Towards sustainable viticulture: soil management decisions, technological adoption and gender equity in Mediterranean vineyards

1 Introduction

Viticulture constitutes one of the most widely recognised and significant agricultural activities worldwide, both because of its economic, social and cultural values (Provenzano et al., 2024; Straffelini et al., 2024; Yagüe Llamas, 2023) and because of its agronomic and environmental implications (Aouadi et al., 2021; Dekamin et al., 2024; Martins et al. 2022; Visconti et al., 2024). With more than 7.3 million hectares cultivated globally (OIV, 2023), grapevine cultivation plays a strategic role in many regions, particularly in those with Mediterranean climates, where vineyards shape landscapes, structure territories and constitute a source of collective identity (Arceño, 2022; Privitera et al., 2025).

Spain, the country with the largest cultivated surface area (945 kha in 2023), concentrates close to 13.1% of the world's vineyards, although it has continued to lose area for decades (−2.8% in the period 2018–2023) (OIV, 2023). Among its producing regions, Andalusia stands out, where ancestral traditions coexist with contemporary challenges derived from climate change, soil degradation, rural depopulation processes and the effects of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the expansion of olive groves (Quesada Aguilar and Anta Félez, 2025). The province of Granada represents a paradigmatic case: located in a zone of ecological transition between the coast and the mountainous interior, its viticulture is characterised by fragmented landholdings, steep slopes, water scarcity and an ageing agricultural population, all of which strongly condition agrarian management decisions and the sustainability of production systems (Valenzuela and Matarán, 2008).

Soil, as the physical and biological support of the grapevine, occupies a central position in this problem. Its health, understood as the capacity to maintain its ecological functionality, is directly influenced by the management practices implemented in vineyards (Rodrigo-Comino, 2018). In Mediterranean climates, such as that of Granada, soils are particularly exposed to intense erosion processes due to environmental factors, torrential rainfall, high temperatures and high evapotranspiration (Borrelli et al., 2017; García-Ruiz et al., 2011), but also to sociocultural factors linked to management decisions, which often result in limited vegetation cover during part of the year (Marques et al., 2015). It is well-known that frequent tillage, continuous use of herbicides, limited crop rotation and the systematic removal of plant residues contribute to organic matter loss, soil compaction and a decline in microbial biodiversity in all agricultural systems (e.g., Al-Shammary et al., 2025; Šimanský et al., 2016 White, 2015);, but specially in vineyards (Prosdocimi et al., 2016). In contrast, numerous studies have highlighted the benefits of using cover crops, organic amendments, mulching (Andrenelli et al., 2025; Novara et al., 2011), direct seeding and minimum tillage (Gristina et al., 2022) as effective strategies for restoring soil ecosystem functions without compromising productivity (Telak et al., 2021).

However, the degree of implementation of these practices varies considerably between regions, farm types and farmer profiles. Decisions related to soil management in vineyards are determined by economic factors, social aspects and perceptions of environmental conservation (Marques et al., 2015; Schütte, and Bergmann, 2019). These motivations may be hierarchised depending on the geographical, social and cultural context. In many cases, they are the result of a legitimate instrumental rationality on the part of farmers, who tend to prioritise cost reduction and attempt to maximise short-term yields, relegating conservation practices to a secondary level, as their benefits are usually delayed and less visible in the short term (Terrado et al., 2023; Upton and Nielsen-Pincus, 2021). This logic is reinforced by the uncertainties derived from adverse and changing climatic conditions, but also by the difficulty faced by winegrowers and wineries in efficiently placing their products on the market and by the lack of access to financing for agroecological transition processes (Polita and Madureira, 2021; Teschner and Orenstein, 2022).

Other social constraints also exert a notable influence on decision-making. Variables such as farmer age, educational background, family trajectory, level of farm professionalisation and inclusion in innovation or technical advisory networks modulate the propensity to implement changes in management practices (Marques et al., 2019; Siepmann and Nicholas, 2018; Spielmann, 2017). This pattern is confirmed by empirical studies conducted in Spain, France and Chile, which have shown that the adoption of cover crops or organic composting is related to risk perception, previous experience and the producer's social capital (Ghali et al., 2022; Teschner et al., 2017).

In the province of Granada, the ageing of the agricultural population constitutes one of the critical factors limiting innovation and, consequently, the adoption of more sustainable practices (Cambronero et al., 2025). According to data from INE (2023), more than 60% of vineyard farm holders are over 55 years of age. This age profile, together with the marginal incorporation of younger farmers, conditions dependence on inherited production models, limits exposure to new technologies and reduces the likelihood of participation in training programmes (Shevtsov et al., 2015). Another structural problem is land fragmentation: the average size of vineyard holdings is less than five hectares (INE, 2023), which hampers mechanisation, productive diversification and the implementation of solutions based on digitalisation. Additionally, for many owners, income derived from viticulture does not represent their main source of livelihood. This socio-economic context shapes an ecosystem in which opportunities for transition towards regenerative viticulture are unequal, and where access to technical advice, cooperative networks or support programmes significantly condition decisions regarding the type of management practices to be adopted.

The technological dimension, identified as a strategic tool to improve efficiency and reduce environmental impacts in vineyards, shows highly uneven adoption in the viticultural sector (Rodrigo-Comino et al., 2024b). Technologies such as soil moisture sensors and other physicochemical parameters, drones for mapping crop conditions, the installation of meteorological stations, spectral analysis using satellite imagery, or digital decision-support platforms have been implemented in regions such as Languedoc (Gautier et al., 2023), La Rioja (Marzo-Navarro and Pedraja-Iglesias, 2021) or Penedès (Homs Ramírez de la Piscina, 2022), but their penetration in areas such as Granada remains incipient. Among the main barriers are the initial investment costs, limited specific training, perceived complexity of use, lack of technical support services and limited evidence of short-term economic returns (Ammoniaci et al., 2021; Kaňovská, 2021). Although scientific literature documents cases in which significant reductions in water use or phytosanitary products have been observed following digitalisation of management, these experiences have not yet generated a sufficient demonstration effect to trigger widespread adoption or have not permeated the collective imaginary (Cerdà and Rodrigo-Comino, 2021).

