Evaluation of liquid transport properties in bi-layer knitted fabrics for the fashion industry

Efficient liquid moisture transfer is an important functional requirement for sportswear and activewear, where fast removal of sweat from the skin surface is required to maintain thermal physiological comfort. This research explores systematically the impact of fiber type and face-back layer orientation on the moisture management properties of bi-layer knitted structures. Six bi-layer knitted fabrics made from micro-denier polyester, spun polyester, and bamboo fibers with different face-back orientations were produced while maintaining the main parameters of knitting process for comparative purposes. The liquid transfer behavior was studied using a Moisture Management Tester according to AATCC 195 standard in terms of wetting time, absorption rate, maximum wetted radius, spreading speed, accumulative one-way transport index (R) and overall moisture management capacity (OMMC). Significant variations in the moisture transfer properties depending on the fiber wettability, face-back layer orientation, fabric thickness, weight, porosity and capillarity have been observed. Among all tested fabrics, S2 fabric, comprising of bamboo as a face layer and micro-denier polyester as a back layer showed the best overall moisture management properties with the lowest wetting times (7.2 s and 10.1 s), the highest absorption rates (0.44%/s and 0.41%/s), maximum wetted radii of 20.2 and 24.1 mm and spreading speed of 3.3 mm/s and 3.6 mm/s for respective layers. This construction also had the highest accumulative one-way transport index (R ≈ +341%) and OMMC of 0.87. The superiority of S2 construction was explained by the complementary hydrophilicity-hydrophobicity properties of bamboo and micro-denier polyester allowing moisture uptake, its unidirectional transport and further distribution. It was shown that the efficient moisture management properties of bi-layer knitted fabrics can be achieved through the proper combination of fiber types and face-back layer orientation.

Moisture management is an important functional property of performance fabrics, especially for sports clothing, wherein thermo-physiological comfort is a factor affecting physical endurance, concentration, and recovery. In high intensity sports, such as tennis, clothing must be able to provide a dry microclimate adjacent to the skin, requiring the textile to para, not only quickly absorb sweat, but also efficiently transport and evaporate moisture. The moisture behavior in multilayer textile systems is dictated by the synergistic interaction of fiber morphology, yarn construction and fabric construction. The Moisture Management Tester (MMT) evaluated the moisture management performance of the developed bilayer knitted fabrics using AATCC195 standard approach. The MMT uses moisture management sensors to help track the movement of liquid sweat throughout each outer or inner fabric, as well as continuously replicates liquid sweat deposition (Satheesh Kumar et al., 2025).

Transport properties of liquid in textiles, particularly in bi-layer knitted textiles, have been given considerable importance in recent times because of its practical utility in achieving comfort. Liquid transfer properties of a textile are of prime importance for maintaining thermo-physiological comfort because of its significance in absorption, transportation, and evaporation of moisture. Bi-layer knitted textiles are fabricated with an aim to enhance the properties of liquid transfer by designing textiles from two layers having different hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. Different combinations of fibers and finishing processes have been studied to enhance the properties of liquid transfer (Udaya Krithika et al., 2020; Geethanjali et al., 2024; Frydrych et al., 2002; Krithika et al., 2022).

The transport of moisture in fabrics is regulated by capillary action, wicking, diffusion, and evaporation mechanisms and depends on the nature of the fiber, the structure of yarns, and fabric construction. The knitted structures have an intrinsic advantage in terms of moisture management due to their loop-to-loop structure that provides capillary channels to transfer liquids horizontally and vertically (Krithika et al., 2022).

A number of researchers analyzed the effects of fiber characteristics on liquid transport (Majumdar et al., 2010; Sivaku et al., 2023; Oner, 2019; Udaya Krithika et al., 2021; Supuren et al., 2011). Hydrophobic polyester fibers, which are characterized by low moisture regain and smooth surfaces, are used as a hydrophobic layer in the bi-layer structures. Natural fibers, including cotton and bamboo, have high moisture regain and good ability to absorb water. Still, bamboo is characterized by high water retention and, therefore, was less efficient in drying than artificial materials. Micro-denier polyester increases capillary wicking due to fine filaments with increased specific surface area, and, consequently, improves moisture transfer between layers. Hence, it is important to consider fiber hydrophilicity and filament fineness.

