Green nanotechnology-enabled biopolymer nanocomposites for eco-innovative and regulatory-compliant antimicrobial food packaging

1 Introduction

Green nanotechnology originates from the principles of green chemistry proposed by Anastas and Warner (2000), which promote the design of environmentally benign materials and processes for sustainable technological development. These principles influence the development of nanotechnology-based products, which contribute to economic growth, social development, and environmental improvement (Khatoon and Velidandi, 2025). The efficiency with which nature produces inorganic structures at the nano- or micro-scale has led to the emerging field of biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles (Singh G. B. et al., 2025). Moreover, the potential offered by microorganisms, plant extracts, and biomolecules that are naturally enriched with antioxidants plays an important role in the synthesis of metal-based nanoparticles, thereby assisting in the development of nanoparticles with distinctive surfaces (Nagime et al., 2025; Syed et al., 2026). Taken collectively, these developments showcase the power of sustainable nanomaterial design and biopolymer integration in creating enhanced antimicrobial properties while also meeting the needs of government and consumer organizations for safe, sustainable, and highly effective food packaging solutions (Deshmukh and Gaikwad, 2024; Zhao et al., 2022).

During the last few years, tremendous developments and growth rates have been recorded regarding the acceptance and application of nanoparticle-based materials within the food industry, especially in European Union countries. It is interesting to note the economic growth pattern of the food industry, which is closely linked to the importance and significance of the sector. The European nanomaterials market was valued at approximately USD 4.39 billion in 2024 and was projected to reach approximately USD 5.05 billion in 2025, with forecasts estimating growth to approximately USD 15.54 billion by 2033 (Market Data Forecast, 2025). This rapid growth reflects the increasing adoption of nanotechnology across sectors, including the food industry, where it plays a key role in enhancing packaging performance, food safety, and product preservation. Nanomaterials have also been increasingly incorporated into overall food packaging systems, especially in the form of nanofibers, nanoparticles (NPs), nanocomposites, and nanoclay platelets, all of which have demonstrated significantly improved properties and capabilities compared with conventional polymer materials. Studies have also reported that the overall risks of food spoilage and nutrient loss during storage are significantly reduced with the use of nano-enabled packaging, which further improves the overall quality and stability of food products. Various nanomaterials have recently been explored and incorporated into food packaging systems because of their enhanced functional properties. These materials include Cu NPs, TiO2 NPs, ZnO NPs, Ag NPs, carbon dots, melanin NPs, sulfur NPs, and nanoemulsions, all of which have demonstrated significant improvements in packaging performance (Ghosh et al., 2025).

Recent research has highlighted the growing importance of sustainable antimicrobial materials in food packaging to enhance food safety and extend shelf life while reducing environmental impacts. Studies have demonstrated that integrating natural antimicrobial agents with biodegradable polymer matrices offers an effective strategy for developing active packaging systems. For instance, “Recent advances in sustainable antimicrobial food packaging: insights into release mechanisms, design strategies, and applications in the food industry” by (Zhao et al., 2023) discusses various release mechanisms and design strategies that enable the controlled delivery of antimicrobial compounds from packaging materials to inhibit microbial growth in food systems. Similarly, the work “Antimicrobial food packaging integrating polysaccharide-based substrates with green antimicrobial agents: a sustainable path” highlights the potential of polysaccharide-based substrates combined with green antimicrobial agents to create environmentally friendly packaging solutions with improved antimicrobial efficiency (Zhao et al., 2022). Furthermore, “Natural antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds for active food packaging applications” emphasizes the role of natural antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds derived from plant and biomass sources in developing active packaging materials that can prevent microbial contamination and oxidative deterioration of food products (Deshmukh and Gaikwad, 2024). Collectively, these studies indicate that the development of bio-based antimicrobial packaging systems represents a promising and sustainable approach for improving food preservation and ensuring food safety in modern food supply chains (Deshmukh and Gaikwad, 2024; Peerzada et al., 2024; Zhao et al., 2022).

The contemporary transformation of food packaging is evolving from simple material substitution to a systems-level reinvention. The sustainable transformation of food packaging increasingly leverages nanocomposite technologies to reconcile high-performance preservation with environmental responsibility. By reinforcing renewable biopolymer matrices with low-load, high-aspect-ratio nanofillers (clays, nanocellulose, starch nanocrystals, chitosan NPs, graphene derivatives, and selected metal/metal-oxide NPs), designers can markedly improve mechanical strength, thermal stability, and barrier performance while enabling active and intelligent functions (antimicrobial action, UV blocking, controlled release, and sensing) that reduce food waste and substitute synthetic preservatives (Baskaran and T., 2026). Layered silicates and exfoliated nanoclay platelets lengthen diffusion pathways for gases and moisture, nanocellulose and cellulose whiskers provide tensile reinforcement from renewable feedstocks, and bio-based nanofillers (chitin/chitosan and starch nanocrystals) contribute intrinsic antimicrobial/film-forming benefits, together enabling compostable or recyclable packaging formats that meet circular-economy goals (Petersson and Oksman, 2006). Concurrently, intelligent packaging has progressed far beyond passive containment and now integrates sensing elements, signal transduction, and readable outputs (colorimetric indicators, printed electronics, radio frequency identification, or plasmonic sensors) to provide real-time visibility into temperature fluctuations, gas composition (O₂, CO₂, ethylene), pH shifts, and microbial or enzymatic activity associated with spoilage. These innovations help overcome the limitations of date-based labeling in perishable supply chains (Babu, 2022). Green nanotechnology amplifies this capability by supplying sustainably synthesized nanofillers and transducers, biogenic metal/metal-oxide NPs, nanocellulose, carbon dots, and halloysite nanotubes that both reinforce barrier and mechanical properties and enable highly sensitive, low-energy sensing and actuation when immobilized within edible or compostable coatings (Peng et al., 2024; Kumar and Gaikwad, 2023).

Green nanotechnology has substantially advanced food-packaging innovation by introducing sustainable synthesis routes for nanoscale antimicrobial agents and smart delivery systems that improve preservation efficacy while reducing the need for synthetic chemical preservatives (Suvarna et al., 2022). Green nanotechnology supports the incorporation of diverse antimicrobial nanomaterials, including metal/metal-oxide NPs (Ag, ZnO, TiO₂, CuO, and MgO), silica and nanoclay systems, halloysite nanotubes, polymeric NPs, nanoliposomes, nanoemulsions, and electrospun nanofibers. These nanostructured antimicrobial agents greatly improve the antimicrobial activity of packaging films by using antimicrobial targets such as cell membrane disruption, generation of reactive oxygen species, release of ions, and bioactive stabilizers, in addition to offering excellent mechanical strength, barrier properties against oxygen and humidity, UV shielding effects, and high thermal stability (Yang and Duncan, 2021; Suvarna et al., 2022). The use of antimicrobial agents in food packaging films has shown great promise for ensuring food safety and controlling microbial growth in food products without requiring chemical preservatives (Suvarna et al., 2022). The first advantage of using green antimicrobial nanotechnologies is their ability to provide sustained release activity, which minimizes the loss of preservative activity during the storage and transportation of food products. Bio-based antimicrobial nanotechnologies such as nanocellulose, chitosan-based nanoparticles, zein colloidal nanoparticles, and polysaccharide-based nanofibers have shown great promise as a means of increasing the effectiveness of natural antimicrobial agents, such as essential oils, polyphenols, curcumin, nisin, and plant-based antimicrobial compounds (Elgadir et al., 2025). The synergistic use of natural antimicrobial agents and green-synthesized inorganic antimicrobial nanotechnologies has demonstrated enhanced antimicrobial activity, greater antioxidant capacity, and extended shelf life of various food products, including meat, poultry, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, and ready-to-eat products (Gupta et al., 2024; Dejene, 2025). Antimicrobial nanotechnologies based on electrospinning technology have also demonstrated the ability to improve the effectiveness of antimicrobial agents in food packaging films by exploiting the surface area effects of antimicrobial agents and the ability to entrap volatile antimicrobial compounds (Min et al., 2022). The use of green technology in antimicrobial packaging films further enhances antimicrobial activity by offering potential in nanosensing technology and photocatalytic antimicrobial activity (Mustafa and Andreescu, 2020; Ahari and Soufiani, 2021). These developments highlight the potential of nano-enabled biopolymer systems to simultaneously enhance antimicrobial performance and support sustainable food packaging strategies.