An emerging but still insufficiently analysed factor in the scientific literature is the role of women in soil management decisions in viticulture. This underrepresentation is particularly concerning given that, in Andalusia, women account for more than 30% of farm holders (MAPA, 2025) and that their incorporation into the sector has increased over the last decade thanks to programmes such as GIRA Mujeres or the 2011 Law on Shared Ownership. Nevertheless, their effective participation in technical or strategic decision-making within vineyards remains limited, with women being more present in administrative, management or marketing tasks (Livat and Jaffré, 2022). Qualitative studies conducted in France and Latin America (Duarte Alonso et al., 2021; Tourtelier et al, 2023) have shown that women winegrowers tend to adopt more holistic approaches, prioritising soil health, biodiversity and long-term sustainability, which represents an untapped opportunity for the redesign of agrosystems (Galbreath and Tisch, 2022; Morcillo Casas, 2024).

From this perspective, the transition towards more sustainable viticulture should not be understood solely as the adoption of environmentally friendly agronomic practices, but as a broader socio-technical process involving the interaction of environmental, economic, technological and social dimensions. Agroecological transition, therefore, provides an integrative framework through which soil management, digital innovation, farmer characteristics, institutional support and gender equity can be analysed as interdependent components shaping the adaptive capacity and long-term resilience of viticultural systems (Aouadi et al., 2021; Teschner and Orenstein, 2022; Tittonell, 2019). This perspective underpins the present study and guides the interpretation of the relationships explored throughout the manuscript.

This complex set of factors highlights the need to advance towards a more comprehensive understanding of the constraints affecting soil management decisions in viticulture, moving beyond academic, technocentric or exclusively economic approaches. Available data must go beyond the perceptions of decision-makers and incorporate social, gender, institutional and territorial dimensions. Accordingly, this research seeks to provide empirical evidence through a case study of the province of Granada, based on the analysis of data collected through surveys addressed to winegrowers, technicians, oenologists and other key agents within this agri-food system. Rather than directly measuring soil biophysical conditions, the study focuses on the social and behavioural determinants that shape soil management decisions, providing the human dimension required to complement existing environmental research on Mediterranean vineyards. The aim is to identify soil use patterns, the underlying motivations guiding the choice of practices, levels of technological appropriation, perceived barriers to change and the representation of women in these processes.

Thus, based on the idea that a better understanding of these factors can contribute to a fairer, more efficient and more agro-environmentally aligned viticulture, the general objective of this research is to analyse the factors influencing soil management decision-making in Granada's viticulture, considering farmer profiles, structural characteristics of holdings, use of agricultural technologies and the participation of women in agricultural management. From this general objective, the following specific objectives are derived: (i) to characterise current soil management practices in Granada vineyards and their perceived impact on soil health; (ii) to identify the socioeconomic, educational and productive factors conditioning such practices; (iii) to assess the degree of technological adoption and its relationship with innovation in soil management; (iv) to analyze the role of women in vineyard-related decision-making processes; and (v) to formulate recommendations aimed at improving sustainability, equity and resilience in regional viticulture. Although based on a single regional case study, the research is intended to contribute to the broader understanding of Mediterranean viticulture by interpreting local evidence in comparison with patterns reported in other wine-producing regions.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

The province of Granada, located in the south-east of the Iberian Peninsula, constitutes a viticulture region of high agronomic, ecological and socio-cultural interest. With an area of 12,646 km², it presents a remarkable diversity of agroclimatic conditions, ranging from coastal depressions to the mountainous areas of Sierra Nevada, where vineyards are located at altitudes exceeding 1,200 m above sea level, and from semi-arid to subtropical climates. This territorial heterogeneity is reflected in provincial viticulture, which is characterised by its traditional nature, the predominance of smallholdings and a long-standing adaptation to environmental conditions. Vineyards in Granada are mainly distributed across the regions of Contraviesa-Alpujarra, the Altiplano of Baza-Huéscar, the Montes Orientales and the Temple area and Lecrín Valley, forming a discontinuous spatial pattern associated with marked altitudinal, climatic and lithological gradients across the province. Low- to medium-intensity production systems predominate, generally under rainfed conditions, on shallow soils and on steep slopes (García-Castellanos et al., 2022; Rodríguez-Torres et al., 2023).

According to data from the Ministry of Agriculture and the Survey on Crop Areas and Yields (ESYRCE), in recent years Granada has maintained a stable vineyard area of around 4,000 hectares, although a significant decline has occurred since the 1980s due to changes in agricultural policies, rural abandonment and relatively low profitability compared with other crops (ESYRCE, 2025; MAPA, 2025). Most plots have an average size of less than five hectares, which hinders mechanisation and favours the maintenance of traditional farming practices, based on manual or semi-mechanised tillage, low planting density and practices that are in some cases poorly conservative from a soil perspective.