In addition to fiber composition and order of layers, fabric structure and physical characteristics such as thickness, porosity, and loop density play an important role in the process of liquid transport. However, the closer the fabric is woven, the greater its capillary action is but its evaporation speed is lower because there is less air flow through the fabric. Thickness is another contradictory parameter because the thicker the fabric is, the more liquid it holds, but thinner fabric dries faster but does not provide enough absorbing capability.

Recent literature also emphasizes the need for sustainable and biodegradable fibers in performance apparel (Gorji and Bagherzadeh, 2016; Mehne et al., 2024; Gulhane et al., 2025; Wendler et al., 2019; Vidya et al., 2023). Bamboo, modal, lyocell, and soy based fibers have gained attention for their ecofriendly nature and moisture regulation ability. Researchers have also experimented with finishes and coatings that alter the surface energy of fabrics to enhance directional moisture flow. Plasma treatment, nano-finishes, and silicone coatings are among the techniques used to tailor hydrophobic–hydrophilic balance without significantly changing the fabric’s mechanical properties.

However, several knowledge gaps still exist. Majority of the available literature involves experiments conducted in the laboratory conditions under static pressure; such conditions do not always represent the actual liquid dynamics in use (Prakash et al., 2013). The relation between the composition of sweat, fabric distortion, and pressure is still poorly investigated. Furthermore, no study attempted correlating the quantitative liquid transport parameters with the wearers’ comfort information. The use of mechanical modeling together with experimental evidence could help to understand better the liquid transport mechanism in multi-layered knitted fabric.

In conclusion, itsemphasized that the reviewed literature proves the fact that two-layer knitted fabric, which is made by the appropriate combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic fibers, demonstrates better liquid management properties than conventional one-layer fabrics (Supuren et al., 2011; Gorji and Bagherzadeh, 2016; Mehne et al., 2024; Gulhane et al., 2025; Wendler et al., 2019; Vidya et al., 2023; Prakash et al., 2013). The fiber morphology, layer alignment, and fabric parameters have a significant effect on the capillary flow and drying process. Even though the significant advances have been already made, there arenumerous scopes for improvement.

Although the importance of properties of fibers and layers on the moisture transport process in fabrics was well-established through past research studies, further studies are required regarding the impact of specific combinations of face and back fibers in bi-layer knit fabric systems. In this case, more comparative data on the effect of fiber configuration in face and back layers on the moisture management performance of micro polyester, spun polyester, and bamboo fibers in terms of wicking, absorption, spreading, liquid transport directionality, and other characteristics are lacking. In this regard, the current research aims at experimentally analyzing six bi-layer knitted structures with different fiber types and configurations within a moisture management testing system. The novelty of the work is the comparative study of the arrangements of the layers of the fabric. Three types of fibre fabrics–micro polyester, spun polyester, and bamboo were used and placed in various combinations of face and back, so that the effect of layer positioning on the direction of moisture transfer could be compared. The current study thus looks at the structure and performance aspects of moisture management by examining the effect of the arrangement of fibres on wetting, absorption, spreading, one-directional movement of liquids, and moisture management properties.

There were ten main variables measured: the wetting time of top and bottom surfaces (WTt, WTb), the absorbance rate of top and bottom surfaces (ARt, ARb), the maximum wetted radius (MWRt, MWRb), the speed of spreading (SSt, SSb), the accumulative one-way transport index (R), and the overall moisture management capacity (OMMC). These combined measures assess the overall ability of the fabric to absorb moisture, transport the moisture away from the skin and evaporate the moisture from the outer layer. The six bilayer samples featured varied combinations of micro denier polyester, spun polyester, or bamboo viscose in alternating face and back layer orientations. This design is made possible to observe the differences between hydrophilic and hydrophobic behaviors, as well as observe the effects of fiber placements on moisture transfer directly. These results clearly show how moisture can be managed in sportswear by choosing the right fibers.

Fabric thickness

The determination of thickness was done using ISO 5084 standards whereby the thickness of the fabrics was measured by using a digital thickness meter with a pressure of 0.5 kPa. The results of thickness determination were in the range of 0.85 mm–0.92 mm for the tested fabrics. The fabrics that had bamboo fibers in the inside (S1 and S3) had relatively high thickness values due to the high moisture regain properties and swelling of bamboo fibers.