This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the role of green nanotechnology in the development of sustainable antimicrobial food packaging systems. The primary objective is to critically examine recent advances in the green synthesis of nanomaterials and their integration with biopolymer matrices for improved antimicrobial activity, barrier performance, and food preservation. The scope of this review includes the synthesis strategies of bio-based nanomaterials, their mechanisms of antimicrobial action, and their incorporation into biodegradable and bio-based packaging materials. In addition, the review discusses the application of these nano-enabled systems in enhancing food safety and extending shelf life across various food products. Finally, current challenges, safety considerations, and future perspectives related to the development and commercialization of green nanotechnology-based antimicrobial packaging are highlighted to provide insights for advancing sustainable food packaging technologies.

2 Types of biopolymer matrices

2.1 Polysaccharide-based

Polysaccharides such as cellulose, chitosan, and starch are naturally biodegradable and non-toxic. Their semi-crystalline characteristic indicates that they contain both disordered (amorphous) and ordered (crystalline) regions. The more resilient crystalline parts remain after the amorphous regions are broken down by acid hydrolysis. It is possible to recover these separated crystalline sections as nanoscale materials that can be used as reinforcements in composite applications (Tan et al., 2021).

2.1.1 Chitosan

Chitosan is one of the most thoroughly researched cationic polysaccharides and is derived from the shells of shrimp and lobsters, in addition to the cocoons of insects and various fungi (Badawy and Radwan, 2025). It is composed of D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units linked by β-1,4 glycosidic linkages, with one amino group and two hydroxyl groups in each repeating glycosidic unit. Pure chitosan is insoluble in water, alkaline solutions, and organic solvents; however, at approximately 50% degree of deacetylation, it becomes soluble in mildly acidic environments. Consequently, it forms a viscous solution upon dissolution due to the amino groups in its chain that protonate (–NH₃⁺), thereby enhancing intermolecular electrostatic repulsions and producing a polycationic, soluble polysaccharide. This facilitates the activation of reactive sites, allowing covalent bonding with new, different functional groups. The material exhibits promising properties, including good film-forming properties and antimicrobial activity, making it suitable for use in food packaging, pharmacology, and biomedicine (Pires et al., 2021). The antibacterial activity of chitosan is affected by pH, molecular weight, physical morphology, deacetylation, and the cell wall structure of the microorganism. High-molecular-weight chitosan is unable to pass through cell membranes and forms a coating that protects cells from nutrient transfer across the microbial cell membrane. In contrast, low-molecular-weight chitosan derivatives are water-soluble and can be more readily incorporated into cells (Jino Affrald and Narayan, 2023). Chitosan can be modified to enhance its antibacterial potential. For example, an edible film based on 2.5% (w/v) chitosan and gamma-aminobutyric acid-rich fermented soy protein has shown excellent antibacterial and antifungal effects. The films also exhibited remarkably higher tensile strength, browning index, and antioxidant activity (Zareie et al., 2020).

2.1.2 Starch

Starch is another extensively studied naturally renewable polymer, consisting of amylose (connected via α-1,4 glycosidic bonds) and amylopectin (branched chains with branches at α-1,6 bonds). It is primarily used as a raw material for biodegradable films or bioplastics because of its non-toxic and biodegradable properties, affordability, plasticity, and easy availability (Tan et al., 2021). Starch-based films serve as excellent oxygen barriers and are highly effective as edible coatings for foods with higher respiration rates, such as fruits and vegetables. These membranes can help inhibit respiration and decelerate oxidative processes. Although starch-based films are hydrophilic, resulting in poor moisture resistance, they are advantageous when the coating needs to be washed off after use. Starches influence fruit quality beyond amylose (AM) content. Coatings with low-AM starches can maintain quality. Antibacterial agents, such as essential oils, in starch coatings help control pathogens and extend the shelf life of minimally processed fruits and vegetables (Agarwal et al., 2023).

2.1.3 Cellulose and derivatives

Cellulose is a water-insoluble linear chain polysaccharide. Esterification can improve its water solubility. The main cellulose derivatives known for their film-forming properties include carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, and methylcellulose. Carboxymethyl cellulose films are transparent, odorless, and tasteless, providing excellent gas barrier properties. Dashipour et al. (2015) examined the antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and the film-forming ability of carboxymethyl cellulose, by incorporating Zataria multiflora essential oil into the polysaccharide. The resulting films demonstrated antimicrobial effects against P. aeruginosa, S. typhimurium, E. coli, B. cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus, in addition to antioxidant activity assessed through the phenolic content in the films.

A double-layered film was prepared using carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) combined with pomegranate peel anthocyanins and cellulose acetate nanofibers loaded with Artemisia sieberi Besser essential oil in nanostructured lipid carriers. Significant antibacterial activity was observed, as indicated by the inhibition of growth in both E. coli and S. aureus. Moreover, the material was found to be useful for detecting and maintaining the freshness of shrimp and fish fillets (Ahangari et al., 2025).

Pectin is one of the main building blocks of cell walls and contributes to cell wall strength. From a chemical point of view, it is made up of a linear chain of D-galacturonic acid residues linked by an alpha 1,4-glycosidic bond. These can be modified in two different ways: first, by esterification, where a hydrogen atom from a carboxyl group is replaced by a methyl group, or second, by amidation, where a hydrogen atom from a carboxyl group is replaced by an amide group. On the basis of their degree of esterification, two different types of pectin exist: high-methoxy or low-methoxy. Their ability to gel also depends on their content of galacturonic acid. In the food industry, it is used for its ability to stabilize, gel, or thicken various foods ranging from jams and yogurt to fruit drinks, ice cream, and baked goods. In addition to traditional uses of pectin in foods, there have been efforts to utilize it in environmentally friendly and more sustainable packaging. Because pectin is degradable, edible, film-forming, and compatible with other materials, it offers strong potential for the development of more environmentally friendly packaging than traditional petroleum-derived plastics. Pectin films have shown promising results in terms of their high oxygen barrier properties, making them an ideal material in fresh produce packaging. This reduces the respiration rates of fruits and vegetables. Previous studies suggest that the use of pectin-based films can help delay fruit ripening, thereby aiding the preservation of various fruits such as avocados, pears, and tomatoes. In addition, the gas transmission capacity of the films can also help maintain the color, texture, and nutritional content of various food products (Said and Lee, 2025). Blending pectin-based films with other biopolymers, such as carboxymethyl cellulose, chitosan, and starch, can significantly influence the properties of the pectin-based films, thereby expanding the scope of their application. For example, the mechanical properties of pectin-based films blended with carboxymethyl cellulose were found to be superior to those of films prepared using pure pectin (Šešlija et al., 2018). Similarly, the mechanical properties of the chitosan-pectin biopolymer films were significantly improved due to the interaction between the two biopolymers (Fu et al., 2022).