Within this general context, the existence of the Provincial Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) “Vino de Calidad de Granada (Quality Wine from Granada)”, officially recognised in 2009 and regulated by Commission Regulation (EC) No 607/2009, is particularly noteworthy. This PDO includes approximately 1,200 hectares distributed across 168 municipalities, integrating the northern zone (Baza and Huéscar), the Vega, the Montes, the Alpujarra and part of western Granada (MAPA, 2025). This PDO overlaps with the existence of the so-called Protected Geographical Indications (PGI) for wines: Altiplano de Sierra Nevada, Cumbres del Guadalfeo and Laderas del Genil. These PGIs, together with the PDO, regulate production standards and recognise the quality and origin of wines produced in the province. The average altitude of vineyards under the PDO exceeds 800 m, conferring a distinctive agroclimatic identity characterised by marked thermal contrasts, high solar radiation and low pest pressure, conditions that allow high-quality viticulture to be developed without the need for a high chemical input load (OIV, 2023; Vicente-Vicente et al., 2016).

From an environmental perspective, PDO vineyards are located in areas of high ecological value, with soils predominantly of metamorphic or calcareous origin, medium to loamy textures and moderately low organic matter content, which increases their vulnerability to degradation if appropriate conservation practices are not implemented (González-Vivar et al., 2025) (Figure 1). Detailed georeferenced information on individual PDO vineyards and member holdings is not publicly available, as the PDO regulatory body does not disclose these data due to confidentiality and data protection regulations. Consequently, it was not possible to produce a map showing the precise location of the surveyed vineyards.

2.2 Methodology

2.2.1 Sampling size and database creation

The methodological (Figure 2) design of this study was structured around a questionnaire (n = 103) addressed to winegrowers, including owners (n = 84) and oenologists and other technical staff (n = 19) linked to the province of Granada, both within and outside the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO). Participant selection did not follow probabilistic criteria; instead, intentional sampling was used, aimed at capturing the internal diversity of the sector (Chacón et al., 2022). This approach is justified by similar research analysing agrarian systems in localised contexts, where representativeness is achieved not through random sampling but through thematic saturation or diversity of profiles (Iliyasu and Etikan, 2021; Rahman et al., 2022). Accordingly, the configuration of our sample consisted of including the entire population available in public databases, on the one hand through mediation by the PDO (all winegrowers with holdings within the Protected Designation of Origin “Vinos de Calidad de Granada”, as well as technicians, oenologists and other profiles with direct responsibility for vineyard management), and on the other hand all available non-PDO winegrowers through mediation by FAECA (Federación de Cooperativas Agroalimentarias de Granada). As of January 2025, the PDO comprised 47 registered companies. Survey distribution among PDO members was carried out directly through the PDO regulatory body, while non-PDO participants were contacted through FAECA (Federación de Cooperativas Agro-alimentarias de Granada). The questionnaire included a specific question regarding PDO membership, allowing respondent affiliation to be verified during data processing. The final dataset included 50 responses declaring PDO membership, indicating that some companies were represented by more than one respondent (e.g., owner, technician or oenologist). The sample provides extensive coverage of both PDO and non-PDO segments of Granada's viticultural sector and offers a robust basis for analysing regional patterns and trends.

2.2.2 Survey design

The topics addressed by the questionnaire stemmed from a preliminary qualitative phase based on 15 semi-structured interviews with vineyard owners and technicians. This exploratory phase provided the empirical basis for the design and validation of the questionnaire by identifying locally relevant management issues, refining the wording and structure of the survey, and ensuring that it adequately reflected the terminology, concerns and decision-making processes of Granada's viticultural sector. The qualitative interviews constitute an independent qualitative analysis with different research objectives and methodological procedures and are therefore not analysed in the present manuscript. The questionnaire, distributed between January and February 2025 in digital format (survey link), consisted of 47 questions (see Supplementary Material /Appendix A) organised into several interrelated thematic blocks. Participation was voluntary and anonymous. All respondents were informed about the objectives of the study and provided informed consent prior to completing the questionnaire. Responses were analysed and reported only in aggregated form to ensure confidentiality and prevent the identification of individual participants. These included sociodemographic questions (age, gender, educational level, years of experience in viticulture), farm characterisation (size, use of the harvest, membership of PDO or PGI, main source of income), questions on the respondent's professional profile (role performed in the vineyard and participation in decision-making), as well as sections aimed at identifying current soil management practices, those that had been tried at some point but subsequently abandoned, the reasons for their abandonment, the factors influencing the choice of practices and the degree of concern regarding different aspects of vineyard health. Instruments of this nature have been widely validated for the study of complex agrarian systems (Salvatore et al., 2023).

The instrument also included specific questions on current use of digital technologies, willingness to use a mobile application for vineyard management, desired functionalities of such an application and the presence and role of women on the farm. This type of information is considered key for understanding the socio-technical limitations of innovation adoption in agriculture (Gryshova et al., 2024).

2.2.3 Statistical analysis

Particular attention was paid to technology-related aspects, both regarding actual use of digital devices or tools and potential willingness to use a specific app for vineyard management, as well as the characteristics that participants considered most relevant in such a hypothetical tool. With respect to soil management, practices currently applied on a stable basis, those that had been tested but subsequently discarded, and the reasons for not maintaining them were examined. In addition, questions were included to assess the importance attributed to different factors when deciding on vineyard management (profitability, production, soil health, erosion, sustainability, labour saving, etc.), as well as the level of concern regarding specific problems such as soil loss, nutrient depletion, productivity or the effects of climate change. With regard to gender, analysis focused on whether female presence existed on farms, the specific roles performed by women (owners, technical advisers, harvesting, economic management or agronomic decision-making). Addressing these multiple dimensions responds to current methodological recommendations for analysing agroecological transitions (Benítez et al., 2021).

Descriptive statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS v.25.0 (IBM Corp. Released 2017. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.). Qualitative variables were represented by frequency and contingency tables. For quantitative variables, measures of central tendency and dispersion were applied (mean, median, standard deviation, standard error of the mean, minimum, maximum and percentiles).