Porosity

Porosity values of the fabrics were calculated as explained by. The porosity (P) of fabrics was calculated using the following expression Equation 1.

Indirect determination of the porosity was made using an air permeability test and calculation of fabric density. Fabrics with micro polyester in the outer side (S1 and S5) had high porosity values. This is because of the hydrophobic and low density characteristics of the micro denier polyester that lead to loop opening while knitting (Krithika et al., 2022; Sivaku et al., 2023; Vidya et al., 2023).

Structural integrity

In order to test the stability of the fabrics, measurements of shrinkage (ISO 6330), pilling resistance (ISO 12945-2), and seams were carried out. After washing the specimens for five times, there was a dimensional stability of ±3% in all fabrics, thus, indicating that there is no washing instability. The results for the pilling were between grade 4 and grade 5. The fabrics containing micro polyester had pilling resistance that was somewhat higher because of the fineness of the filaments in the fabrics. The results of the sewing were equal among all samples since the samples were sewn with the flat lock stitch having a density of 4 stitches/cm.

Fabric sample preparation

The compositions and coding of the developed samples are presented below:

Six separate bi-layer knitted samples have been made, where both the types of fibers and their layering have been systematically varied (Table 1). This process helped in assessing the effect of the combination and layering of various yarns on the fabric’s performance. It makes sure that all combinations of the three types of yarns have been considered once to facilitate an easy comparison of their moisture management behavior. The aim was to study the effect of fiber type and layering on the ability of these knitted samples to transfer liquid. Face layer means the layer which will serve as the outside layer of fabric while testing. Back layer means the inside layer of the fabric when worn. There were six fabric samples and their labels were S1-S6, as shown in Table 1.

A double jersey circular knitting top machine (Mayer &Cie OVJA 1.6 E) was used for producing bilayered knitted fabric with two separate and distinct layers made on the same machine at the same time. The machine is configured to 30 inches in diameter and has a gauge of 24 GG; both stitch lengths were set at 2.8 mm for the face side and 3.0 mm for the back side, and the loop density was held constant at 180 loops/in 2 across all of the samples selected to evaluate physical (Table 2) and moisture management properties and replicate a more consistent total fabric structure among the sample groups than the same sample structure had to work with when knitting single knitted fabric on any knitting method’s arrangement.

Wetting time of top surface (WTt)

The top-surface wetting time (WTt) indicates the time required for the applied water droplet to initiate wetting and penetration through the face layer. As seen in Figure 1, S2 showed the least WTt of 7.2 s, mainly because of the hydrophilicity of the bamboo face, in which the hydroxyl groups in the cellulose fibersfavor water interactions and capillary transport. Moreover, the moderately-high porosity in this specimen allows for interconnectivity and thus quick fluid transport. On the other hand, specimens S1 and S5 had approximately equal WTt values of 8.5 and 8.2 s respectively; the latter may be due to the high porosity and relatively low thickness (0.86 mm) of S1, while the micro-denier structure in S5 may produce a larger number of capillary spaces to aid moisture transportation. The lack of water affinity in polyester fibers on the other hand can be balanced by finer filament structure in the case of capillary transport in the knitted form. In a similar manner, specimen S6 had a WTt value of approximately 9.2 s, in which the lack of hydrophilic bamboo face shows less water-fiber interaction in the initial stages, but finer micro-denier filaments can aid capillary transportation. Also, specimen S3 had the highest WTt of 10.1 s despite being made of Spun Polyester (Face)/Bamboo (Back). This contradictory finding is associated with the highest GSM (201 g/m 2) and thickness (0.93 mm), along with moderate porosity. Therefore, the results show that WTt is determined not by fiber composition, but by a combination of factors such as fiber wettability, porosity, thickness, mass, and capillary structure (Udaya Krithika et al., 2021; Supuren et al., 2011).

