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Frontiers in Nanotechnology ·

Volume 8 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fnano.2026.1778616

Selenium nanostructures in biomedical diagnostics: toward smart and sustainable disease monitoring

  • Dipayan Das1
  • Pankaj Kumar2,3*corresponding author
  • Yugal Kishore Mohanta4,5
  • Satya Kumar Avula6
  • Shibani Mohapatra7
  • Javid Ahmed Parry8*corresponding author
  • Nitesh Priyadarshi9
  • Rahul Dilawari10
  • Niraj Singh1*corresponding author
  1. 1Department of Microbiology, Royal School of Biosciences, The Assam Royal Global University, Guwahati, Assam, India
  2. 2Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences, Parul University, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
  3. 3Center for Innovation and Inclusive Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
  4. 4Nano-Biotechnology and Translational Knowledge Laboratory, Department of Applied Biology, University of Science and Technology Meghalaya, Baridua, Meghalaya, India
  5. 5Centre for Herbal Pharmacology and Environmental Sustainability, Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Kelambakkam, Tamil Nadu, India
  6. 6Natural and Medical Sciences Research Centre, University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman
  7. 7Centre for Biotechnology, Shiksha “O” Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
  8. 8Department of Environmental Science, Government Degree College, Tangdhar, Kupwara, Jammu and Kashmir, India
  9. 9University School of Allied Health Science, Rayat Bahra University, Greater Mohali, Punjab, India
  10. 10Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States
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Abstract

Selenium (Se) is a vital trace element responsible for maintaining redox balance, immune modulation, and the preservation of cellular homeostasis. In recent years, selenium nanostructures have been widely used in biomedical diagnosis due to their exceptional physicochemical properties, inherent biological function, and excellent biocompatibility. The nanostructure comprises selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs), selenium quantum dots (SeQDs), and hybrid selenium nanocomposites. It exhibits properties such as tunable optical, electrical, and catalytic activities, allowing sensitive detection of disease-associated biomolecules. This review summarises the updated progress in the design of selenium nanostructures for diagnostic aims, including the synthesis methods, their surface functionalization and sensing mechanism. A new generation of selenium nanomaterials has been combined with carbon-based materials and polymers to enhance the sensitivity, amplification, and multiplexing of detection. Besides having significant potential in experimental studies, challenges such as large-scale production, batch-to-batch consistency, long-term biocompatibility, and obtaining regulatory approval limit clinical translation. The continued improvements in AI-based data analysis, data interpretation-supported automated systems, microfluidic platforms, and smart biosensor design will drive future research in this field. On the whole, selenium nanostructures are a low-cost and environmentally friendly material that shows potential for application in disease diagnostics and point-of-care implementation toward precision medicine.

Keywords

1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is a branch of technology that deals with the production and use of materials and tools at the nanoscale, which display different functional properties at the molecular and cellular levels (Jamkhande et al., 2019). Nanoparticles (NPs) differ from bulk materials and are characterised by their small size, large surface area, controlled dispersity, colloidal stability, tunable surface chemistry, easy modification, and multifunctional behaviour (McNamara and Tofail, 2017). These features provided the opportunity to interact precisely with biological systems, which have been exploited extensively (Zhang et al., 2012). Nanomedicine covers a wide range of areas like theranostics (Mukherjee et al., 2019), nanopharmaceuticals, nanotherapeutics (Jamkhande et al., 2019), and nanoimaging (Janjic and Gorantla, 2019). Precision nanomedicine has tremendous biological and physical benefits over traditional medicine. It increases tissue-targeting of drug formulations, reduces toxicity, improves pharmacokinetics and safety, and increases effectiveness (Choi and Han, 2018). A plethora of research has been undertaken on various types of metallic and non-metallic nanomaterials in recent years. In metallic nanomaterial gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are explored extensively due to their good localised surface plasmon resonance. AuNPs serve as an excellent material and are widely used for various disease monitoring, as colourimetric sensing of E.coli (Priyadarshi et al., 2025), P. aeruginosa (Garg et al., 2023), mechanical killing of S.aureus (Kaul et al., 2022), quartz crystal microbalance-based sensing (Priyadarshi and Singhal, 2023), in cancer therapeutics (Makkar et al., 2025) and other biomedical applications. In non-metallic nanoparticles, mostly explored nanomaterials are carbon-based nanomaterials, silica, and selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs).