Data normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, while homogeneity of variances was evaluated using Levene's test. For quantitative variables, comparisons between two groups were conducted using either Student's t-test (for normally distributed variables) or the Mann–Whitney U test (for non-normally distributed variables). Comparisons involving more than two groups were performed using one-way ANOVA or the Kruskal–Wallis test, depending on data distribution. When significant differences were detected, post-hoc multiple comparison procedures (Bonferroni, Games–Howell or pairwise Mann–Whitney tests, as appropriate) were applied to identify the groups responsible for the observed differences. Statistical significance was established at α = 0.05.

By integrating socio-economic, technical management, gender and technological predisposition dimensions, the statistical framework employed made it possible not only to characterise the sample, but also to identify relevant associations between individual factors (age, gender, educational level, experience) and farm dimensions (size, source of income, membership of PDO/PGI, use of the harvest). Overall, this design provides a comprehensive assessment of the social, organisational and technological dimensions influencing vineyard management decisions. Although the study does not include direct measurements of soil properties or environmental indicators, it identifies the human factors that condition the adoption of management practices with potential implications for long-term sustainability.

In the Results section, only statistically supported associations are interpreted as significant. Descriptive percentage differences are reported as trends when no statistically significant association was detected. Given the exploratory nature of the study and the structure of several categorical and multiple-response variables, the statistical framework focused on identifying statistically supported associations rather than developing predictive multivariate models.

3 Results

3.1 Characterisation of participant profiles and their farms

The sample is composed of 103 individuals linked to viticulture in the province of Granada, of whom 49.5% report more than 15 years of experience and 12.6% more than 30 years of involvement in vineyard activity. The mean age is 55.5 years (SD = 13.8), ranging from 23 to 87 years, with a median of 58 years. Educational attainment is heterogeneous, with 46.6% of respondents having primary education, 33.0% secondary or vocational education, and 20.4% university studies. Gender distribution shows a predominance of men, although women account for 31.1% of respondents. Relationships between the main sociodemographic and structural variables are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1. Sociodemographic and farm characteristics of the sample, and associations with explanatory factors.

Percentages shown in the “Statistical Evidence” column refer to within-group frequencies and are not intended to sum to 100% unless otherwise stated. Associations were assessed using Pearson's chi-square tests. Statistical significance was established at α = 0.05.

Educational level showed statistically significant associations with several soil management practices. Respondents with university education reported a higher frequency of testing or implementing pruning residue incorporation (Pearson χ²(2) = 7.105, p = 0.029) and organic amendments (Pearson χ²(2) = 14.618, p < 0.001) than those with primary education (Table 1). Viticulture experience showed few statistically significant associations with management practices, except for pruning residue incorporation (Pearson χ²(2) = 6.145, p = 0.046), whereas no consistent relationships were detected for the remaining variables.

In terms of farm structure, 60.2% of holdings are smaller than 3 ha, while 25.2% range between 3 and 7 ha. Only 14.6% exceed this size, with a mean farm size of 4.6 ha and a median of 1.5 ha. Moreover, only 3.2% of respondents indicated that viticulture constitutes their main source of income, whereas for the vast majority it represents a complementary economic activity.

A total of 79.6% of respondents belong to differentiated quality schemes, including the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) (48.5%) and the Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) (31.1%). Significant associations were observed between PDO membership and several management-related variables, including current tillage (Pearson χ²(1) = 7.177, p = 0.007), spontaneous cover crops (Pearson χ²(1) = 7.402, p = 0.007), organic amendments (Pearson χ²(1) = 9.317, p = 0.002), and willingness to use a vineyard management application (Pearson χ²(1) = 4.399, p = 0.036) (Table 1).

Although respondents were distributed across the main wine-growing areas of Granada, the number of observations available for some individual regions was insufficient to support statistically robust inter-regional comparisons. Consequently, all analyses were conducted at the provincial scale.

3.2 Perception of agricultural soil management practices

Analysis of soil management practices currently applied in vineyards reveals considerable diversity in management strategies (Table 2). Conventional tillage remains the dominant practice, whereas conservation-oriented strategies such as cover crops, compost application and incorporation of pruning residues are adopted less frequently and often discontinued after initial implementation. Respondents most frequently identified vegetation control and productivity maintenance as priorities, whereas soil conservation and erosion prevention received comparatively less attention.

Table 2. Soil management practices in vineyards and their association with sociodemographic variables.

Percentages shown in the “Statistical Evidence” column refer to within-group frequencies and are not intended to sum to 100% unless otherwise stated. Associations were assessed using Pearson's chi-square tests. Statistical significance was established at α = 0.05.

Regarding specific practices applied at some point by winegrowers, tillage emerges as the most widespread strategy, implemented in virtually all holdings. Temporary cover crops rank second, although with lower persistence over time. These covers tend to be adopted sporadically, particularly in flatter areas or in plots receiving greater technical advice. However, many of these practices were subsequently abandoned.

Respondents identified perceived lack of effectiveness, management complexity and competition with other field tasks as the main reasons for abandoning sustainable practices such as compost application or cover crops. Competition with grapevines and harvesting operations were among the most frequently cited reasons for discontinuing these practices.

Analysis of farmer profiles revealed statistically significant differences in the adoption of some management practices. Conventional tillage differed significantly across age groups (Pearson χ²(2) = 10.018, p = 0.007), as did the use of organic amendments (Pearson χ²(2) = 8.118, p = 0.017). Younger respondents generally reported greater experimentation with sustainable practices. Individuals with higher educational levels also tended to apply or experiment with a greater number of sustainable strategies.

Winegrowers making decisions autonomously reported more frequent use of conventional tillage and elimination of spontaneous vegetation than those receiving external technical support. However, these differences were descriptive and not always statistically significant (Table 2).