Wetting time of bottom surface (WTb)

The bottom-surface wetting time (WTb) represents the time required for moisture reaching the inner layer to migrate through the fabric structure and initiate wetting of the opposite surface. As shown in Figure 1, S2 exhibited the shortest WTb of 10.1 s, indicating relatively efficient moisture transfer from the bamboo face toward the micro-polyester side. The hydrophilic bamboo layer is able to take up the added water quickly, but the relatively hydrophobic polyester layer helps to redistribute water across the fabric rather than storing large amounts of water in the fibers. S5 and S6 showed WTb values of 11.2 and 12.2 s, respectively; the fine micro-denier polyester structure can provide numerous small capillary pathways that support liquid movement through the knitted loops. S1 recorded a WTb of 12.1 s, suggesting that the bamboo layer can absorb and retain part of the transported moisture because of its hydrophilic cellulose structure, thereby delaying its appearance at the surface. In contrast, S3 and S4 exhibited the longest WTb values of 14.1 and 13.2 s, respectively. Their relatively greater fabric thickness (0.93 and 0.91 mm) and moderate porosity may increase the pathway length and resistance to moisture migration. In particular, the hydrophobic spun polyester layer in S4 has limited affinity for water, which can delay the formation of continuous wetting on the receiving surface. Overall, the WTb results demonstrate that moisture transfer in bilayer knitted fabrics depends on the interaction between fiber wettability, layer orientation, fabric thickness, porosity, and capillary pathways, rather than being controlled by fiber type alone (Udaya Krithika et al., 2021; Supuren et al., 2011).

Absorption rate of top surface (ARt)

The top-surface absorption rate (ARt) represents the rate at which moisture is taken up by the face layer and therefore provides an indication of the fabric’s initial moisture-response capability. Figure 2 shows S2 with the highest ARt value at 0.44%/s. This could have been caused by the hydrophilic cellulose nature of the material in bamboo and the easy interaction between the liquid and the bamboo fiber material. The comparatively higher porosity of S2 may also aid the absorption of liquids through the interconnected spaces in the knitted construction. S1 and S5 had ARt values of 0.41%/s, indicating good initial absorption capacity. For S1, the relatively higher fabric porosity and the thin thickness (0.86 mm) may help in quick absorption of the water into the surface structure while the micro-denier polyester in S5 would aid in generating a high specific surface area and narrow capillary channels that would support the distribution of moisture. S6 had an ARt value of 0.39%/s, meaning moderate initial absorption capacity despite the fine polyester in the material due to the fact that polyester has low water absorption capability. The ARt value of S4 was 0.39%/s, which despite having a bamboo component to help facilitate the absorption of moisture in the material; the polyester in the bilayer structure is hydrophobic. The lowest ARt value was recorded by S3 at 0.34%/s. Thus, the ARt results demonstrate that initial moisture absorption is directed by the combined effects of fiber wettability, fabric thickness, porosity, fabric mass, and capillary structure, rather than by fiber composition alone, Overall, these values appear plausible and fall well within previously documented rates related to absorption of knitted sportswear fabrics (Gorji and Bagherzadeh, 2016).

Absorption rate of bottom surface (ARb)

The bottom-surface absorption rate (ARb) indicates the rate at which moisture is absorbed by the receiving layer after passing through the fabric structure. S2 had the maximum ARb value of 0.41%/s (as illustrated in Figure 2) and this means effective moisture transport and uptake by the opposite side. Moisture absorption by the bamboo fiber is possible due to its hydrophilic cellulose structure, and moisture distribution through capillaries is made possible due to the fine polyester structure. S1 also had a similar ARb value of 0.39%/s and this was due to moisture absorption capacity of bamboo upon reaching the surface. S5 and S6 both had ARb values of 0.37% and 0.36%/s respectively. The moisture spreading was supported by fine micro-denier structure and moisture was redistributed through capillary spaces. S4 had an ARb value of 0.32%/s which means comparatively less moisture uptake rate in view of the hydrophobic property of polyester fiber. S3 had an ARb value of 0.33%/s although it comprised hydrophilic bamboo fibers but it was because of the relatively high GSM and thickness with moderate porosity to hinder moisture movement (Mehne et al., 2024).