Among them, a major focus has been on SeNPs due to their dual role as a biologically active essential trace element and functional nanomaterial. For the animal world, selenium is a crucial element in terms of normal physiological processes and is associated with more than 25 selenoproteins and selenoenzymes with the amino acid selenium (selenocysteine) (Kieliszek, 2019). In comparison to other metal-based nanoparticles, selenium shows relatively low toxicity and significant biocompatible properties, which are greatly affected by its oxidation states. In the environment, selenium is found in different oxidation states (−2, 0, +2, +4 and +6) and chemical forms such as selenate, selenite, selenomethionine, selenocysteine and elemental selenium (Se0) (Li et al., 2014). The biological activity and bioavailability of selenium are higher at the nanoscale than in its organic and inorganic forms (Bhattacharjee et al., 2019). SeNPs show versatile bioactivity, such as anticancer (Tang et al., 2019), antioxidant (Zhai et al., 2017), and antidiabetic (Abdulmalek and Balbaa, 2019) actions, as well as antibacterial and antibiofilm properties (Khiralla and El-Deeb, 2015). Apart from their therapeutic capacity, SeNPs also show great potential for diagnostic applications such as nanosensors, cellular imaging, epigenetic regulation and immunochromatographic assays (Hosnedlova et al., 2018).

Selenium nanoparticles can be produced by physical, chemical, or biological methods (Bisht et al., 2021). Among them, the biological synthesis is a highly attractive and eco-friendly route since it uses microorganisms, plants or microalgae and is free from toxic reducing or stabilising agents (Zambonino et al., 2021). The green utilisation lies under the scope of bionanotechnology and is a part of environmentally friendly, economical routes with a reduction in toxic byproducts. Biogenic SeNPs are usually characterised by enhanced stability and biocompatibility, in consequence of natural biomolecules being capping agents that prevent aggregation, increase their biological activity and protect them from physicochemical degradation (Javed et al., 2020; Sana Verma, 2025). Previous studies report biomedical potentials of green-prepared SeNPs, such as cancer cell killing in culture systems, antimicrobial action, scavenging of reactive oxygen species and tissue regeneration (Kondaparthi et al., 2019). In addition, the progress in nanofabrication technology has led to the creation of controlled and site-specific delivery systems which can enhance therapeutic efficacy and reduce off-target effects (Pingale et al., 2023).

SeNPs have shown strong preclinical potential for cancer diagnosis, drug delivery and gene therapy, but their clinical translation is still in initial stage. However, their low toxicity, favourable biocompatibility, affordability, and multi-functional properties make them attractive candidates for future clinical investigations (Zambonino et al., 2023). In addition, recent reports on sepsis detection using selenium nanoparticles in a lateral flow device have indicated that selenium exhibits higher sensitivity compared to commercially used gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) (Bradley et al., 2023).

At present, SeNP-based diagnostics and therapeutics are at the development stage, and ongoing efforts are being made to move these out of the research domain into the clinical setting. This review studied a holistic and contemporary perspective of selenium nanoparticles, specifically their physicochemical properties, methods of synthesis, and applications in biomedical use and disease diagnosis.

2 Biochemical and functional basis of selenium in biological systems

Selenium (Se) was discovered by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, and it is a human trace element that is essential for normal physiological functions (Hariharan and Dharmaraj, 2020). It is involved in various biological processes and has many therapeutic properties. Selenocysteine, as part of selenoproteins, is a biologically active component of some metabolic enzymes and prevents disorders such as hypercholesterolemia and cancer, as well as cardiovascular diseases (Jolly et al., 2020). Most selenium compounds in normal physiological conditions have an absorption of ∼70–90%, whereas selenite has a low bioavailability. Metabolism of selenium is also affected by parameters such as sulfur compounds and ethanol ingestion.

Total selenium in the human body is 10–20 mg, of which almost half is in skeletal muscle. Metabolically active organs such as the liver, kidney, and testis exhibit higher concentrations compared to other tissues, indicating an essential role of this compound in immune regulation and in erythrocyte and platelet function (Navarro-Alarcon and Cabrera-Vique, 2008). Selenium deficiency is also implicated as a serious cause of the Kashin–Beck disease, and is related to immune insufficiency and metabolic disorders (Liu et al., 2024). Selenium serves as a cofactor for several antioxidant enzymes, including glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase, detoxifying cells from reactive oxygen species (Lee et al., 2025).

