driven responses are evident at multiple developmental stages. During vegetative growth, the perception of a low red to far-red (R/FR) light ratio triggers rapid phenotypic changes such as leaf hyponasty and elongation of stems and petioles, an escape strategy aimed at avoiding shading by neighboring plants (Adams et al., 2009). Empirical studies will be needed to determine how best to adjust strawberry management to anticipated changes in crop phenology. Finally, once the agronomics of growing within a solar farm are optimized, can this novel setting result in additional value, demonstrated by a greater willingness to pay by the consumer? Surveys have demonstrated a general positive response to the expansion of solar farm (Chen et al., 2023), to what extant this opinion extends to food produced at these farms is unclear.

Conclusion

The design of a solar farm influences what crops are most suitability for an agrivoltaic system. Agriculture-centric systems are better suited for tall, light-demanding crops, while energy-centric configurations, with lower panel height and denser spacing, may be more appropriate for low-growing, shade-tolerant crops such as strawberries. The microclimate conditions are more favorable for strawberry production, making the inter-row areas the most suitable locations for cultivation within energy-centric agrivoltaics layouts. In the long term, there is potential to further optimize strawberry yield by developing cultivars specifically adapted to the microclimatic of a solar farm. Future research should explore cultivar selection for agrivoltaic environments, identification of optimal planting zones within energy-centric solar arrays with sufficient PAR and temperature dynamics to generate optimal yield. Long-term evaluations of yield and fruit quality at solar farms could inform breeding programs for cultivars more suited for the unique conditions of an energy-centric solar farm. Such studies should include both perennial and annual production systems to determine the most suitable management strategy for agrivoltaic cultivation. In conclusion, agrivoltaics practices create dual-uses from the same location, creating a scalable opportunity to overcome land competition and climate-related constraints contributing to a global yield plateau in strawberry production.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Ozkan Kaya, Erzincan Horticultural Research Institute, Türkiye

Reviewed by: Aptika Hana Prastiwi Nareswari, Universitas Kadiri, Indonesia

Long Zhang, Nanjing Agricultural University, China