Maximum wetted radius of top surface (MWRt)

The Maximum Wetted Radius of the Top Surface (MWRt) can be defined as the extent of lateral moisture spreading on the face layer when moisture spreads from the fabric surface. From Figure 3, it is seen that the highest value of MWRt, 20.2 mm, was achieved by S2. This can be explained by the hydrophilicity of the bamboo face fabric and capillary spreading properties. In addition, the relatively high porosity of the sample S2 may enable multidirectional movement of moisture. The value of 19.2 mm for the MWRt of S5 can be explained by the presence of fine micro-denier filaments, which develops many capillary channels, thus increasing the effective surface area for liquid redistribution. The MWRt of 18.1 mm and 18.2 mm for the samples S1 and S6, respectively, show similar values of lateral spreading, though the samples differ in their fibers. It can be suggested that the fine filament structure of S6 may contribute to capillary spreading, while the relatively open structure of S1 may enable liquid lateral movement. S4 shows the lowest MWRt of 17.2 mm; the low water affinity of polyester and the relatively low porosity of the sample may cause it. The lowest MWRt of 16.1 mm was achieved by S3, although bamboo is hydrophilic; the highest GSM (201 g/m 2), highest thickness (0.93 mm) and relatively moderate porosity of the fabric make it comparatively compact, thus hindering the lateral liquid movement [12].

Maximum wetted radius of bottom surface (MWRb)

The maximum wetted radius of the bottom surface (MWRb) represents the extent of lateral moisture spreading over the receiving surface after liquid has passed through the fabric. As shown in Figure 3, S2 had the highest MWRb value of 24.1 mm, implying efficient moisture redistribution on the lower surface. Bamboo material has the potential to take up water due to its hydrophilic cellulose nature. However, the fine polyester material will have an added advantage in spreading the moisture through capillarity. S1 and S6 had similar MWRb values of 22.1 mm and 22.3 mm, implying effective moisture redistribution attributed to the fine/open structure of the materials. S5 and S4 had slightly low values of 21.2 mm, which implies comparatively inefficient moisture redistribution due to their relatively high porosity. The lowest MWRb of 20.2 mm was recorded by S3, which could be attributed to the high GSM (201 g/m 2), high thickness (0.93 mm), and moderate porosity, which could cause resistance in moisture redistribution. The higher MWRb values compared to those of the top-surface imply that moisture could spread further laterally once it reaches the receiving surface. Overall, the results suggest that fiber wettability, filament morphology, fabric thickness, GSM, porosity, and capillary-network characteristics collectively influence moisture spreading on the bottom surface, overall, these results support the significance of hydrophobic fibersto increase moisture evaporation at the surface, reinforcing the knownbehavior of textiles [13].

Spreading speed of top surface (SSt)

The spreading speed of the top surface (SSt) represents the rate at which moisture moves laterally across the face layer after initial wetting. As shown in Figure 4, S5 exhibited the highest SSt of 3.4 mm/s, which can be attributed to the fine micro-denier polyester structure that provides a relatively large specific surface area and numerous fine capillary pathways for rapid lateral liquid movement. The other samples included S2 having an SSt of 3.3 mm/s, which is made up of the hydrophilic nature of the bamboo face, which enables quick absorption of moisture and further spreading through capillary action. S1 had an SSt of 3.1 mm/s, while S6 had an SSt of 3.3 mm/s. S4 showed a slightly lower SSt of 3.1 mm/s, which may be related to the relatively low water affinity of polyester and its moderate fabric porosity. The lowest SSt of 3.0 mm/s was recorded for S3; although bamboo is hydrophilic in nature, it has the maximum GSM value of 201 g/m 2, maximum thickness of 0.93 mm, and reasonable porosity, which suggests that it is more compact and hinders rapid moisture transfer (Gorji and Bagherzadeh, 2016; Mehne et al., 2024; Gulhane et al., 2025).

Spreading speed of bottom surface (SSb)

The bottom-surface spreading speed (SSb) represents the rate of lateral moisture redistribution across the receiving surface after liquid transfer through the fabric. Figure 4 demonstrates that S5 had the highest SSb value of 3.8 mm/s, due to the finer micro-denier polyester structure with multiple capillary channels for easy redistribution of moisture. S2 and S6 demonstrated the next best value of 3.6 mm/s and 3.7 mm/s, respectively, due to effective diffusion of moisture within their fine structured fabrics. S1 had an SSb value of 3.5 mm/s, and S4 and S3 had lower values of 3.3 mm/s and 3.2 mm/s, respectively. Lower values of SSb in case of S3 could be due to its higher GSM, thickness, and medium porosity, limiting its quick lateral diffusion (Gorji and Bagherzadeh, 2016; Mehne et al., 2024; Gulhane et al., 2025).