Subsequent studies investigated the incorporation of essential oils, nanoparticles, and plant extracts into pectin-based films to enhance their therapeutic properties. For example, the incorporation of essential oils derived from clove bud, thyme, and oregano into pectin-based films showed promising antimicrobial activity against common microorganisms, including E. coli, S. aureus, B. subtilis, B. cereus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Aspergillus niger (Meerasri et al., 2024; Nisar et al., 2018). The incorporation of essential oils into pectin-based films may support the development of antimicrobial food packaging materials capable of inhibiting the growth of common food pathogens.

2.2 Protein-based coatings

Different packaging material representatives derived from protein sources such as whey, soy, zein, casein, collagen, and gelatin have been extensively investigated for their properties. Their thermal, mechanical, and barrier attributes have been of interest to researchers. They have attracted interest due to their wide availability, biodegradability, and potential to control the release of additives or bioactive compounds, including antimicrobials, within packaging systems (Tan et al., 2021).

2.2.1 Zein

Zein, a protein naturally present in maize seeds, acts as a raw material that contributes to the development of the food packaging industry by providing the protein component, thereby enhancing the economic value of milling industries and grain suppliers (Matheus et al., 2025). The hydrophobic properties of zein can be attributed to its non-polar amino acids, enabling its use as a raw material in the development of natural biopolymer-based edible coatings that can function effectively in wet environments. The development of zein-based coatings occurs due to hydrophobic, hydrogen, and disulfide bonds that form in zein chains and occur due to the evaporation of solvents. However, according to some literature, zein exhibits low mechanical and thermal properties, hence limiting its direct use in the development of biodegradable packaging materials. Therefore, the raw material undergoes considerable changes, including plasticization and the addition of additives, in order to overcome the inherent properties of zeins that limit their direct use in the development of biodegradable packaging materials. In one investigation, zein was modified by undergoing an esterification reaction with a fatty acid chain, specifically decanoic acid, and then blended with poly (butylen adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) at varying weight ratios. It was then processed into mZein/PBAT blend films by means of the melt extrusion technique. Blending the modified zein with PBAT resulted in the formation of a blend that contained suitable properties, including the combination of stiffness and strength, making it suitable in the development of bags, packaging, and mulch films that can be used by consumers.

2.2.2 Whey

Whey protein, which is a useful by-product of cheese manufacturing, has garnered considerable research attention due to its use in developing edible films and coatings, owing to its superior film-forming properties, degradability, and high availability. The two types of whey protein are defined as whey protein concentrate (WPC), which contains approximately 25%–80% protein concentration per dry matter, and whey protein isolate (WPI), which contains 90% protein or more. The high quality of whey protein makes it particularly suitable for the production of films, since the films produced are clear, colorless, and self-supporting (Moeini et al., 2021). The unique characteristics of these films are related to the manner in which the molecules arrange themselves. The hydrophobic amino acid plays a critical role in films formed in water; these amino acids improve the creation of film strength, among other characteristics, through the formation of intermolecular disulfide bonds (Calva-Estrada et al., 2019). WPI-based bioactive food additive films provide proper vehicles for food additives such as antimicrobial agents and spices, resulting in enhanced active packaging materials. Additionally, the bio-based films can incorporate antimicrobial agents, including essential oils and bacteriocins, which may extend the shelf life of packaged foods while maintaining environmental sustainability.

Despite these advantages, whey protein films have some limitations compared with petroleum-based plastics, as evidenced by their inability to efficiently resist gases and water vapor due to moisture sensitivity. In addition, the production of these films requires plasticizers, and their mechanical strength remains inferior to that of synthetic ones, necessitating various alterations for improvement. Plasticizers are compounds with low molecular weight and non-volatile nature that are added to biopolymer film formulations to make them less brittle, more flexible, and enhance overall processability (Aziz and Almasi, 2018). The integration of nanoliposomes resulted in enhanced film properties, i.e., greater film stiffness and reduced water vapor permeability. In addition, antibacterial properties were significantly observed in the film, particularly against S. aureus and E. coli (Aziz and Almasi, 2018). Another film created by Mohammadi et al. (2020) was based on whey protein isolate, chitosan nanofibers, and cinnamon essential oil formulated as emulsions and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). The NLCs were incorporated into the bio-nano composite primarily through physical interactions. The integration of all nano reinforcements resulted in enhanced film properties, i.e., greater film barriers against ultraviolet irradiation. In addition, antibacterial properties were significantly enhanced by incorporating cinnamon essential oil, particularly in the NLC formulation.

2.2.3 Soy protein

Soy protein is widely used as an important biopolymer for film formation. This is mainly due to its nutritional benefits and functional properties. For film formation, soy protein isolate (SPI), containing at least 90% protein, is used. This is achieved by removing carbohydrates and lipids through isoelectric precipitation. This enhances film-forming properties.

The film-forming property of soy protein can be explained by its amphiphilic nature, meaning that it contains both polar and non-polar amino acids. This property makes it useful in packaging foods that contain moisture, such as fresh meat, bakery products, vegetables, and dairy products such as cheese. Due to its amphiphilic nature, soy protein molecules form extensive intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which restrict segmental mobility and enhance mechanical properties such as stiffness, tensile strength, and yield strength. Additionally, hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bond formation between protein molecules contribute to other functional properties, including adhesiveness, dough and emulsification behavior, water and fat absorption, fiber network formation, and texturizing ability. SPI films exhibit moderate mechanical strength, along with high oxygen barrier performance and lipid impermeability. However, SPI films have a high risk of being contaminated with bacteria, making it essential to enhance SPI films with antibacterial properties.

Liang and Wang created an active film using Cortex Phellodendron’s natural antibacterial and antioxidant activity by adding varying amounts of Cortex Phellodendron extract (0%–22.5% w/w) to soy protein film. The film containing 15% w/w Cortex Phellodendron extract showed the best tensile strength and barrier properties against water vapor transmission rate, oxygen transmission rate, and light transmission rate. In addition, the antioxidant activity was also enhanced to fight the gram-positive bacterium S. aureus, as previously demonstrated (Liang and Wang, 2018).

When making soy protein films, the addition of plasticizers is critical because it reduces the brittleness of the resulting films. However, the plasticizers can differ and usually consist of various polyol derivatives, such as thiodiglycol, butane diols, and even urea (Rani and Kumar, 2019). Investigations involving polyol plasticizers, including glycerol, butane diol, ethylene glycol, and triethylene glycol at 45% concentration, showed that their effects on soy protein-based bioplastics differed significantly. For instance, the films containing triethylene glycol showed poor optical properties, reduced flexibility, and increased moisture absorption, whereas those containing ethylene glycol showed improved optical clarity, flexibility, and ductility (Aguilar et al., 2020).