Selenium recommended daily intakes of selenium as defined by the European Food Safety Authority are 60, 70, 65 and 75 µg for women, men, pregnant women and lactating women, respectively (Shi et al., 2021). The metabolism of selenium depends on the form in which it is present inside body of an organism. Inorganic selenium is reduced to selenide, and organic forms are metabolised to selenenorganic compounds (β-lyase-dependent cleavage) that will serve as a source for selenoprotein synthesis (Ferreira et al., 2021). While literature suggests that selenium has antitumor, antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal properties and its adequate intake correlates with decreased risk of TB in HIV-infected patients (Avery and Hoffmann, 2018). Selenium is also associated with the prevention of cancer, and hydrothionine and thus exhibits a vital role in the maintenance of neurological, thyroid and cardiac health (Hariharan and Dharmaraj, 2020). A proper selenium ingestion is also crucial for controlling the immune system as it increases T-cell proliferation, enhances the occurrence of natural killer (NK) cells, improves vaccine response and prevents the development of chronic inflammatory diseases as rheumatoid arthritis (Avery and Hoffmann, 2018). Selenium has been shown to have preventive effects towards heavy metal toxicities, radiation damage and alcohol-induced liver cirrhosis (Kuršvietienė et al., 2020). Selenium nanoparticles belong to a class of novel organic materials and are being developed for various biomedical uses, by virtue of their nanoscale dimension, high bioavailability, enhanced biocompatibility, lower toxicity and better therapeutic efficacy compared with conventional selenium forms (Chhabria and Desai, 2016). These properties render SeNPs as a potential candidate for future medical and pharmaceutical uses.

3 Design and synthesis of selenium nanostructures

The biomedical application of selenium nanostructures (SeNS) is due to their size-dependent redox activity, intrinsic bioactivity, and comparatively low toxicity in comparison to other metal-based nanomaterials (Qin et al., 2025). The selection of the synthesis method determines morphology, phase, surface chemistry, and colloidal stability, which in turn determines biological and translational potentiality (Roy et al., 2025).

Wet chemical reduction is the widely used laboratory approach in which selenite (SeO3 2-) or selenate (SeO4 2-) precursors are reduced (commonly with ascorbate, NaBH4, or plant-derived reducing agents) to form spherical or anisotropic SeNPs (Zhang et al., 2022; Li et al., 2025). Control over precursor concentration, reducing-agent stoichiometry, pH, and temperature enables regulation of particle size range (typically 20–200 nm) and crystallinity (Sampath et al., 2024; Geng et al., 2025). Hydrothermal synthesis generates highly crystalline nanorods, nanotubes or nanowires by leveraging high temperatures and pressures to direct anisotropic growth. Parameters such as solvent polarity, mineralizers, and reaction time determine aspect ratio and defect density (Nejati et al., 2023; Mirzakhani et al., 2024). Microwave-assisted synthesis results in rapid, homogeneous heating that shortens reaction time, improves size uniformity, and increases yield, which is an advantage for scalable production (Tışlı et al., 2024; Abdelhamid et al., 2025). Athwart these chemical and physical methods, the precursor identity, redox potential of the reducing agent, surfactant and capping ligand choice, and reaction kinetics are basic prerequisites for morphology and long-term colloidal stability (Nyabadza et al., 2023).

An eco-friendly method employing plant, fungal, and bacterial extracts, as well as purified biomolecules (proteins, polysaccharides), can produce bio-SeNPs, albeit with a limitation of polydispersive nanoparticles (Soliman et al., 2024). Phytochemicals (polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenoids) reduce selenium ions and also get adsorbed to the nascent nanoparticle surfaces as a capping agent, resulting in steric stabilisation and imparting biological functionality (antioxidant motifs, targeting ligands) (Dharmalingam Jothinathan et al., 2025). Microbial synthesis (intracellular or extracellular) can produce narrowly dispersed selenium nanostructures with biologically derived surface coronas that enhance biocompatibility and reduce immunogenicity (Hussain et al., 2023). Mechanistically, green synthesis integrates redox chemistry with biomolecule–nanocrystal interactions, like biomolecules modulate nucleation rates, cap specific crystallographic facets, and prevent uncontrolled aggregation (Singaravelu et al., 2025). These attributes make biogenic selenium nanostructures effective for biomedical uses (drug delivery, antimicrobial and anticancer agents) while aligning with circular bioeconomy principles and lower environmental impact compared to conventional chemical routes (Soliman et al., 2024).

Post-synthetic modification is essential to achieve target specificity, stability, and multifunctionality. Covalent or noncovalent conjugation of recognition elements (antibodies, aptamers, peptides, enzymes) to selenium nanostructures enhances selectivity for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Strategies include carbodiimide coupling to surface carboxyls, thiol-gold linkages, and click-chemistry handles for oriented immobilisation. Hybrid systems that combine SeNS with polymers (PEG, chitosan), carbonaceous supports (graphene oxide), gold nanoparticles, or quantum dots provide synergistic benefits by improving colloidal stability, tunable drug release, plasmonic or optical readouts, and amplified signal transduction for biosensing (Musalov and Potapov, 2022; Hada et al., 2024; Kumalasari et al., 2024). Thus, functionalization typically improves sensitivity and selectivity in sensing platforms and influences in-vitro or in-vivo biocompatibility through modulation of protein corona formation and cellular uptake pathways (Fasogbon et al., 2025).

4 Types of selenium nanostructures relevant to diagnostics

Selenium-based nanomaterials are emerging as versatile components for diagnostic platforms (Table 1) because of their physicochemical properties, intrinsic biocompatibility, and facile surface chemistry (Geng et al., 2025). Selenium nanostructures offer low cytotoxicity in comparison to some heavy-metal nanomaterials and are amenable to green synthesis, which encourages translational development (Kudarha et al., 2024; Sampath et al., 2024). Although during synthesis, control over particle size, surface chemistry and long-term photostability remain technical bottlenecks for SeQDs (Tarhan, 2024). Use of SeNPs-based devices in clinical or agricultural diagnostics requires validated protocols for scalable synthesis (Mostafavi et al., 2022). Standardisation of surface functionalization and rigorous biocompatibility/toxicology testing is another prerequisite before routine deployment (Sangubotla et al., 2025).

TABLE 1. Applications of selenium nanostructures in disease detection.

Selenium nanostructureDisease/Condition detectedDetection methodTarget biomarker/AnalyteDiagnostic applicationReferences
Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs)Colorectal cancerOptical/fluorescence sensingCarcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)Label-free detection of cancer biomarkersDas et al. (2022)
Colloidal SeNPsAcute heart failureRapid antigen immunoassayN-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP)Point-of-care cardiac screeningTang et al. (2025)
SeNP–MXene compositeDiabetes mellitusNon-enzymatic electrochemical sensingGlucoseEnzyme-free glucose monitoringPrabisha et al. (2025)
SeNP-based electrochemical platformsOxidative stress-related disordersElectrocatalytic sensingHydrogen peroxide (H2O2)Monitoring reactive oxygen species in metabolic and cancer conditionsHuang et al. (2023)
Selenium quantum dots (SeQDs)Cancer diagnostics and bioimagingFluorescence biosensingProteins and nucleic acidsLow-toxicity imaging probes for biomedical diagnosticsQureshi et al. (2020)
Se-QD magnetic nanohybridsBreast, prostate and liver cancersImmuno-optomagnetic/fluorescence sensingHER2, PSA, AFPMultiplex detection of serum cancer biomarkersMostafavi et al. (2022); Raturi et al. (2025)
Se-QD nucleic acid platformsColorectal and pancreatic cancersMagnetic-fluorescent DNA sensingKRAS mutationsEarly detection of oncogenic mutationsRaturi et al. (2025)
Se (IV)-mediated plasmonic systemsCancer (mutant p53 detection)Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) sensingMutant p53 DNAHighly selective mutation discriminationMalik et al. (2025)
Selenium-containing nanomaterialsCancer, cardiovascular and metabolic disordersElectrochemical, optical, colorimetric and ECL sensingMultiple biomarkers (glucose, H2O2, proteins)Multimodal biosensing platformsDessale et al. (2022)

4.1 Selenium nanoparticles

Morphologically, SeNPs are spherical, rod-like, or dendritic aggregates depending on the synthesis route, capping ligand and growth conditions (Abdelhamid et al., 2023). The morphology of SeNPs strongly influences optical absorption, surface plasmon, and electron-transfer kinetics that are exploited in colourimetric and electrochemical assays (Bisht et al., 2021). Spherical SeNPs with narrow size distributions (mostly monodispersed) provide consistent scattering and absorption of optical signals useful for direct colourimetric readouts. Anisotropic (rods, flakes shaped) or larger surface morphologies increase the active surface for bioreceptor attachment and signal amplification (Zambonino et al., 2023; Mostafavi et al., 2022). The surface-functionalized SeNPs (thiols, polymers, proteins, antibodies, DNA aptamers, or small organic ligands) act as redox-active labels or catalytic enhancers in enzymatic and enzyme-free sensors, attributes that support several recent biosensing demonstrations, as surface chemistry determines colloidal stability (Blinov et al., 2022). SeNPs can accelerate (catalyse) chemical reactions used for signal generation (Cao et al., 2019). They may catalyse peroxidase-like oxidation of a chromogenic substrate (colour change) or facilitate glucose oxidation at an electrode (Cao et al., 2019). The catalytic activity increases signal intensity or lowers detection limits (Zambonino et al., 2023). Enzymatic sensors use biological enzymes (like glucose oxidase) to produce a measurable product (Sonowal et al., 2025). SeNPs in those systems may stabilise enzymes, improve electron transfer, or amplify the enzymatic output (Zambonino et al., 2023). Enzyme-free sensors rely on direct electrocatalysis or chemical transduction (no biological enzyme), where SeNPs may provide the catalytic surface that substitutes for an enzyme’s activity (Dumore and Mukhopadhyay, 2020; Pathiraja et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2025). Experimental evidence of SeNPs as sensors for glucose, H2O2, neurotransmitters, heavy metals and biomolecules shows improved sensitivity, stability or selectivity attributable to SeNP surface chemistry and morphology (Dumore and Mukhopadhyay, 2020; Wang and Liu, 2025; Mostafavi et al., 2022).

4.2 Selenium quantum dots (SeQDs)

SeQDs are sub-10 nm elemental or compound selenium nanocrystals that exhibit size-dependent photoluminescence (PL) and photoelectrochemical responses (Gao et al., 2025). When selenium nanomaterials are reduced to quantum dot dimensions (typically <10 nm), the motion of electrons and holes becomes spatially confined (Mimona et al., 2025). This quantum confinement effect alters the electronic band structure; as a result, the emission wavelength depends on particle size (smaller SeQDs have larger band gaps and emit blue light, whereas larger SeQDs have smaller band gaps and emit green to red light) (Huang et al., 2023). As the emission colour can be controlled by size, SeQDs provide tunable fluorescence, which is highly advantageous for multiplexed assays and imaging (Guo et al., 2024; Vannoy et al., 2011). SeQDs are more photostable than many organic fluorophores, as inorganic SeQDs have robust covalent bonding and lower susceptibility to photochemical damage (Resch-Genger et al., 2008). SeQDs also exhibit favourable charge-transfer properties that have been used in photoelectrochemical sensors with low detection limits (Devadoss et al., 2015; Ogundele and Mola, 2023).

4.3 Selenium-based composites and nanohybrids

Hybrid materials that combine selenium nanostructures with carbon nanomaterials, transition-metal dichalcogenides, MXenes, noble metals or polymeric matrices show synergistic effects: improved conductivity, enhanced surface area, and multimodal transduction (electrochemical and optical) (Kang et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2019; Patel et al., 2024; Dutta et al., 2025; Madhubalan et al., 2025). Such composites are particularly valuable for multiplexed and point-of-care diagnostics because they improve signal enhancement and mechanical stability for electrode fabrication (Mukkabla et al., 2017; Al-Shimmary and Al-Thwani, 2024). Recent reports demonstrate SeNP/MXene and SeQDs–carbon nanotube hybrids used for non-enzymatic glucose sensing and selective electrochemical detection of neurotransmitters, indicating their increasing potential in practical diagnostic (Sangubotla et al., 2025; Prabisha et al., 2025).

5 Biomedical applications of selenium nanostructures

Selenium Nanostructures has gained potential application in biomedical diagnostics (Figure 1) because of their unique optical, electronic, and biochemical features combined with intrinsic biocompatibility. Their small size, high surface-to-volume ratio, and surface functionalization capacity facilitate sensitive detection of disease-related biomarkers and pathogenic agents, while their redox and optical properties support assay performance in multiplexed and point-of-care diagnostic platforms (Karthik et al., 2024).

Biomedical potential of selenium nanoparticle.
Figure 1. Biomedical potential of selenium nanoparticle.

5.1 Cancer diagnostics

Selenium nanostructures show significant potential for early cancer detection by targeting tumour-associated biomarkers (Khursheed et al., 2022; Zambonino et al., 2023; Anjum et al., 2025). These biomarkers are widely used clinical protein molecules for identifying prostate, liver, and ovarian cancers, respectively, and sensitive detection at low concentrations can improve early diagnosis and patient outcomes (Spyridopoulou et al., 2021; Deepasree and Venugopal, 2022). Nanostructured biosensors exploiting the high surface area and electron transfer capability of SeNPs can immobilise antibodies or aptamers specific to these targets, yielding enhanced electrochemical signals or optical responses upon target binding (Ferro et al., 2021). SeNPs have been incorporated into immunoassays to detect carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) through changes in optical properties or signal amplification upon antigen–nanoparticle interaction (Das et al., 2022). Fluorescent SeQDs can provide tunable emission for multiplex detection of multiple biomarkers simultaneously (Huang et al., 2023).

Organic selenium-containing nanomaterials, including diselenide- and monoselenide-containing polymers, dendrimers, and self-assembled systems, show significant anticancer activity mostly through ROS-mediated apoptosis (Liu et al., 2012; Li and Xu, 2020). Selenium-containing coordination systems, particularly selenium–platinum complexes, show enhanced tumour selectivity and reduced systemic toxicity compared with conventional platinum drugs by reducing intracellular glutathione and enhancing ROS stress in cancer cells (Figure 2) (Zeng et al., 2014; Li et al. 2016b; Li and Xu, 2020). Selenium interactions with other metals, such as gold, nickel, copper, and zinc, are also effective for inducing ROS-mediated anticancer nanomedicine design (Zeng et al., 2014; Li et al. 2016a). Light-responsive selenium–porphyrin hybrid systems enable photodynamic therapy through singlet oxygen–induced selenoxide reactions and sustained ROS production (Li and Xu, 2020). It has been reported that selenium-containing polymers have shown cancer immunomodulatory activity by downregulating HLA-E and activating NK cell responses, allowing synergistic immuno-chemo-radiotherapy (Li and Xu, 2020; Li et al. 2020a; Li et al., 2020b).

Role of selenium nanoparticles in preventing the proliferation of cancer cells.
Figure 2. Role of selenium nanoparticles in preventing the proliferation of cancer cells.

Inorganic selenium nanoparticles constitute another major class of anticancer nanomaterials. Typically composed of zero-valent selenium, SeNPs induce cancer cell apoptosis through ROS overproduction, caspase activation, and modulation of signalling pathways such as Akt–Mdm2 and MAPK (Kong et al., 2011; Wang, 2014; Hosnedlova et al., 2018; Sakr et al., 2018). For issues related to solubility and stability, SeNPs are frequently surface-modified with polysaccharides, proteins, or targeting ligands, which significantly enhance cellular uptake, selectivity, and anticancer efficacy (Zeng et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2012). Functionalized SeNPs can be used for the synthesis of chemotherapeutic drugs, siRNA, or multiple cargos simultaneously, leading to combined therapies with improved in-vitro and in-vivo experimental outcomes (Huang et al., 2013; 2019). SeNPs can also be used as radiosensitizers, enhancing radiotherapy-induced ROS generation and tumour regression when combined with X-ray irradiation or radioactive implants (Zou et al., 2024). Besides this, SeNPs were reported to display γδ T cell–mediated cancer immunotherapy by enhancing cytotoxic receptor expression and interferon-γ production (Hu et al., 2019).

5.2 Infectious disease detection

The surface reactivity and biocompatibility of SeNPs support their incorporation into biosensors for the detection of bacterial and viral pathogens (Castillo-Henríquez et al., 2020; Mostafavi et al., 2022). Thus, SeNPs are suitable as detection enhancers and multifunctional agents that can interact with pathogen surfaces, and also act as reporter elements in diagnostic platforms (Nag et al., 2024). SeNPs have been studied for their activity against human pathogenic viruses, including coronaviruses, through modulation of immune responses and direct interaction with viral proteins, indicating potential integration with detection platforms for pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19), HIV, and influenza (Zhang et al., 2020; Mal’tseva et al., 2022; Khurana et al., 2023).

5.3 Metabolic and neurological disorder monitoring

Selenium nanostructures can monitor metabolic markers such as glucose and insulin, as well as neurological biomarkers (Gutiérrez et al., 2022; Malik et al., 2023). SeNP-based sensors have been investigated for glucose detection due to their catalytic and electron-mediating roles in non-enzymatic electrochemical glucose assays (Dou et al., 2022). Their multifunctionality supports signal enhancement without the limitations of enzymatic specificity that constrain traditional glucose oxidase sensors (Mostafavi et al., 2022). Clinical studies on selenium nanotechnology diagnostics for specific neurodegenerative markers (like amyloid beta) remain early in development. Studies of nanoparticle carriers crossing the blood–brain barrier indicate that nanostructured carriers could assist in biomarker delivery or imaging in the neurological aspect (Ashraf et al., 2023; Malik et al., 2023; 2023; Karthik et al., 2024). Functionalized selenium nanoparticles enhanced dopamine and L-DOPA loading, BBB permeability, antioxidant delivery, and endothelial uptake, and thereby serve as effective nanocarriers for Parkinson’s disease therapy (Kalčec et al., 2023).

6 Emerging hybrid selenium systems with AI-driven analytical interfaces

AI-powered test automation demonstrates superior performance over Selenium, achieving a 92% reduction in test failures and a 40% improvement in execution efficiency, primarily due to self-healing mechanisms and intelligent test design. Although increased initial investment and reduced flexibility indicate that a hybrid Selenium–AI framework may represent the most effective strategy for future test automation (Barua et al., 2025). Emerging hybrid nanomaterials with conductive 2D materials (MXenes), carbon nanotubes, or polymeric matrices showed potential to become principal transducers in intelligent diagnostic networks (Priyadarshi and Singhal, 2023). It supports improved signal transduction, chemical stability, and facile bioconjugation for the development of next-generation diagnostic kits (Bolotsky et al., 2019; Godja and Munteanu, 2024).

7 Conclusion

Selenium nanostructures are a promising material for the future of advanced biomedical diagnostics due to their unique electrochemical behaviour, showing biocompatibility, variable physicochemical properties, and intrinsic bioactivity. Integration of selenium nanoparticles and quantum dots into electrochemical, optical, and multimodal sensing platforms has significantly improved the detection limits while reducing assay time and sample volume, allowing early disease diagnosis and real-time monitoring. The green synthesis method lowers intrinsic toxicity, improves biocompatibility with biological systems, and has opened up opportunities for environmentally friendly and cost-effective large-scale production. The association of polymers and carbon-based nanostructures has substantially improved the sensing characteristics of selenium nanomaterials. The combination of selenium nanotechnology with artificial intelligence, nano-electronic systems, or wearable biosensors provides the potential for revolutionising disease monitoring, enabling rapid development of data-driven diagnostic strategies. AI-assisted signal processing has high potential to enhance the accuracy of diagnostics and clinical decision-making through smart biosensor schemas. Thus, Se nanostructures are a versatile, smart, and sustainable platform that has numerous prospects for driving research in the diagnostic era of the 21st century.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Majid Jabir, University of Technology, Iraq

Reviewed by: Sunaina Kaul, TERI School of Advanced Studies (TERI SAS), India

Jaqueline Pena-Zacarias, The University of Texas at El Paso, United States

Statements

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Author contributions

DD: Validation, Writing – review and editing, Formal Analysis, Software, Visualization, Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. PK: Writing – original draft, Funding acquisition, Validation. YM: Supervision, Writing – review and editing, Validation. SA: Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft. SM: Writing – review and editing, Formal Analysis. JP: Writing – review and editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. NP: Writing – review and editing. RD: Supervision, Writing – review and editing. NS: Writing – review and editing, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing – original draft.

Acknowledgements

The first author (DD) and corresponding author (NS) would like to thank The Assam Royal Global University for continuous support and motivation, and for providing the necessary infrastructure to conduct the present review. The authors would also like to acknowledge BioRender for providing a platform to design graphical images.

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Citation

Das, D., et al. (2026). Selenium nanostructures in biomedical diagnostics: toward smart and sustainable disease monitoring. Frontiers in Nanotechnology, Volume 8. https://doi.org/
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8 - 2026

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Copyright © 2026 Das, Kumar, Mohanta, Avula, Mohapatra, Parry, Priyadarshi, Dilawari and Singh.

License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

*Correspondence: Pankaj Kumar; Javid Ahmed Parry; Niraj Singh

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