Accumulative one-way transport index (R)

The Accumulative One-Way Transport Index (R) defines the tendency of transport of liquid moisture from the inner side surface to the outer side surface of the bilayer fabric. As shown in Figure 5, S2 exhibited the highest R value of approximately +341%, indicating the strongest directional moisture transport among the investigated samples. This behavior can be attributed to the combination of the hydrophilic bamboo layer, which promotes initial moisture uptake, and the micro polyester layer, which facilitates subsequent redistribution through capillary pathways. The R value obtained from S1 is approximately +323%, indicating that there was effective liquid transmission between the two Micro Polyester (Face)/Bamboo (Back) fabrics. In addition, the values recorded for S5 and S6 were about +313% and +318%, respectively. This was due to the fine micro-denier fibers that have developed many capillaries, hence promoting directional transport of liquid through the fabric. The R value recorded in S4 is +304%, whereby the role of the hydrophobic nature of the polyester fiber in the wetting equilibrium could possibly limit directional transport when compared with S2. The lowest value of R (+294%) was recorded in S3. Overall, the positive R values obtained for all samples demonstrate a preferential one-way moisture transport tendency, while the differences among samples highlight the combined influence of fiber wettability, layer orientation, fabric thickness, GSM, porosity, and capillary-network structure on directional moisture management (Wendler et al., 2019).

Overall moisture management capacity (OMMC)

The Overall Moisture Management Capacity (OMMC) provides an integrated assessment of the fabric’s moisture-management performance by combining the principal characteristics of wetting, absorption, spreading, and directional moisture transport. As shown in Figure 6, S2 exhibited the highest OMMC value of 0.87, indicating the most effective overall moisture-management behaviour among the investigated samples. This superior performance can be associated with the hydrophilic bamboo face layer, relatively high porosity, rapid wetting, and efficient moisture spreading and directional transport observed for this sample. S1 followed with an OMMC of 0.86, reflecting its favourable structural characteristics and balanced moisture transfer behaviours. S5 and S6 recorded OMMC values of 0.84 and 0.83, respectively, which may be related to the fine micro-denier polyester structure providing numerous capillary pathways for moisture redistribution. The OMMC of S4 was marginally low at 0.82, which is justified by the hydrophobic nature of polyester as well as its moderate porosity. The OMMC of S3 was the lowest at 0.81, which is explained by the slow response in wetting and spreading, GSM of 201 g/m 2, thickness of 0.93 mm, and moderate porosity. Overall, the OMMC results demonstrate that fiber wettability and fabric structural characteristics act synergistically to determine the integrated moisture-management performance, with S2 showing the most favorable balance of moisture uptake, spreading, and directional transport among the developed fabrics (Wendler et al., 2019; Vidya et al., 2023; Prakash et al., 2013).

Analysis of the ANOVA results

A two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to evaluate the effects of samples (S1–S6) and variables on the dependent variable, it was tabulated in Table 3. The results showed that the sample effect was not statistically significant, F (5,55) = 0.593, p = 0.706, indicating no significant differences among the mean values of the six samples. However, the variable effect was highly statistically significant, F (11,55) = 2157.21, p < 0.001, indicating substantial differences among the variable means. Therefore, the results suggest that the dependent variable was significantly influenced by the measured variables, whereas differences among the sample numbers (S1–S6) were not statistically significant.

The present study demonstrated that the moisture-management performance of bi-layer knitted fabrics is strongly influenced by fiber type, layer orientation, and fabric structural characteristics. Of all the six developed samples, S2 performed the best, having fast wetting and absorption capability, wide moisture spreadability, the highest directionality index of transport (R = +341%), and the highest OMMC (0.87). The good performance of sample S2 suggests that the combination of the hydrophilic layer made from bamboo fibers and the micro polyester layer allows for the establishment of an effective moisture transfer gradient, thus facilitating moisture uptake and movement to outside directions. S1 and S5 also demonstrated favorable moisture-management behavior, whereas S3 and S4 showed comparatively slower wetting, absorption, spreading, and directional transport. The findings confirm that the orientation of individual fiber types within a bi-layer construction is critical to controlling moisture dynamics and cannot be evaluated solely from fiber composition. In terms of sustainability, the developed bi-layer textiles have the potential to increase comfort of sportswear with suitable choice of materials and structures without having to rely on chemical processing. The results of the study suggest the potential of developing comfortable and moisture-responsive sustainable knitted fabrics for sportswear and fashion purposes.