One of the major challenges associated with soy protein-based films is their affinity for water, i.e., hydrophilicity. The hydrophilicity of soy protein-based films can be overcome by chemically modifying the soy protein matrix or by introducing crosslinks into the structure of the soy protein-based polymer. By employing crosslinking agents such as furfural and formaldehyde, it is possible to increase the hydrophobicity of soy protein-based films (Rani and Kumar, 2019).

2.2.4 Gelatin

Gelatin intrinsically possesses a good film-forming ability due to its structure and is derived through hydrolysis. Upon gelation, its structure changes into random-coil polypeptide chains, which then fold into three-dimensional networks while cooling down. All in all, films made from gelatin are cost-effective and provide barriers to moisture, UV light, and oxygen. However, the resistance and overall behavior of these films largely depend on their rheology, which in turn depends on viscous or viscoelastic temperature-dependent properties. During gelation, elasticity is represented by the storage modulus G′, viscosity by the loss modulus G″, and viscoelastic character by the loss tangent tan δ = G″/G′. These parameters vary with time, strain, or frequency and give an indication of the conditions that may be best for the formation of the gelatin film.

Various physical properties of the final gelatin films also depend on the nature of extraction and on whether the use of cross-linkers, plasticizers, or polymers was involved. Gelatin has increasingly been used as a food packaging material for various products, including fruits, vegetables, meat, seafood, and beverages, because it provides an extra protective coating, particularly for fresh items, thereby extending shelf life by delaying microbial spoilage. Other studies on gelatin-based food packaging have also highlighted the addition of some antibacterial agents such as essential oils, extracts, and polyphenols. For example, the addition of 0.2% curcumin into soybean polysaccharide–based gelatin packaging effectively reduced the growth rate of bacteria such as E. coli and Listeria monocytogenes, and it enhanced tensile strength, thus it is being considered for packaging oil-based products (Dong et al., 2023).

2.3 Thermoplastic polymers

2.3.1 Polylactic acid

Polyactic acid (PLA) offers a series of mechanical and functional properties—such as stiffness, tensile strength, clarity, thermal stability, and an effective gas barrier—that compete directly with those of commodity petroleum-based plastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and PET. PLA has also received FDA approval for contact with food, a fact that explains why PLA-based packaging materials, including disposable cutlery, straws, and lamination films, have become pervasive. However, as with any other chemical, PLA has its limitations: it is relatively expensive and prone to brittleness, with low flexibility and slow degradation, which limits its use in broader engineering applications. To overcome this, active research is focused on enhancing its properties. Among the most promising strategies one could adopt is the blending of PLA with other biodegradable polymers, such as thermoplastic starch. This approach not only improves performance but also reduces costs and aligns with environmental sustainability and carbon management.

2.3.2 Polybutylene succinate

Polybutylene succinate, or PBS, is a biodegradable aliphatic polyester that can be produced by the polycondensation of succinic acid with a diol such as 1,4-butanediol. Its benefits include heat resistance and mechanical properties. Therefore, PBS is considered better than some petroleum-based materials. PBS blends are found to be good alternatives to petroleum-based polymers used to package or contain ready-to-eat food products (Chaudhary et al., 2022). Moreover, PBS composite materials that include microfibrillated cellulose show an enhanced tensile strength. A study by Xu et al. (2019) confirmed that PBS blended with nanocrystalline cellulose whiskers exhibited enhanced tensile strength and reduced oxygen and water transmission. Additionally, films made from PBS and polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate demonstrated decreased water and gas permeability.

2.4 Biogenic approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterials

Nature provides blueprints for the synthesis of advanced nanomaterials. Biological systems act as natural nanofactories, producing pure metallic and metal oxide NPs via biomimetic processes that mimic nature’s synthesis mechanisms. Among the three primary methods for synthesizing nanomaterials, namely, physical, chemical, and biological, the biological approach, which employs microorganisms and plant extracts, is regarded as safe, straightforward, high-yielding, and minimally toxic. The biogenic method aligns with six of the 12 green chemistry principles, including waste reduction, the use of renewable feedstocks, safer chemical processes, biodegradable materials, energy-efficient synthesis, and the use of safer chemicals. Biological precursors reduce metal ions into atoms and act as capping agents, preventing aggregation and maintaining nano-sized materials with defined shapes (Chormey et al., 2023). Microorganisms are well-suited for biogenic synthesis because they are easy to cultivate, grow quickly, and can tolerate a wide range of temperature, pressure, and pH conditions. Fungi, bacteria, algae, and yeast are the most common microorganisms that satisfy these conditions. They produce enzymes through their cellular activities, and this helps the biosynthesis of metal ions into NPs (Sharma et al., 2019; Vincent et al., 2022).

2.4.1 Fungi

Fungi can serve as important models for the synthesis of nanoparticles, particularly because they are found in diverse environments, including complex multicellular networks and single cells. Fungi produce a wide range of natural polypeptides, which reduce metal ions and thereby stabilize metal nanoparticles. Commonly used fungal models in this case include Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus terreus, and Candida albicans (Chormey et al., 2023). In a remarkable case, F. oxysporum, which is an infective fungus, has demonstrated the capacity to produce various inorganic NPs, including metal NPs, quantum nanocrystals, and magnetic NPs. The fungus F. oxysporum has the ability to produce silica NPs and titania NPs when it is exposed to SiF6–2 and TiF6-2 complexes, respectively (Faramarzi and Sadighi, 2013).

2.4.2 Bacteria

Bacteria are common single-celled organisms that can thrive even under extreme pressure and temperature. In humans, they contribute to digestion, reduce the burden of opportunistic pathogens, and help establish the intestinal barrier. They are also essential for ecosystems. Both inside and outside of cells, bacteria can convert metal ions into NPs as bioprecursors. Using microbes such as B. cereus, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli as bioprecursors helps control the size and dispersion of NPs (Chormey et al., 2023). P. stutzeri A259 was the first bacterial strain from a Utah silver mine to produce AgNPs of 35–46 nm from Ag+ ions using its natural silver resistance (Faramarzi and Sadighi, 2013).

2.4.3 Algae

Algae are photosynthetic organisms found in aquatic environments that are highly suitable for nanomaterial synthesis due to their capacity to hyperaccumulate heavy metals. They can produce nanomaterials through extracellular or intracellular synthesis, thereby allowing for the effective control of the process parameters. The use of algae in the synthesis of nanomaterials involves the use of bioactive chemicals, minerals, lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins in algae as reducing agents in the synthesis of nanomaterials from metal ions (Chormey et al., 2023; Vincent et al., 2022).

2.4.4 Plant extract

Plant-based systems have advantages over microbial systems in the synthesis of nanomaterials, mainly through the elimination of pathogenic risks. The unique properties of plant-based bioactive compounds have motivated scientists to engage in cooperative research activities that integrate nanotechnology and biological science. The green synthesis of nanomaterials involves plant-based materials, where bioactive molecules are used to synthesize nanomaterials. The method is easy: metal ions are reduced by active molecules in the plant extract. The molecules then attach to the nanomaterials, enhancing surface activity, preventing degradation, and agglomeration. The active molecules that enable the reduction and stabilization of nanomaterials are diverse, ranging from plant-based natural compounds, including proteins, polyphenols, aldehydes, polysaccharides, amino acids, and terpenoids (Vincent et al., 2022). Table 1 presents literature research on biogenically synthesized nanomaterials, including films, composites, and NPs, that have been shown to have antimicrobial properties. The table also shows the potential applications of the nanomaterials, particularly in food packaging, and the biopolymer matrices.