Overall, the results indicate that sustainable soil management practices are present within Granada's viticultural sector but are implemented unevenly and frequently discontinued after initial adoption.

3.3 Decision-making processes

Survey responses indicate that economic profitability and crop productivity are the factors most frequently considered when making vineyard management decisions (Table 3). Environmental variables such as soil health, erosion and sustainability are also considered, although their relative importance varies according to respondents' characteristics. Differences were observed according to educational level, production profile and participation in quality schemes.

Table 3. Decision-making factors in vineyard management and their association with sociodemographic variables.

Percentages shown in the “Statistical Evidence” column refer to within-group frequencies and are not intended to sum to 100% unless otherwise stated. Associations were assessed using Pearson's chi-square tests. Statistical significance was established at α = 0.05.

Substantial differences were observed across age groups regarding the relative importance attributed to sustainability-related factors. Although most of these differences were not statistically significant, younger respondents tended to show greater openness towards innovation and technological change. In the present study, statistically significant associations were more evident for technological openness than for most decision-making factors.

The role performed by respondents within the vineyard was also associated with differences in decision-making patterns. Owners and direct decision-makers more frequently prioritised profitability and production, whereas workers and technicians assigned greater importance to sustainability and soil health.

Differences were also identified according to the intended use of grape production. Respondents producing grapes for commercial channels or quality-certified production more frequently considered sustainability and soil health when making management decisions, whereas those producing mainly for self-consumption prioritised production objectives.

Inferential analyses revealed that labour availability was one of the few decision-making factors significantly associated with structural farm characteristics. Significant relationships were observed with farm size (χ² = 9.550, p = 0.008), PDO membership (χ² = 12.400, p < 0.001) and consultation with oenologists (χ² = 11.610, p < 0.001). Likewise, concern for soil erosion was significantly associated with the use of scientific publications as a source of information (χ² = 9.294, p = 0.002).

Overall, the results indicate that economic and productive considerations remain the dominant drivers of vineyard management decisions, although sustainability-related criteria are more frequently incorporated by specific farmer groups.

3.4 Use of digital tools in vineyard management

Current use of digital technologies in Granada vineyards is limited, with only 9.7% of respondents reporting the use of technological tools in routine management. Nevertheless, willingness to adopt digital applications is substantially higher, particularly among younger respondents and those with higher educational levels (Table 4). Significant associations were identified between technology-related variables and age, education and farm size (Figure 3).

Table 4. Use and adoption of digital technologies in vineyards and their association with sociodemographic variables.

Percentages shown in the “Statistical Evidence” column refer to within-group frequencies and are not intended to sum to 100% unless otherwise stated. Associations were assessed using Pearson's chi-square tests. Statistical significance was established at α = 0.05.

Analysis of sociodemographic variables showed educational level as a differentiating factor. Individuals with medium or higher education expressed greater willingness to adopt new tools, whereas those with primary education showed greater reluctance. Farm size also influenced technological adoption, as owners of holdings larger than 7 ha reported greater interest in digital applications than those cultivating less than 3 ha.

Current use of digital tools was significantly associated with age (Pearson χ²(2) = 6.864, p = 0.032) and farm size (Pearson χ²(2) = 18.794, p < 0.001). Willingness to use a vineyard management application was also significantly associated with age (Pearson χ²(2) = 11.281, p = 0.004) and educational level (Pearson χ²(2) = 14.235, p < 0.001). Figure 3 summarises the principal statistically significant relationships identified in the survey, including willingness to adopt digital tools across age groups, women's participation according to farm size and the main inferential associations obtained.

Regarding preferred functionalities, respondents prioritised applications related to production management and marketing, such as cost control, task calendars and market access, whereas functionalities directly related to environmental sustainability were selected less frequently.

Overall, the results indicate a substantial gap between current technology use and respondents' willingness to adopt digital tools in the future, with clear differences according to age, educational level and farm size.

3.5 Gender-based analysis of results

Women represented 31.1% of the study sample and showed distinctive characteristics regarding their role in vineyard management (Table 5). Compared with men, women were less frequently identified as principal decision-makers and were more commonly involved in vineyards managed as complementary rather than primary economic activities.

Table 5. Women's roles in vineyard holdings and their association with sociodemographic and structural variables.

Percentages shown in the “Statistical Evidence” column refer to within-group frequencies and are not intended to sum to 100% unless otherwise stated. Associations were assessed using Pearson's chi-square tests. Statistical significance was established at α = 0.05.

Differences were also observed in farm structure. Female respondents were more frequently associated with smaller holdings, whereas men predominated among larger farms. Figure 3 illustrates the relationship between farm size and women's participation, showing a progressive decline in female representation as holding size increases.

Regarding management practices, women reported greater interest in sustainable soil management strategies and showed comparatively higher willingness to adopt digital tools for vineyard management. However, many of these differences were descriptive and did not reach statistical significance.

Inferential analyses identified statistically significant associations between gender and several structural variables. Women were less frequently represented among respondents whose principal source of income was viticulture and among vineyards integrated into larger commercial production systems. No statistically significant gender differences were detected for most specific soil management practices.

Overall, the results indicate that gender differences are more strongly associated with structural characteristics of vineyard ownership and participation than with contrasting agronomic management practices.

4 Discussion

4.1 Participant profiles and farm structure

The participant profiles identified in this study indicate that Granada's viticultural sector is characterised by an ageing but heterogeneous farming population. The predominance of experienced producers confirms demographic trends previously reported for southern Spain, while the diversity observed in educational background, experience and gender composition suggests the coexistence of different management profiles within the sector (MAPA, 2025). Similar demographic structures have been associated with differences in innovation capacity, environmental awareness and technology adoption in other Mediterranean wine-growing regions (Diaz et al., 2022; Ginel et al., 2022; Musa and Basir, 2021; Sott et al., 2021).