Table 1. Different biogenically synthesized nanomaterials (films, composites, and NPs) reported for antimicrobial food packaging.

3 Structure-property function relationship

Nanofillers significantly improve several properties of the polymer matrix, such as mechanical strength, barrier performance, scavenging ability, controlled release, and antimicrobial effectiveness. The nanoscale structure of nanofibrils, including their high aspect ratio, crystalline domains, and surface functional groups, contributes to improved mechanical strength, barrier performance, and interfacial interactions in polymer matrices (Figure 1). These enhanced properties enable functional applications such as antimicrobial food packaging, shelf-life extension, and sustainable food preservation systems.

3.1 Mechanical

Adding small amounts of nanofillers to the polymer matrix improves the tensile strength and elongation at break, both of which are important properties for packaging materials. Nanofillers, such as NPs, significantly affect the mechanical properties of the film due to their large surface area, thus affecting the interfacial strength and dispersion of the materials. Uniform distribution of the materials allows the transfer of stress from the biopolymer to the NPs through shear stress, thus improving the film’s strength. Improvement in the tensile strength of the film could also result from the interaction between the NPs and the biopolymers through hydrogen and covalent bonds, thus improving the molecular forces. Improvement in the tensile strength of the film due to the addition of nanofillers has been observed in films based on fenugreek seed gum (Memiş et al., 2017), konjac glucomannan (Wu C. et al., 2019), soy, whey protein (Alizadeh-Sani et al., 2018; Han et al., 2018), and starch (Qin et al., 2016). However, it should be noted that there is a critical concentration of the nanofillers that should be exceeded in order for the tensile strength of the film to decrease. Excessive NPs in the film prevent uniform distribution, thus reducing the tensile strength of the film. Similar problems have also been reported for nanocrystals, which tend to agglomerate into large crystals, and nanoclays, whose film uniformity tends to be non-uniform. Such non-uniformity can lead to reduced tensile strength within the films (Jamróz et al., 2019).

3.2 Control release

One of the most important characteristics of nanocomposites is their ability to regulate their rate of release, which can, in turn, influence the safety and quality of a product in a package. With nanoparticles as the main component in its composite form, the biopolymer composite has been enhanced in terms of better control regarding retaining active compounds and their release. Consequently, it becomes a vital factor for guarding against microbial development and oxidation, thereby significantly contributing to better food quality (Rangappa et al., 2022). There are three primary strategies used to enhance the active release from a polymer matrix. One approach involves a composite of these nanoparticles to create extended permeation pathways. Another critical use of nanoparticles as active carriers is due to their porous properties, which make them major carriers in terms of their surface area, allowing them to hold active substances. In terms of pore size, it has been observed that nanoparticles with low dimensions show slower release because of slower rates of diffusion (Basavegowda and Baek, 2021). In addition, nanoparticles can function as raw materials in nanoemulsified and active nano-embedded nanocomposite compounds (Yadav et al., 2025).

3.3 Barrier properties

Biopolymers used for packaging possess natural barrier properties against gases such as organic compounds, water vapor, CO₂, and O₂. However, their limitations have spurred interest in overcoming these barriers through creative fabrication techniques. Nanocomposites, which incorporate nanoscale fillers, provide an effective approach for improving polymer properties. Integrating nanofillers into the polymer matrix forms a complex structure that substantially reduces the rate at which gaseous molecules penetrate. Remarkably, nanocomposites require only a small number of fillers, approximately 2 vol%, compared with traditional composites, which require large quantities of approximately 60 vol% (Yadav et al., 2025). Z. Wu and coworkers noted that adding AgNPs to nanocellulose films with grape seed extracts improved barrier properties by filling matrix interspaces and hindering O₂ transfer (Wu Z. et al., 2019).

3.4 Antimicrobial properties

The antimicrobial packaging system aims to ensure food safety and extend shelf life by preventing microbial growth. Packaging materials gain antibacterial properties through:

• The incorporation of antibacterial agents into the biopolymer matrix.
• The use of an inherently antimicrobial polymer (chitosan).
• The irradiation of a biopolymer matrix, which forms reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Jamróz et al., 2019).

Antibacterial agents act either as bactericidal agents, which kill bacteria, or as bacteriostatic agents, which halt bacterial growth. Embedding NPs into biopolymer films enhances their antimicrobial effectiveness. The mechanism of antimicrobial action depends on the type of nanoparticle, the bacterial species involved, and the bacteria’s innate characteristics. Bacterial susceptibility to NPs depends on cell wall structure and growth kinetics, with rapidly dividing bacteria being more sensitive than slower-growing ones (Jamróz et al., 2019).

The susceptibility of bacteria to nanoparticles depends on complex interactions influenced by structural differences, physicochemical properties of the NPs, and environmental conditions. Gram-positive bacteria generally have a thick peptidoglycan layer that can limit NP penetration, whereas Gram-negative bacteria possess a thinner peptidoglycan layer but contain an outer membrane that can act as a selective barrier, leading to variable susceptibility. Factors such as nanoparticle size, surface charge, and ion release further modulate these effects.

3.4.1 Antimicrobial properties of biopolymer nanocomposites

Biopolymer-based nanocomposites are promising antimicrobial materials for food packaging due to their ability to incorporate bioactive agents into biodegradable matrices, thereby enabling controlled and sustained antimicrobial action. Their activity arises from the synergistic effects of biopolymers and embedded nanomaterials such as metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, essential oils, and natural antimicrobial compounds (Peng et al., 2025). A key mechanism is microbial cell membrane disruption. Positively charged polymers such as chitosan interact electrostatically with negatively charged microbial surfaces, increasing membrane permeability, causing leakage of intracellular contents, and leading to cell death (Adelere et al., 2025). This effect is enhanced by nanoparticles due to their high surface area and strong interfacial interactions. Another important pathway is reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated oxidative stress, especially in systems containing Ag, ZnO, and TiO₂ nanoparticles. These generate ROS such as hydroxyl and superoxide radicals, which damage lipids, proteins, and DNA, resulting in microbial inactivation. ROS production depends on particle size, morphology, surface chemistry, and environmental conditions such as pH and light exposure (Guo et al., 2025).

The controlled release of antimicrobial ions (e.g., Ag⁺ and Zn²⁺) and encapsulated bioactives also contributes significantly to antimicrobial performance. Nanocomposite matrices regulate diffusion through swelling, degradation, and external triggers such as moisture and temperature, providing prolonged antimicrobial protection during food storage (Zhang et al., 2025). In addition, these systems inhibit biofilm formation by disrupting quorum sensing and extracellular polymeric substances, reducing microbial adhesion and persistence (Singh B. et al., 2025).

Chitin nanofibrils (CNFs) in antimicrobial nanocomposites exhibit primarily bacteriostatic activity rather than outright bactericidal effects. Incorporation of CNFs into a carrageenan matrix enhances the antimicrobial potential of the films, likely through mechanisms such as nutrient and oxygen blockage, leading to bacterial flocculation (Jamróz et al., 2019; Yadav et al., 2025). This underscores that NP–bacterial interactions are not solely determined by Gram type but involve multiple structural and functional factors.