The significant associations observed between educational level and several soil management practices reinforce previous evidence indicating that education facilitates greater environmental awareness and openness towards more sustainable management strategies (Diaz et al., 2022; Musa and Basir, 2021; Sott et al., 2021). Likewise, the limited influence of farming experience on most management practices suggests that accumulated professional experience alone does not necessarily promote innovation or the adoption of conservation-oriented approaches.

Farm structure further contributes to explaining management behaviour. The predominance of small and fragmented holdings, together with the limited economic dependence on viticulture, is consistent with previous studies describing structural constraints affecting Mediterranean viticulture. Small farms generally face greater limitations regarding mechanisation, economies of scale and investment capacity, which frequently reduce opportunities for adopting technological innovations or implementing more sustainable management practices (Cataldo et al., 2021; Oliveira et al., 2024; Santiago et al., 2025). Likewise, farmers for whom viticulture represents only a complementary source of income often show lower willingness to assume economic risks associated with changes in management strategies (Alarcón et al., 2020; Darnhofer et al., 2010; Diao et al., 2023; Marescotti et al., 2021).

Membership of quality schemes also appears to influence management patterns. The higher prevalence of technical support and several conservation-oriented practices among PDO farms suggests that quality certification may contribute to greater professionalisation and facilitate access to advisory services and innovation networks. Similar relationships between certification, technical assistance and improved management have been described in other wine-producing regions (Carrión and Mendizábal, 2022; Mansour et al., 2022; Vianna et al., 2016).

Finally, although inter-regional comparisons were not statistically feasible, Granada's well-known environmental heterogeneity should be considered when interpreting the results. The coexistence of coastal, mountain and semi-arid environments generates substantial differences in climate, altitude, lithology and production conditions that are likely to influence vineyard management across the province (Cambronero et al., 2025; García-Ruiz et al., 2011; Valenzuela and Matarán, 2008). Overall, these findings confirm that Granada's viticulture is characterised by considerable socio-economic and territorial diversity, providing the context necessary to interpret the differentiated management patterns analysed in the following sections.

4.2 Soil management practices

The results presented in Section 3.2 indicate that vineyard management in Granada continues to be dominated by conventional tillage, whereas conservation-oriented strategies remain comparatively limited and often lack long-term continuity. This predominance of short-term productive objectives over regenerative soil management has been widely documented in Mediterranean viticultural systems, where economic performance frequently outweighs longer-term investments in soil conservation (Alarcón et al., 2020; Ghali et al., 2022; Novara et al., 2011; Rodrigo-Comino et al., 2024a).

The relatively limited implementation of cover crops, compost application and pruning residue incorporation suggests that awareness of sustainable practices does not necessarily translate into their stable adoption. Similar patterns have been reported in Spain, France, Italy and other Mediterranean wine-growing regions, where farmers often recognise the environmental benefits of conservation practices but discontinue them because of operational constraints, perceived management complexity or uncertainty regarding their economic returns (Al-Shammary et al., 2024; Ghali et al., 2022; Warren Raffa et al., 2021).

The reasons reported for abandoning these practices reinforce this interpretation. Competition with grapevines, harvesting operations, additional labour requirements and perceived reductions in effectiveness illustrate the practical difficulties encountered during implementation. Comparable barriers have previously been identified in small-scale viticultural systems, where sustainable management is frequently perceived as requiring greater economic investment and organisational effort than conventional approaches (Homs Ramírez de la Piscina, 2022; Marques et al., 2015).

Differences observed across farmer profiles further highlight the importance of socio-demographic factors in shaping management decisions. Younger respondents and those with higher educational attainment generally reported greater experimentation with sustainable practices, supporting previous evidence that age, education and environmental awareness positively influence innovation attitudes and willingness to adopt conservation-oriented management (Marques et al., 2019; Schütte and Bergmann, 2019). Likewise, the greater prevalence of conventional management among farmers making decisions independently suggests that technical advice and external knowledge networks may facilitate the adoption of more sustainable practices. Similar relationships between advisory services and conservation management have been documented elsewhere in Mediterranean agriculture (Ammoniaci et al., 2021; Kaňovská, 2021).

Overall, these findings suggest that effective adoption of sustainable soil management depends not only on technical knowledge but also on structural and organisational conditions such as age, access to advisory services, farm size and perceived economic viability. Consequently, conservation practices remain present but relatively fragile within Granada's viticultural sector, confirming broader evidence that economic considerations continue to be the principal drivers of adoption or abandonment of agroecological innovations (Dekamin et al., 2024; Diaz et al., 2022; Martins et al., 2022; Provenzano et al., 2024).

4.3 Decision-making processes

The results presented in Section 3.3 indicate that vineyard management decisions in Granada emerge from the interaction of economic, environmental and social considerations, although productive criteria continue to predominate. This pattern is consistent with previous studies conducted in Mediterranean viticulture, where immediate economic performance frequently conditions the adoption of conservation-oriented management practices (Oliveira et al., 2024; Sanz-Cañada and Muchnik, 2016).

The greater importance attributed to sustainability-related criteria by respondents with higher educational attainment and those linked to quality schemes reinforces previous evidence highlighting the role of technical knowledge, professionalisation and market differentiation in promoting more environmentally oriented decision-making (Caron et al., 2014; Santiago et al., 2025). These findings suggest that access to knowledge and participation in organised production systems may facilitate the integration of environmental considerations into everyday management decisions.

Although most age-related differences were not statistically significant, younger respondents consistently showed greater openness towards innovation and technological change. This tendency agrees with agroecological transition studies indicating that generational renewal may influence attitudes towards innovation, risk perception and willingness to modify established farming practices (Tittonell, 2019). Interestingly, the present results suggest that age appears to affect technological openness more clearly than the explicit prioritisation of environmental criteria.

Professional role also contributes to explaining differences in management priorities. Owners and direct decision-makers generally emphasise profitability and production because they assume the financial risks associated with vineyard management, whereas technicians tend to assign greater importance to sustainability and soil health, reflecting their technical training and conservation-oriented perspective. Similar contrasts between economic and technical decision-making logics have previously been described in Mediterranean viticulture (Schütte and Bergmann, 2019).

The observed differences according to grape destination further support this interpretation. Producers integrated into commercial channels or quality certification schemes paid greater attention to sustainability and soil conservation than those producing primarily for self-consumption. This pattern reinforces previous observations that integration into denominations of origin and formal market structures contributes to greater professionalisation and facilitates the adoption of higher value-added practices linked to environmental management (Yacamán-Ochoa et al., 2025).

Finally, the statistically significant relationships identified between labour availability, farm structure, PDO membership and access to technical information suggest that structural and organisational factors play a central role in shaping management decisions. In particular, the association between concern for soil erosion and consultation of scientific publications indicates that access to specialised knowledge may strengthen environmental awareness among winegrowers.

Taken together, these findings reveal the coexistence of two partially overlapping decision-making logics within Granada's viticultural sector. Traditional production-oriented approaches continue to dominate most holdings, particularly among older farmers and smaller farms not linked to quality schemes. At the same time, more sustainability-oriented management strategies are emerging among younger producers, better educated respondents and those integrated into PDO structures. This duality closely resembles the coexistence of different socio-technical regimes described by Marques et al. (2019) and Siepmann and Nicholas (2018), highlighting the need for advisory systems and public policies capable of facilitating agroecological transition while maintaining the economic viability of Mediterranean vineyards.

4.4 Digitalisation of vineyard management

The results presented in Section 3.4 reveal a clear discrepancy between the current implementation of digital technologies and the willingness expressed by respondents to adopt them in the future. Rather than indicating rejection of digitalisation, this pattern suggests that structural, economic and educational barriers continue to limit the practical implementation of available technologies. Similar discrepancies between positive attitudes and actual adoption have been documented in other Mediterranean wine-growing regions, where perceived usefulness, training opportunities and economic constraints strongly influence technological uptake (Ammoniaci et al., 2021; Kaňovská, 2021; Mizik, 2023).

The greater willingness to adopt digital tools among younger respondents and those with higher educational attainment reinforces previous evidence highlighting the importance of human capital in agricultural innovation. Education appears to facilitate confidence in new technologies and increase the capacity to evaluate their potential benefits, whereas older producers often remain more attached to established management routines.

Farm size also emerges as an important structural factor. Larger holdings showed greater interest in digital applications and higher levels of current technology use, probably because increased organisational complexity and larger production volumes generate stronger incentives for investment in digital management systems. Similar relationships between farm scale, technological innovation and perceived economic return have previously been described in Mediterranean viticulture (Cataldo et al., 2021; Sanz-Cañada and Muchnik, 2016).

The analysis of preferred application functionalities provides further insight into the motivations underlying technological adoption. Respondents consistently prioritised tools capable of improving production management, economic planning and market access, whereas applications focused exclusively on environmental sustainability attracted less interest. This pattern is fully consistent with the decision-making processes discussed in Section 4.3, where economic profitability emerged as the principal criterion guiding management decisions. Previous studies likewise indicate that technologies offering immediate and tangible practical benefits are adopted more readily than those whose benefits are primarily environmental or become visible only over the longer term (Gristina et al., 2022; Tittonell, 2019).

Taken together, these findings indicate that the transition towards more digitalised viticulture depends not only on the availability of technological solutions but also on improving farmers’ digital skills, strengthening advisory services and reducing the perceived risks associated with innovation. Consequently, policies promoting digital transformation should combine technological development with training programmes and technical support tailored to the needs of smaller and older farming populations (Giffard et al., 2022; Marques et al., 2019).

4.5 Gender and structural inequalities

The results presented in Section 3.5 suggest that gender differences within Granada's viticultural sector are expressed primarily through structural inequalities rather than through contrasting agronomic behaviour. Although women represented almost one-third of respondents, they were less frequently responsible for strategic management decisions and were underrepresented among larger commercial vineyards. These findings are consistent with broader evidence describing the persistent gender gap in Mediterranean agriculture, where women's participation often remains partially invisible despite their substantial contribution to farming activities (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO, 2023; MAPA, 2025).

The predominance of women in smaller holdings and in vineyards managed as complementary economic activities reflects long-standing structural patterns related to land ownership, inheritance systems and access to productive resources. Similar dynamics have been documented throughout southern Europe, where female farmers generally operate smaller farms and encounter greater barriers to accessing financial resources, technical assistance and decision-making positions (European Commission, 2024; Yacamán-Ochoa et al., 2025).

Interestingly, women in this study showed comparable—and in some cases slightly greater—interest in sustainable soil management and digital innovation than male respondents. Although most of these differences were not statistically significant, the observed tendency aligns with previous studies suggesting that women frequently display greater environmental awareness and stronger engagement with sustainable agricultural practices when institutional and structural barriers are reduced (Diaz et al., 2022; Giffard et al., 2022). Consequently, the lower visibility of women in vineyard management should not be interpreted as lower willingness to innovate but rather as the outcome of unequal access to resources and leadership opportunities.