Antimicrobial performance depends strongly on nanoparticle dispersion, size, concentration, and compatibility with the polymer matrix. Microbial response also varies, as Gram-negative bacteria are generally more resistant due to their outer membrane barrier (Adelere et al., 2025). Despite their advantages, challenges remain, including reduced efficacy in complex food matrices, potential nanoparticle toxicity, migration concerns, and the risk of resistance development (Zhang et al., 2025). Therefore, optimization of safety and performance is essential. The biopolymer nanocomposites offer a versatile and sustainable platform for antimicrobial food packaging, combining biodegradability with enhanced microbial control. Future research should focus on smart, stimuli-responsive systems with controlled release, improved safety, and scalable commercial applications.

4 Antimicrobial mechanisms and food system integration

For the successful application of antimicrobial approaches in food systems, it is essential to understand the mechanisms of microbial inhibition, the release kinetics of antimicrobial compounds, and the effectiveness of these compounds in food systems. Although many antimicrobial materials and formulations show promising antimicrobial efficacy in vitro, their effectiveness in actual food systems is often significantly different. The reason behind this is the fact that in vitro models often involve simple, homogeneous environments, whereas food systems are inherently complex, heterogeneous, and dynamic. Food consists of many different constituents, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, minerals, and water, all of which have the potential to interact with antimicrobial compounds in ways that can alter their effectiveness. In foods, of course, there are a lot of variables to consider. For example, foods with high fat content tend to bind hydrophobic antimicrobial compounds, thereby reducing their capacity to come into contact with microorganisms. There is also consideration of pH, ionic strength, redox potential, and water activity, all of which can affect not only the efficacy of the antimicrobials but also their solubility (Gidado et al., 2025). In this case, what may work effectively in a Petri dish may not be so effective in actual food.

In addition, the location of microbes in the food also plays an important role. Their locations in food can be inconsistent, with microbes also hibernating in “safety zones,” such as fat droplets, minute crevices, or biofilms on surfaces. This may make it more difficult for antimicrobials to access and kill microbes. Therefore, effective antimicrobial systems should ideally provide prolonged, localized, and targeted activity rather than a short-term, singular activity. The release of antimicrobial agents from antimicrobial delivery systems, such as biopolymer films, coatings, or nanocomposites, is an important factor that must be considered. It is therefore vital to ensure that the antimicrobial agents are consistently released to maintain constant inhibitory levels while also preventing excessive antimicrobial agents from building up, which could produce unpleasant sensory effects. However, the process of releasing the antimicrobial agents from the delivery systems is not straightforward. The process relies on the polymers used, the way that the antimicrobial interacts with the system, the environmental conditions, and the storage period. All of these elements differ depending on the various food systems, and therefore require consideration (Davidson et al., 2012). Therefore, demonstrating efficacy in different food products is essential for translating antimicrobial technologies from the laboratory to industrial application. With this elaborate information, antimicrobial agents, coupled with their delivery systems, can be formulated to ensure foods are safe, have a longer shelf life, and maintain improved quality (Carnaval et al., 2024).

4.1 Mechanisms of microbial inhibition and release behavior

The various antimicrobial agents employed in the food industry, such as essential oils, organic acids, bacteriocins, enzymes, biopolymers, and nanostructured materials, have different modes of action, which are generally additive for a synergistic effect. The antimicrobial mechanisms and controlled release behavior of biopolymer-based nanocomposites are schematically illustrated in Figure 2, highlighting membrane disruption, ROS generation, ion release, and biofilm inhibition pathways.

4.1.1 Mechanisms of microbial inhibition

• Cell membrane disruption: A wide range of antimicrobial agents have been found to disrupt the microbial cell membrane, causing increased membrane permeability, leakage of ions, and eventual cell lysis. Essential oils, including thymol and carvacrol, along with fatty acids and antimicrobial peptides, have been found to be highly effective in disrupting the microbial cell membrane (Swamy et al., 2016).
• Intracellular targeting and metabolic inhibition: Some antimicrobial agents have been found to penetrate the microbial cell and interfere with the enzyme system, ATP production, or redox reactions, thereby inhibiting the growth and multiplication of microbes.
• Induction of oxidative stress: Metal-based nanoparticles and some plant-based antimicrobials have been found to induce oxidative stress in microbes by generating ROS, which can cause oxidative degradation of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids (Jomova et al., 2025).
• Interference with genetic and protein synthesis: Bacteriocins and enzymatic antimicrobials have been found to inhibit the DNA and protein synthesis of microbes, thereby exerting both bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects.
• Biofilm inhibition and eradication: Antimicrobial coatings and nanostructured antimicrobial agents have been designed to prevent the formation of biofilms on the surfaces of food processing equipment, which is critical for controlling biofilm-based contamination in the food industry.

4.1.2 Release behavior in food systems

Controlled release rates are, therefore, vital to ensuring that the growth of microbes in the food system remains inhibited over time, while also minimizing unwanted modifications in flavor or texture and avoiding potential toxicological problems. For instance, an uncontrolled release would result in the antimicrobial activity rising suddenly, only to be followed by rapid exhaustion. The release of antimicrobial agents from the carrier system is primarily governed by the chemistry of the polymer matrix, including factors such as polymer type, level of crystallinity, cross-linking, and hydrophilicity. In addition, the release of antimicrobial agents into different sections of the food, referred to as the water, fat, or solid phases, determines the release rate of the agent. For instance, antimicrobial agents can be solubilized, forming the carrier system, while the natural chemistry of the food can influence their release, mainly by sequestering them and thereby reducing their concentration. For example, fat, protein, and carbohydrate contents may influence this interaction.

For increased release control, advanced antimicrobial carrier technologies have been developed, including biopolymer encapsulation, nanoemulsions, nanocarriers, and multilayered or nanostructured films. By employing these technologies, better antimicrobial activity can be achieved during storage, and the quantity of required antimicrobials can be minimized. Overall, antimicrobial carrier technologies offer excellent opportunities in contemporary food preservation due to their sustained release and compatibility with safety and quality requirements (Carnaval et al., 2024; Menon and Lyng, 2021).

4.2 Application studies and food system validations

Application studies and validation trials are essential for laboratory-scale antimicrobial efficacy due to the inconsistency in translating to real food systems through matrix interactions and microbial adaptation mechanisms.

4.2.1 Performance in real food matrices

Antimicrobial systems have been extensively studied on a wide range of food matrices, including fresh and minimally processed fruits and vegetables, meat, poultry, seafood products, dairy products, fermented foods, baked goods, and ready-to-eat foods. The results suggest that the effectiveness of antimicrobial agents depends considerably on the composition of the food products to which they are applied. Foods with high fat or protein contents can decrease the effectiveness of antimicrobial agents because these agents react with the food product in a certain way. Thus, optimization of the antimicrobial formulation, such as the concentration of the antimicrobial agents, the choice of the delivery system, or the use of a combination of antimicrobial agents, may be required to ensure the effectiveness of the antimicrobial agents in these complex food systems (Basumatary et al., 2022; Jomova et al., 2025).

4.2.2 Synergistic and hurdle-based approaches

Combining antimicrobial agents with complementary preservation strategies—such as mild heat treatment, high-pressure processing, sonication, modified atmosphere packaging, and refrigeration—has emerged as an effective hurdle-based approach. These synergistic interventions can inhibit microbial growth more efficiently than single treatments, while preserving key quality attributes of food. The selection of appropriate combinations and processing parameters is critical to maximize efficacy and minimize negative sensory or nutritional impacts.

4.2.3 Shelf-life extension and sensory impact

Studies have demonstrated that well-designed antimicrobial systems can extend food shelf life by 20%–100%, depending on the type of food, antimicrobial agent, and application method (Basumatary et al., 2022). When optimized, these interventions help maintain sensory properties such as texture, flavor, and appearance. These findings highlight the importance of careful system design, including dose selection, matrix compatibility, and processing conditions, to achieve both microbial safety and consumer-acceptable quality.

5 Safety and regulatory considerations

Despite advances in technology, safety evaluation and regulatory approval remain critical factors for the commercialization of antimicrobial food systems.

5.1 Migration, toxicological, and environmental risk assessment

5.1.1 Migration studies

The migration of antimicrobial substances from packaging materials or surface coatings into food should be restricted to safe and regulatory limits. The migration rate and migration amount depend on various parameters, including the antimicrobial molecular size and polarity, the type of food, i.e., aqueous, fatty, or acidic, and their interactions. It has been found that smaller and polar antimicrobial compounds easily migrate, particularly in aqueous or acidic foods. Fatty foods can influence the migration of fat-soluble compounds. However, it is necessary to perform specific migration tests with selected food simulants to properly assess the amount of potential migration, which is mandatory while sanctioning any specific food contact material or article (Carnaval et al., 2024; Basumatary et al., 2023; Swamy et al., 2016).

5.1.2 Toxicological evaluation

Toxicological evaluation of antimicrobial systems involves a wide range of studies. This includes short- and long-term toxicity studies, genotoxicity studies, carcinogenicity studies, allergenicity studies, and assessments of effects on the human gut microbiota. This is important in establishing the safety of antimicrobial systems in relation to consumers. In the case of nanomaterials and bioactive agents, more stringent toxicological studies are required due to limited understanding of bioaccumulation, biological interactions, and the potential long-term health effects of such antimicrobial agents. Therefore, more extensive and stringent testing is required before the introduction of such antimicrobial agents into the market (Basumatary et al., 2022, Basumatary et al., 2023).

A critical component of toxicological assessment involves identifying key hazard endpoints, such as cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, oxidative stress induction, and the potential for bioaccumulation in biological tissues. Cytotoxicity studies evaluate the effects of antimicrobial agents on cell viability and membrane integrity, while genotoxicity studies assess potential DNA damage or mutagenic effects that could lead to long-term health risks. Additionally, oxidative stress generation, often associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, can lead to cellular damage, inflammation, and disruption of normal metabolic processes. Bioaccumulation is another major concern, particularly for persistent antimicrobial compounds and nanomaterials that may accumulate in organs or tissues following prolonged exposure.

Another important factor in toxicological evaluation is understanding the migration mechanisms of antimicrobial agents from packaging materials into food matrices. Migration can occur through diffusion, partitioning, or desorption processes and is influenced by factors such as temperature, storage time, packaging material properties, food composition (fat, moisture, and acidity), and the physicochemical characteristics of the antimicrobial compound. These migration processes determine the extent to which consumers may be exposed to the active substances present in antimicrobial packaging systems.

Risk assessment must also consider exposure scenarios, including both acute and chronic exposure pathways. Acute exposure refers to short-term ingestion of relatively higher concentrations of migrated antimicrobial agents, whereas chronic exposure involves continuous intake of low levels over an extended period. Chronic exposure is particularly important when evaluating substances that may accumulate in the body or gradually affect physiological systems such as the gut microbiome. Therefore, realistic dietary exposure assessments and consumption patterns must be integrated into safety evaluations.

Furthermore, dose–response relationships play a central role in determining safe concentration limits for antimicrobial agents. Toxicological studies aim to identify thresholds such as the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) and acceptable daily intake (ADI), which help regulatory agencies establish permissible migration limits. However, the dose–response behavior of some antimicrobial compounds, particularly nanoparticles and bioactive agents, may not always follow conventional toxicological patterns, making safety evaluation more complex.

In the case of nanomaterials and nano-enabled antimicrobial systems, additional challenges arise in risk assessment. Nano-specific properties such as extremely small size, high surface area, enhanced reactivity, and the ability to penetrate biological barriers may lead to unique biological interactions that are not fully understood. These materials may exhibit altered biodistribution, enhanced cellular uptake, and potential accumulation in organs, raising concerns about long-term toxicity. Moreover, conventional toxicological models may not adequately predict nanoscale interactions, necessitating more advanced analytical techniques and interdisciplinary approaches. Due to these uncertainties, more stringent and extensive toxicological testing, including in vitro, in vivo, and computational risk assessment methods, is required before such antimicrobial systems can be safely introduced into the market. Comprehensive regulatory evaluation is therefore essential to ensure that antimicrobial packaging technologies provide microbial safety without posing unintended risks to human health.

5.1.3 Environmental risk assessment

Environmental aspects include considerations of biodegradability and potential toxicity to the ecosystem. With the development of green antimicrobial systems, increasing attention is being given to the development of bio-based and compostable antimicrobial agents. Environmental considerations have become increasingly important in the design and application of antimicrobial systems, particularly in sectors such as food packaging, healthcare materials, and surface coatings. Conventional antimicrobial agents, including certain synthetic chemicals and metal-based compounds, may persist in the environment after disposal and can accumulate in soil or aquatic ecosystems. Such persistence raises concerns about long-term ecological toxicity, disruption of microbial communities, and the potential development of antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, modern research in antimicrobial materials is increasingly focusing on environmentally responsible alternatives that minimize ecological impact while maintaining effective antimicrobial performance (Al-Tayyar et al., 2020; Thapliyal et al., 2025).

One key environmental aspect is biodegradability. Biodegradable antimicrobial systems are designed to break down into non-toxic components through natural biological processes involving microorganisms, enzymes, and environmental conditions such as moisture and temperature. Materials derived from renewable resources, including polysaccharides, proteins, and plant-based compounds, are particularly attractive because they can be degraded naturally without leaving harmful residues. Examples include antimicrobial agents derived from chitosan, cellulose derivatives, essential oils, and plant extracts. These substances not only exhibit antimicrobial properties but also demonstrate improved environmental compatibility due to their ability to decompose within natural biogeochemical cycles (Babaei-Ghazvini et al., 2021; Peerzada et al., 2024).

Another important factor is the potential toxicity of antimicrobial substances to non-target organisms. While antimicrobial agents are designed to inhibit harmful microorganisms, they may also affect beneficial microbial populations in soil, water, and living organisms. Disruption of these microbial communities can influence nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and ecological balance. Consequently, toxicity assessment has become a critical step in the development of antimicrobial systems. Researchers now evaluate environmental safety through ecotoxicological studies involving aquatic organisms, soil microorganisms, and other representative species to ensure that antimicrobial compounds do not cause unintended ecological damage.

In response to these concerns, significant attention has been directed toward the development of green antimicrobial systems. These systems emphasize sustainability through the use of renewable raw materials, environmentally benign synthesis routes, and reduced chemical waste. Green synthesis techniques, such as enzyme-assisted processes, solvent-free reactions, and plant-mediated nanoparticle production, are increasingly being explored to produce antimicrobial materials with lower environmental footprints. Such approaches aim to replace conventional chemical synthesis methods that often involve toxic solvents, high energy consumption, and hazardous by-products.

Additionally, the concept of bio-based and compostable antimicrobial agents has gained prominence in recent years. Bio-based materials originate from renewable biological resources and can be integrated into biodegradable polymer matrices used in packaging and biomedical applications. Compostable antimicrobial materials are designed to degrade under controlled composting conditions, ultimately converting into carbon dioxide, water, and biomass without releasing toxic substances. This approach aligns with the principles of the circular economy by reducing waste accumulation and enabling the recovery of organic matter (Hernández-García et al., 2021; Thapliyal et al., 2025).

Overall, the integration of biodegradability, low environmental toxicity, and renewable resource utilization represents a major direction in the development of next-generation antimicrobial technologies. Future research is expected to focus on balancing antimicrobial efficacy with environmental sustainability by optimizing the composition, release behavior, and degradation pathways of antimicrobial systems. Such efforts will contribute to the development of safer and more sustainable materials that meet both performance requirements and ecological responsibility (Babaei-Ghazvini et al., 2021; Thapliyal et al., 2025).

5.2 Global regulatory frameworks and compliance challenges

Significantly, the regulatory environment and frameworks regarding food-related technologies show considerable regional diversity and variability on a global scale. For instance, the regulatory focus and priorities of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in the United States are largely centered on achieving Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status and meeting food contact substance notification standards (Program, 2024a, 2024b). On the other hand, the European Union, under the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), follows more rigorous standards and regulations, including migration limits and risk assessment, to ensure the consumer safety and health. Furthermore, the regulatory environment and standards in the Asia-Pacific region show considerable diversity and variability and remain dynamic and evolving. There are also significant differences among countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Overall, these aspects and issues highlight the major problem of the lack of regulatory harmonization on a global scale.

6 Challenges, opportunities, and future outlook

6.1 Industrial scalability and consumer acceptance

6.1.1 Scalability challenges

However, the path to bringing antimicrobial technology to industrial-scale commercialization is fraught with challenges. Chief among these are concerns about the availability of economically feasible production methods, the suitability of integrating these methods into existing processing/production workflows, and the necessary stability for storage and distribution. These are just the processing conditions that the technology must withstand. In summary, developing strategies to make this technology a commercially viable solution on a larger scale is one of the primary focuses of this field. This requires a balanced approach to optimizing processes and production, along with conducting a techno-economic analysis of antimicrobial technology solutions (Carnaval et al., 2024; Basumatary et al., 2023).

6.1.2 Consumer perception and acceptance

Consumer perception plays a critical role in the adoption of antimicrobial food packaging technologies. Beyond basic awareness, factors such as trust in food safety, preference for natural over synthetic additives, and concerns about nanomaterial use significantly influence market acceptance. Studies have shown that consumers are increasingly demanding “clean-label” products and favor packaging that integrates naturally derived antimicrobial agents, especially when accompanied by clear labeling and sustainability claims (Davidson et al., 2012). Moreover, effective communication regarding the safety, biodegradability, and circularity of biopolymer-based antimicrobial packaging can enhance consumer confidence. Acceptance is also influenced by demographic factors, cultural attitudes toward food technology, and perceived environmental benefits, suggesting that consumer education and transparency are essential for successful commercialization. Incorporating these insights provides a more comprehensive understanding of how consumer perception influences both regulatory acceptance and market viability of green nanocomposite-based antimicrobial packaging.

6.2 Circular bioeconomy integration and harmonized regulatory pathways

The circular bioeconomy is likely to shape the future development of antimicrobial food systems. The underlying concept involves the valorization of agricultural and food processing wastes for the production of antimicrobial agents. Similarly, there is a growing interest in the use of biodegradable and compostable carriers to deliver active agents and in reducing the overall footprint of the food supply chain. Consideration of end-of-life scenarios, including mechanical recycling, organic recycling (composting), and incineration, is critical to ensure true circularity. Compliance with biodegradability and compostability standards, alongside life cycle assessment (LCA) perspectives, allows evaluation of environmental impacts across the product life cycle and strengthens alignment with circular bioeconomy models. These trends are expected to enhance resource utilization efficiency, reduce waste, improve sustainability, and increase consumer confidence in antimicrobial food systems. Another important aspect involves the development of globally harmonized regulations that can stimulate innovation, reduce regulatory barriers, and facilitate the global diffusion of antimicrobial agents that are not only safe and effective but also environmentally responsible and aligned with circular economy principles (Basumatary et al., 2023; Gidado et al., 2025).

7 Conclusions and future perspectives

At present, there is an increasing trend toward safe, healthy, minimally processed food products, which has brought antimicrobial technologies into the spotlight as a possible solution for preventing microbial-related food safety issues. This review attempts to critically discuss the evolution of antimicrobial technologies, mechanisms of action, and safety, regulatory, and sustainability issues by exploring existing literature. Overall, there is evidence of considerable promise for antimicrobial agents, coatings, and packaging technologies in food safety, addressing consumer health, environmental, and feasibility issues.

Both artificial and natural antimicrobial agents exhibit excellent activity in food items. Their activity is influenced by physicochemical, factors such as molecular size, polarity, and solubility, in addition to interactions with the surrounding food matrix. As the food industry increasingly focuses on consumer safety and operates under stricter regulation, migrating these antimicrobial agents in a tightly controlled manner is critical to the successful implementation of these technologies.

An integral role has been recognized for toxicological evaluation in the development and approval of antimicrobial technologies for food applications. This includes testing for acute and chronic toxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, allergenicity, and potential effects on the human microbiome. This is particularly important for nanotechnologies based on nanomaterials or active compounds, where there remains considerable uncertainty around their bioaccumulative potential and interactions with living systems. Thus, it can be emphasized how more critical evaluation methods are being applied in this area, driving the requirement for interdisciplinary interaction between materials, toxicology, and regulatory science.

Environmental sustainability is an essential element in the development and advancement of antimicrobial technologies applied to food products. Conventional antimicrobial materials are known to harm sustainability due to their long lifespan, ecotoxicological implications, and end-of-life waste disposal. As a result, antimicrobial materials developed from biodegradable, compostable, and bio-based materials with lower sustainability impacts are increasingly gaining traction. Adopting sustainable bioeconomy principles, with emphasis on valorizing food processing and agricultural waste as sources of antimicrobial agents, is becoming a key strategy for improving sustainability outcomes and enhancing the acceptability of antimicrobial technologies in food products.

Despite these advances, many challenges must be addressed before these technologies achieve widespread acceptance in the food sector. The main concerns are cost-effective large-scale production, seamless integration into the existing processing and packaging setup, and long-term stability in storage and distribution. These products require further optimization in formulation, production processes, and performance validation to enable successful transition from laboratory research to commercial application. Without such optimization, these innovations will not reach the market.

Regulatory challenges also play a significant role in determining the adoption of these technologies. There are notable gaps in areas such as the United States, European Union, and Asia Pacific, notably in terms of security assessments and migration tests.To support broader implementation, a more harmonized global regulatory system should be established. On the other hand, it is important to maintain high safety standards while enabling technological advancement.

In conclusion, several challenges remains in the advancement of these technologies in the food industry. Nevertheless, there is strong confidence in the fact that these technologies can contribute to a safer and more sustainable food supply chain in the near future. In other words, it can be said that these technologies represent a reliable pathway toward sustainability in future food systems.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Shikha Pandhi, Amity University Rajasthan, India

Reviewed by: Martin Himly, University of Salzburg, Austria

Jeelani Peerzada, Saveetha University, India