The absence of significant gender differences for most specific management practices further reinforces this interpretation. Agronomic decisions appear to be influenced more strongly by structural variables such as farm size, educational level, technical advice and participation in quality schemes than by gender itself. Thus, gender inequalities within Granada's viticulture seem to arise principally from differences in access to ownership, economic resources and decision-making capacity rather than from distinct technical approaches to vineyard management.

These findings highlight the importance of incorporating a gender perspective into future agricultural policies and advisory programmes. Promoting women's access to training, technical support, innovation networks and leadership positions could contribute not only to improving gender equity but also to accelerating the adoption of more sustainable and technologically advanced vineyard management strategies. In this regard, strengthening female participation should be understood as both a social equity objective and an opportunity to enhance the resilience and sustainability of Mediterranean viticulture.

4.6 Study limitations and future recommendations

As with any survey-based research, the findings should be interpreted considering several methodological and contextual limitations. Although the sample includes a broad diversity of winegrowers, oenologists and technicians and represents most PDO holdings together with numerous non-PDO farms, some producer profiles may remain underrepresented. Furthermore, the relatively high proportion of PDO respondents may have slightly shifted the results towards more professionalised production systems.

A second limitation concerns the self-reported nature of the survey. While this approach provides valuable insights into farmers' perceptions, attitudes and decision-making processes, responses may be affected by recall or social desirability bias. Likewise, sustainability was assessed through reported management practices rather than direct measurements of soil properties or ecosystem functioning. Consequently, the study cannot establish causal relationships between management decisions and environmental outcomes. Future research would benefit from combining survey-based evidence with field measurements, including soil quality indicators, erosion assessments and other agroecological variables, to obtain a more integrated socio-ecological understanding of vineyard sustainability.

Although the survey provides quantitative evidence regarding women's participation, ownership and decision-making roles, it does not fully capture the institutional, cultural and power relations underlying these patterns. Complementary qualitative approaches, including in-depth interviews and life-history methods, would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the structural factors shaping gender inequalities in Mediterranean viticulture.

From a statistical perspective, several significant associations were identified between sociodemographic characteristics and management practices, technology adoption and gender-related variables. However, some analytical subgroups remained relatively small, limiting the application of more complex multivariate explanatory models. Future studies based on larger samples should validate these findings and further explore the relative contribution of individual explanatory factors.

Beyond these methodological considerations, the findings suggest several priorities for both research and practice. Longitudinal studies would help identify the factors facilitating or hindering transitions towards more sustainable and digitalised vineyard management. At the same time, strengthening advisory services, particularly for older farmers and smaller holdings, together with policies promoting women's participation in ownership and decision-making roles, could accelerate innovation while improving social equity. Finally, supporting PDO and other differentiated quality schemes may represent an effective strategy for linking economic competitiveness with environmental sustainability.

Overall, this study provides a comprehensive quantitative assessment of soil management, decision-making, technological adoption and gender equity in Granada's viticulture. Although based on a regional case study, the findings contribute to the wider understanding of Mediterranean viticulture by identifying patterns consistent with those reported in other wine-producing regions while highlighting the influence of Granada's particular territorial and socio-economic context. Further comparative research across Mediterranean vineyards will help assess the transferability of these findings and strengthen the evidence base supporting future agricultural and territorial policies, in line with broader agroecological and socio-technical transition frameworks (e.g., Aouadi et al., 2021; Cataldo et al. 2021, ; Ghali et al., 2022; Sanz-Cañada and Muchnik, 2016; Tittonell, 2019).

5 Conclusions

This study examined how socio-demographic characteristics, farm structure, decision-making processes, technological adoption and gender dynamics shape soil management practices in Mediterranean vineyards, using Granada (southern Spain) as a representative case study. Based on a structured survey administered to winegrowers, oenologists and technicians, the research combined descriptive and inferential statistical analyses to identify the main factors associated with sustainable management practices, digitalisation and gender-related patterns within the regional viticultural sector.

The results reveal that viticulture in the province of Granada is characterised by an ageing farming population, which limits generational renewal and favours the persistence of conventional practices. Soil management is still dominated by tillage-based systems, while the stable adoption of more sustainable practices remains low due to perceived technical and labour-related barriers. Decision-making is primarily driven by economic and productive criteria, although younger, more educated producers and those linked to the PDO show a greater orientation towards sustainability and long-term strategies. Digital technology use is currently limited, but there is a clear willingness to adopt management-oriented tools in the future, highlighting the importance of training and trust-building. Women's participation is relatively widespread but largely confined to auxiliary roles, with higher levels of presence in management positions mainly in PDO-linked or economically stronger farms. Overall, Granada's viticulture stands at a transition point, where traditional logics coexist with emerging trends towards sustainability, digitalisation and greater gender inclusion, illustrating the complexity of socio-ecological transitions in Mediterranean viticultural systems.

From a policy perspective, the findings suggest that sustainability transitions in Mediterranean viticulture require integrated strategies that combine technical innovation with social and institutional support. Strengthening advisory and extension services, particularly for older farmers and smaller holdings, should be prioritised to facilitate the adoption of sustainable soil management and digital technologies. Likewise, policies encouraging women's participation in ownership, leadership and decision-making roles could contribute simultaneously to social equity and innovation capacity. Finally, continued support for PDOs and other differentiated quality schemes may help reinforce professionalisation while aligning economic competitiveness with environmental sustainability, thereby supporting the long-term sustainability and promoting more resilient, competitive and socially inclusive Mediterranean viticultural systems.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fhumd.2026.1869635/full#supplementary-material

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Footnotes

Edited by: Oriana Gava, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Italy

Reviewed by: Abdelkarim Hamrita, Institut Supérieur Agronomique de Chott Mariem (ISA-CM), Tunisia

Irene Arias Navarro, Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain