Nanobiosensors: enabling next-generation soil and plant health monitoring

1 Introduction

Agriculture serves as the backbone of modern society and must be continuously advanced to enhance quality and productivity. Soil health is essential for agricultural productivity, ecosystem stability, and climate resilience (Lehmann et al., 2023; Bünemann et al., 2024). Because they have a direct impact on crop productivity, food security, and environmental sustainability. For plants to flourish to their full potential, healthy soil must retain moisture, supply vital nutrients, and encourage healthy microbial activity. Additionally, it improves water penetration and soil structure, which lowers erosion and sustains agricultural output over the long run. Poor crop yields, higher vulnerability to pests and diseases, and a greater need for chemical fertilizers all of which can exacerbate soil degradation and pollution can result from degraded or nutrient-deficient soil (Chen et al., 2024).

Similarly maintaining food safety and attaining high agricultural productivity depend heavily on plant health. Plants in good health are more resilient to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses like salinity, drought, and high temperatures. Plants that lack vital nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen grow more slowly, which lowers production and quality (Zhang et al., 2023). To keep plants healthy, less excessive fertilizer and pesticide are needed, which encourages sustainable farming methods and lessens negative environmental effects. Moreover, improper agricultural practices disrupt the habitats of beneficial insects and other wildlife (Khan and Mohammad, 2014). The overuse of fertilizers and agrochemicals in agriculture has led to the accumulation of toxins and excess nutrients in surface and groundwater, resulting in environmental and economic challenges (Zhang et al., 2023). These hazardous concentrations contribute to declining recreational activities, reduced fisheries, and increased water purification costs. Traditional farming methods have also been linked to eutrophication of water bodies and soil degradation (Akinnawo, 2023; Lal, 2025; Gupta et al., 2025).

Traditional soil testing methods involve labor-intensive sampling and laboratory analysis, which are often time-consuming and expensive. These conventional techniques, while effective, do not provide real-time or high-resolution spatial monitoring, limiting their utility in precision agriculture (Loria et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2024). The necessity of precision agriculture methods like soil testing, targeted fertilization, and real-time crop monitoring using cutting-edge technologies like nanobiosensors and remote sensing is highlighted by the connection between soil and plant health. Farmers may increase crop yields, strengthen their ability to withstand climate change, and guarantee long-term agricultural sustainability by concentrating on preserving balanced soil fertility and strong plant health (Shah and Wu, 2019). An all-encompassing strategy that incorporates disease control, fertilizer management, and soil conservation will result in an agricultural system that is more ecologically conscious and productive (Roy et al., 2024).

To mitigate these issues, precision farming techniques must be adopted for real-time monitoring. The advent of nanotechnology has paved the way for the development of nanosensors capable of real-time, on-site soil health monitoring (Yadav et al., 2023). Nanosensors, an integral part of precision agriculture, work alongside wireless field networks to regulate farming practices. Nanosensors can detect various soil parameters, including pH, moisture, nutrient levels, heavy metals, and microbial activity, thereby improving soil management practices. These technologies enable efficient management of both pre- and post-harvest operations and support site-specific crop cultivation (Sharma et al., 2021; Periakaruppan et al., 2023). The precise detection of soil moisture, nutrients, phytopathogens, and humidity can be enhanced by examining the remarkable properties of functional materials used in the development of nano-biosensors for precision agriculture. The miniaturization of sensor technologies and the integration of nanosensors with smart farming tools, such as Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled devices, have significantly enhanced their role in modern agriculture (Muthumalai et al., 2021).

Precision agriculture refers to a modern farm management approach that utilizes advanced technologies to monitor and manage spatial and temporal variability in agricultural systems, with the goal of enhancing resource use efficiency, crop productivity, and environmental sustainability (Kumar et al, 2021). Sensor technology plays a central role in this approach by enabling real-time detection of physical, chemical, and biological parameters such as soil nutrients, moisture, and plant health. In this context, nanobiosensors represent an advanced class of sensing devices that combine nanomaterials with biological recognition elements to achieve high sensitivity, specificity, and rapid detection. These sensors are increasingly applied in precision agriculture for monitoring soil health, detecting plant pathogens, assessing nutrient dynamics, and evaluating environmental stress (Kour et al., 2023; Miguel-Rojas and Pérez-de-Luque, 2023; Virk et al., 2024). The integration of nanobiosensors into precision agriculture frameworks facilitates continuous, real-time data acquisition and supports informed decision-making, thereby promoting sustainable and efficient agricultural practices (Singh et al., 2026; Kumar et al., 2025).

Nanobiosensors are analytical devices that integrate nanotechnology with biological recognition elements to detect specific biomolecules with high sensitivity and precision. These sensors function by converting a biological response into a measurable signal, typically through optical, electrochemical, piezoelectric, or thermal transduction mechanisms (Kulkarni et al., 2022). The use of nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, gold nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles, enhances their performance by providing a larger surface area, improved conductivity, and faster response times. Based on their biorecognition elements, nanobiosensors can be enzyme-based, antibody-based, DNA-based, or aptamer-based, making them highly versatile for applications in medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food safety, and biotechnology (Pal et al., 2025).

Despite significant advances, several research gaps remain in the development and application of nanobiosensors for soil and plant health monitoring. Most existing studies focus on laboratory-scale validation, with limited field-level deployment under real agricultural conditions. Issues related to long-term stability, reproducibility, and sensor calibration in heterogeneous soil environments are not adequately addressed (Kumar et al., 2022). Additionally, there is a lack of standardized protocols for sensor performance evaluation, making comparison across studies difficult. Integration of nanobiosensors with IoT and data-driven platforms is still in its early stages, particularly for real-time decision-making in precision agriculture. Furthermore, cost, scalability, and environmental safety of nanomaterials remain key challenges limiting large-scale adoption. Addressing these gaps is essential for translating nanobiosensor technologies from experimental research to practical agricultural applications (Kumar et al., 2025).

This review was conducted using a structured literature survey approach guided by the PRISMA guidelines to enhance transparency and reproducibility. Only peer-reviewed English-language articles relevant to nanobiosensor development and agricultural applications were included, while duplicates and unrelated studies were excluded. The selected literature was organized into thematic sections covering sensor types, mechanisms, and applications. The search focused on studies related to nanobiosensor types, sensing mechanisms (electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and magnetic), and their applications in soil nutrient detection, heavy metal monitoring, soil moisture sensing, microbial activity, and plant health assessment, as discussed in this review.

2 Nanobiosensors

Nanobiosensors are classified based on their sensing mechanisms and the type of nanomaterials used. These sensors integrate biological recognition elements with nanostructures to detect specific chemical, biological, or environmental changes with high sensitivity and selectivity. The major types of nanobiosensors are discussed in the Table 1.

TABLE 1. Classification of nanobiosensors based on detection principles and agricultural applications.

While nanobiosensors offer significant advantages in sensitivity and real-time detection, their performance varies depending on sensing mechanisms and application contexts. Electrochemical nanobiosensors are widely preferred due to their high sensitivity, low cost, and field applicability; however, they may suffer from signal interference and electrode fouling (Parameswari et al., 2024). Optical nanobiosensors provide high specificity and non-invasive detection but often require sophisticated instrumentation and are less suitable for on-site applications (Zhang et al., 2023). Piezoelectric sensors enable label-free detection with high precision, although their performance can be affected by environmental factors such as temperature and humidity (Li et al., 2024). Magnetic nanobiosensors allow rapid and selective detection with minimal sample preparation, but challenges remain in terms of cost and scalability (Singh et al., 2026). DNA-based and enzyme-based nanobiosensors exhibit excellent selectivity due to specific biorecognition elements; however, their operational stability and lifespan under field conditions are limited. Cell-based nanobiosensors offer real-time biological responses but are difficult to standardize and maintain (Verma et al., 2024). Despite their ability to detect analytes at extremely low concentrations, large-scale deployment of nanobiosensors is still constrained by issues related to stability, reproducibility, and commercialization.

2.1 Principles of nanobiosensors

Nanobiosensors function by combining nanomaterials with biological sensing elements such as enzymes, antibodies, or DNA sequences. These sensors translate biological interactions into measurable electrical, optical, or electrochemical signals, providing real-time data on soil conditions (Bhattarai and Hameed, 2020; Rai and Saraswat, 2022) Common types of nanomaterials used in these sensors include carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, gold nanoparticles, and graphene-based materials. Their unique physicochemical properties enable high sensitivity, selectivity, and stability in detecting specific soil components (Thakur and Kumar, 2022).

Nanobiosensors are advanced analytical devices that operate based on the integration of biological recognition elements with nanoscale materials to detect specific biological or chemical substances with high sensitivity and specificity (Kumar et al., 2023; Li et al., 2020). The core principle lies in the selective interaction between a biological element such as enzymes, antibodies, DNA, or cells and a target analyte. This biorecognition element is responsible for the specificity of the sensor. When the target molecule binds to the biorecognition element, a physical or chemical change occurs, which is then converted into a measurable signal by a transducer. In nanobiosensors, the transducer often incorporates nanomaterials such as gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, graphene, or quantum dots. These nanomaterials greatly enhance the sensitivity of the device due to their high surface area, excellent conductivity, and unique quantum properties (Li et al., 2022; Li et al., 2024).

The transduced signal, which may be electrical, optical, mechanical, or thermal, is then processed and amplified to produce an output that can be either qualitative (indicating presence or absence) or quantitative (measuring concentration) (Marguí et al., 2013; Mendes et al., 2020). Nanobiosensors are designed to be highly sensitive, often capable of detecting substances at very low concentrations, and highly specific, minimizing interference from other substances. Their nanoscale design allows for miniaturization and integration into portable, real-time, or even wearable systems. These devices are widely used in medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food safety, and biodefense due to their efficiency, speed, and ability to provide accurate results outside of traditional laboratory settings.

3 Nanobiosensors in soil health management

Due to the dynamic nature of soil health, it is essential to monitor several soil parameters such as pH, nutrients, temperature, and moisture content on-site before engaging in any agricultural activities (Fan et al., 2022; Parameswari et al., 2024). For precision agriculture, sensor systems or measurements using nanoparticles are essential (Figure 1) (Virk et al., 2024). Soil contains various nutrients in different forms, with each form signaling something distinct. For example, ammonia and elevated nitrate concentrations in soil signify the existence of soil-feeding insects and microbial imbalances, respectively (Hansen et al., 2020). Soil is a shelter to a multitude of microorganisms that have a significant impact on soil health and plant development (Dubey et al., 2019; Rawat et al., 2025).

For sustainable agriculture, monitoring soil nutrients is crucial because it aids in the optimization of fertilizer application, enhancement of crop yield, and preservation of soil health (Das et al., 2022). Conventional approaches to soil testing usually take a lot of time and necessitate lab analysis, which results in postponements regarding decisions. Nanobiosensors provide a quick, extremely sensitive, and real-time means of detecting essential soil nutrients like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), along with micronutrients such as zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and magnesium (Mg) (Singh et al., 2024a). These biosensors consist of biological recognition elements such as enzymes, DNA, or aptamers combined with nanomaterials like gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and graphene, which improve sensitivity and selectivity (Ramesh et al., 2022).

The detection mechanisms of nanobiosensors involve two fundamental components, namely,., biological recognition and signal transduction, which together enable selective and sensitive detection of soil analytes. Biorecognition elements such as enzymes, antibodies, or nucleic acids specifically bind to target molecules, while transducers convert these interactions into measurable electrical, optical, or mechanical signals (Kilic et al., 2023; Ghasemi et al., 2023). In electrochemical nanobiosensors, analyte binding induces redox reactions that generate measurable changes in current, potential, or impedance. For example, a carbon nanotube-based electrochemical biosensor functionalized with urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into ammonium ions, resulting in conductivity changes proportional to soil nitrogen levels (Singh et al., 2021). The incorporation of nanomaterials enhances electron transfer and signal amplification, significantly improving sensitivity and detection limits (Kilic et al., 2023).

In optical nanobiosensors, analyte recognition leads to variations in optical properties such as fluorescence, absorbance, or surface plasmon resonance. Gold nanoparticle-based colorimetric sensors detect phosphate through analyte-induced aggregation, producing visible color changes for rapid field detection (Singh et al., 2024). Similarly, graphene- or quantum dot-based fluorescence sensors operate via quenching or enhancement mechanisms upon ion binding, enabling highly selective detection of nutrients like potassium (Ghasemi et al., 2023).

Piezoelectric nanobiosensors function by detecting mass or mechanical changes at the sensor surface. Binding of target molecules to immobilized bioreceptors alters the resonance frequency of the sensing element, which is directly proportional to analyte concentration. This enables label-free and real-time detection of trace-level compounds in soil systems (Garnaik and Nayak, 2024). Overall, advances in nanomaterials and surface functionalization have significantly improved signal transduction efficiency, enabling rapid, sensitive, and multiplex detection in agricultural applications (Chakraborty et al., 2021; Hojjati-Najafabadi et al., 2022; Gupta et al., 2024).

3.1 Nanobiosensors in heavy metal detection

Heavy metal contamination is a significant environmental and health concern, necessitating efficient and sensitive detection methods (Table 2). Nanobiosensors, which integrate biological recognition elements with nanomaterials, offer a highly sensitive, selective, and rapid approach to detecting heavy metals such as lead (Pb²⁺), mercury (Hg²⁺), cadmium (Cd²⁺), and arsenic (As³⁺) (Gupta et al., 2024). The detection mechanisms commonly employed include electrochemical methods, which measure current or potential changes upon metal binding, optical methods based on fluorescence or colorimetric shifts, and piezoelectric approaches that detect mass changes due to heavy metal adsorption (Chauhan et al., 2022; Quang and Kim, 2010; Choudhari et al., 2023) (Figure 2).

TABLE 2. Nanobiosensor-based detection of heavy metals: types, sensitivity, and response characteristics.

Phosphorus-doped biochar–attapulgite/bismuth film electrodes adorned with magnetic Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles have been shown to be effective in detecting Cd(II), Pb(II), and Hg(II) with detection limits of 0.036 nM, 0.003 nM, and 0.011 nM, respectively (Huang et al., 2023). They demonstrated how multi-metal analysis may be carried out by a machine learning model based on an artificial neural network (ANN) using data from a portable wireless smart sensor that is coupled to the modified screen-printed electrode.

Arsenic is one of the heavy metal contaminants that poses significant health risks to organisms within ecosystems. The natural arsenic accumulation capability of the plant Pteris cretica using nanobionic sensors embedded in the plant tissue was studied (Lew et al., 2020). These sensors were capable of detecting real-time physiological changes in the plant during arsenic uptake. Their study demonstrated that the nanobionic sensors could detect arsenic concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 0.2 ppb after 2 weeks. While the role of nanobiosensors in remediating heavy metal-contaminated soil remains largely unexplored, their utility in detecting heavy metals in water and soil has been reported in several recent studies (Mathur et al., 2022; Malik et al., 2023; Virk et al., 2024).

The chitosan/Binanoparticle@graphene oxide multi-walled carbon nanotubes was designed to detect Cu(II) and Hg(II) ions quickly. Their portable detection device consists of an electrode sleeve interface, a photocured 3D-printed shell, a Bluetooth chip, and an in situ signal analysis circuit. The detection limits for Hg (II) and Cu (II) with this portable electrochemical sensor were 10 ppb and 0.998 ppm, respectively (Bao et al., 2021; Rawat et al., 2025).

A novel cantilever-based nanobiosensor functionalized with urease enzyme via self-assembled monolayers was developed for detecting heavy metals such as Pb, Ni, Cd, Zn, Co, and Al in soil and water (Graboski et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2021). The sensor exhibited high sensitivity, stability, and detection limits in the ppb range, maintaining performance over 30 days. The sensing mechanism was based on tensile surface stress changes (Singh et al., 2026). Similar cantilever-based nanobiosensors demonstrated efficient Pb detection in real water samples after matrix correction (Rigo et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2024).

In soil applications, a graphene-based electrochemical nanosensor has been successfully employed for real-time nitrate detection in soil extracts, enabling improved nutrient management and precision fertilization (Hua et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022). Additionally, urease-functionalized nanobiosensors have been used for monitoring soil urea levels, providing insights into nitrogen dynamics and fertilizer efficiency. Paper-based colorimetric nanosensors have also been developed for on-site detection of phosphate and arsenic in soil, offering low-cost and rapid field applicability (Sahu et al., 2021; Sarabandi et al., 2025).

In plant systems, DNA-functionalized graphene biosensors have demonstrated early detection of plant viruses such as Tomato Mosaic Virus (ToMV), enabling timely disease management (Ansari, 2023). Quantum dot-based optical biosensors have been applied for detecting mycotoxins in crops, supporting food safety monitoring (Ghasemi et al., 2023). Furthermore, emerging smartphone-integrated nanosensor platforms allow real-time detection of plant stress markers and pesticide residues, highlighting their potential in precision agriculture (Khalajiolyaie and Jian, 2025; Lawal, 2026).

An electrochemical biosensor using gold nanoparticles and DNA aptamers was successfully developed to detect Pb ions in water samples, achieving nanomolar detection limits. Recent studies have further demonstrated graphene oxide-based fluorescence sensors for Hg detection and advanced nano-enabled sensing platforms for environmental monitoring (Chen et al., 2024; Khalajiolyaie and Jian, 2025; Lawal, 2026). Additionally, a paper-based colorimetric biosensor utilizing silver nanoparticles has been designed for arsenic detection, providing a cost-effective and portable solution for field applications (Sahu et al., 2021; Shikha et al., 2026). These case studies underscore the potential of nanobiosensors in ensuring environmental safety, particularly in monitoring water quality, industrial effluents, and food safety.

3.2 Detection of soil nutrients

Nanobiosensors help in assessing the levels of essential nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), which are critical for plant growth. By utilizing enzyme-based or DNA-based sensors, real-time detection of nutrient deficiencies can be achieved, enabling farmers to apply fertilizers more efficiently and reduce wastage (Tsong and Khor, 2023; Ansari et al., 2025). Nanobiosensors for soil nutrient detection play a crucial role in enhancing agricultural productivity by providing real-time and precise monitoring of soil fertility (Srinivasan et al., 2024) (Table 3). These advanced sensors help in detecting soil parameters such as soil organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients like zinc, iron, and copper, which are vital for plant growth and enzyme functions (Kumar and Kumar, 2019) (Figure 3).

TABLE 3. Nanobiosensor technologies for soil nutrients detection.

A fluorescence-based nanobiosensor employing quantum dots (QDs) to quantify soil organic matter (SOM) demonstrated a linear detection range from 0.1 to 100 mg/L of humic acids, with a sensitivity of 0.5 arbitrary units per mg/L and a detection limit of 0.03 mg/L. It exhibited good specificity against other SOM components and a rapid response time of 15 min (Yadav et al., 2023; Das et al., 2024) (Figure 4). Macronutrients, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), are essential for plant growth. Nanobiosensors utilize enzyme-based or DNA-based probes to detect nitrate (NO₃ ⁻), ammonium (NH₄ ⁺), and phosphate (PO₄ ⁻³) in soil samples. Gold nanoparticle-based biosensors have been developed to measure nitrate levels with high specificity, ensuring accurate nutrient monitoring (Malik et al., 2024). Disposable electrochemical nanobiosensor for detecting nitrate in soil extracts from three soil types under varying nitrogen levels were studied. Electrochemical analysis via cyclic voltammetry and validation against a colorimetric method showed that the BSA/NiR/CNT-α-Fe₂O₃/SPE sensor performed best, with high sensitivity (63.87 µA/log (mg/L)/cm²), a low detection limit (0.09 mg/L), excellent specificity, reproducibility (RSD = 0.43%), and stability (5 weeks). Nitrate detection was consistent across soil types, and the sensor showed strong correlation with the standard method (r ² = 0.998), indicating its potential for rapid, accurate, in-field nitrate monitoring (Kundu et al., 2022). Another study demonstrated the use of gold nanoparticles conjugated with nitrate reductase enzymes for detecting nitrate levels in the soil, providing real-time monitoring through a colorimetric response (Xin et al., 2020). Additionally, nano-enabled electrochemical sensors using metal oxide nanomaterials have demonstrated promising results in phosphorus detection⁸⁰. Carbon nanotube-based electrochemical biosensor fabricated for phosphate detection, where a modified electrode coated with a phosphate-sensitive enzyme generated an electrical signal proportional to the phosphate concentration (Praharaj and Rout, 2025). A screen-printed electrode modified with carbon black nanoparticles (CB-SPE) for phosphate detection was fabricated. Using amperometric detection of a molybdophosphate complex, the sensor operates within a linear range of 0.5–100 μM and has a detection limit of 0.1 μM. It showed satisfactory recoveries across different water samples, suggesting potential use in soil analysis (Hossain et al., 2024). C⁴D for the quick identification of available phosphorus in different soil types. Compared to national standard methods, the non-contact conductivity detector, which is powered by lithium-ion batteries, achieved a relative standard deviation of under 3%. It is perfect for long-term field operations due to its portability and eco-friendliness (Gao et al., 2025).

Fabrication of a zinc oxide (ZnO) modified multi-walled carbon nanotube sensor designed to detect soil potassium (K⁺) levels. This sensor demonstrated a linear decrease in impedance magnitude corresponding to increasing potassium concentrations, indicating its potential for real-time soil nutrient monitoring (Kumar et al., 2021). A graphene-based nano biosensor for potassium detection using a fluorescent graphene oxide probe, which emitted light intensity variations based on potassium concentration (Datta et al., 2017). A voltammetric sensor was developed using screen-printed carbon electrodes modified with Nafion and 4-aminobenzo-18-crown-6 ether. This design facilitates selective detection of K⁺ via host-guest interactions, allowing for the effective differentiation of potassium from other cations such as sodium, calcium, and ammonium. With its detection range of 1–500 ppm, the sensor is appropriate for real-time soil analysis (Bhandari et al., 2019). A potassium ion-detecting electrochemical sensor employing nanostructured hollandite-type manganese oxide demonstrates its potential for accurate monitoring of potassium in soil. The tunnel structure of the sensor selectively allows K⁺ ions while minimizing interference from other cations. With a detection limit of 1.61 μM and a linear response range of about 50–900 μM (Lima et al., 2009).

Secondary nutrients like calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) support various physiological functions in plants (Pandey, 2018). Nanobiosensors leveraging fluorescence and surface plasmon resonance techniques have been employed to detect calcium and magnesium ions in soil extracts (Wahab et al., 2024). Quantum dot-based fluorescence sensors have exhibited high sensitivity in tracking sulfur concentrations, ensuring balanced soil fertility (Kayani et al., 2024). The recent development of plasmonic biosensors using silver nanostructures has further improved sulfur detection sensitivity. Researchers created SC-ISEs using mesoporous nitrogen-doped carbon (NMC) materials to improve interfacial capacitance and potential stability. These sensors exhibited a strong selectivity for Ca²⁺ ions, and their detection capabilities were validated in soil-leaching solutions as well as mineral water samples. The results from the sensors were consistent with those obtained through ion chromatography analyses (Zhang et al., 2023).

Micronutrients such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) are required in trace amounts but play a significant role in plant metabolism (Tripathi et al., 2015). Nanobiosensors, particularly those integrated with aptamers and electrochemical detection methods, enable real-time and on-site monitoring of these elements. Graphene oxide-based sensors have been shown to detect Zn²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions with high precision, contributing to precise fertilization strategies. Further, the application of nanophotonic sensors has enhanced the detection of copper and manganese, providing a non-invasive, highly accurate analysis (Sharma et al., 2023).

Optical biosensors based on fluorescence can be effectively utilized to monitor total nutrient uptake by various crops and soils in the field of agriculture (Pal et al., 2024). These biosensors use fluorescent dyes or molecules that specifically bind to target nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium (Iqbal and Umar, 2019). Upon binding, these molecules emit fluorescence, the intensity of which correlates with the concentration of the nutrient present. Therefore, the fluorescence intensity is directly proportional to the concentration of the nutrient, enabling quantitative assessment of nutrient uptake. This technique provides a sensitive, real-time, and non-destructive method for evaluating soil fertility and plant nutrition, ultimately supporting precision agriculture practices (Bharti et al., 2024).

3.3 Nanobiosensors in soil moisture detection

One of the key advantages of nanobiosensors in soil moisture detection is their ability to provide highly specific and rapid responses. For instance, biosensors based on enzyme-functionalized nanoparticles can detect changes in soil humidity by analyzing microbial activity, which is directly influenced by moisture levels (Thakur et al., 2022) (Table 4). Nanobiosensors using DNA-based technology can identify moisture-related biochemical changes in the soil, allowing for precise monitoring and early drought detection (Bharti et al., 2024). These sensors are often integrated with wireless communication systems to enable remote monitoring and automated irrigation control, reducing water waste and improving crop yields (Sudharsan et al., 2025).

TABLE 4. Applications of nanobiosensors in soil moisture detection.

A study demonstrated the use of microbial nanobiosensors to assess soil moisture variations in vineyards yields (Sudharsan et al., 2025). The results showed that these sensors provided accurate real-time data, reducing water usage by 25% while maintaining crop health. Similarly, enzyme-based nanobiosensors to monitor soil hydration in arid regions, leading to a significant increase in water-use efficiency and crop resilience (Sharma et al., 2023). In another study, graphene-based nanobiosensors functionalized with specific proteins to detect moisture-induced biochemical changes in soil, significantly enhancing irrigation precision in rice fields.

Recent studies have highlighted the potential of nanobiosensors, particularly those incorporating graphene oxide (GO), in improving soil moisture detection for agricultural use. Durable GO-based capacitive sensor with inter-digitated electrodes manufactured using MEMS technology and this sensor demonstrated capacitance changes of 340% and 370% in response to soil moisture variations from 1% to 55% in red and black soils, respectively. It also exhibited a fast response time of 100–120 s and maintained stability over 4 months of continuous operation. Moreover, the sensor’s performance remained largely unaffected by temperature fluctuations (with only a 6% output change between 25 °C and 65 °C) and salt concentration variations (a 4% output change for concentrations between 0 and 0.35 mol), leading to minimal discrepancies of 3% and 2% in soil moisture measurements, respectively (Patle et al., 2022).

Various nanomaterials, including graphene oxide (GO), molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), vanadium oxide (V₂O₅), and molybdenum oxide (MoO₃) was made to determine the most effective receptor layer for soil moisture sensing. Their study revealed that MoS₂-based sensors outperformed the others, exhibiting a sensitivity increase of approximately 30% and achieving a record sensitivity of 540% in black soil. Additionally, these sensors demonstrated a rapid response time of 65 s and a recovery time of 27 s, underscoring their potential for fast and efficient soil moisture detection (Surya et al., 2020).

Nanobiosensors, especially those built on carbon nanomaterials, are increasingly being adapted for soil-moisture tracking in rice and pulse (legume) systems, where precise water control is critical (Zhang et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024). A seminal example is the graphene-quantum-dot (GQD) resistive micro-sensor on interdigitated electrodes, which demonstrated high sensitivity to volumetric water changes across contrasting soils and has since become a touchstone for nano-enabled soil-moisture sensing pipelines suited to flooded and drying cycles in paddy fields (Kim et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2025).

While field-scale, nano-specific deployments in rice and pulses are still emerging, IoT-based irrigation studies in AWD (alternate wetting and drying) rice already utilize continuous soil-moisture feedback loops, providing a ready framework into which nanosensors can be integrated for finer spatiotemporal resolution (Kumar et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024). In pulses, moisture-sensitive scheduling under rainfed and deficit regimes would similarly benefit from nano-enabled probes deployed at multiple depths to capture rapid wetting–drying fronts around nodulated roots (Singh et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2025). Collectively, these advances point to near-term integration of graphene/CNT-based nanobiosensors into practical irrigation control for paddy and pulse fields delivering denser, cost-effective, and potentially biodegradable sensing networks compared to conventional probes, with improved tolerance to salinity and temperature cross-sensitivities when properly calibrated (Wang et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2025). The development of nanobiosensors is therefore revolutionizing soil moisture detection by enabling highly accurate, real-time, and biologically responsive monitoring solutions (Figure 5).

3.4 Nanobiosensor in soil temperature monitoring

Soil temperature is a critical factor in agriculture, influencing seed germination, root development, microbial activity, and nutrient availability. By utilizing nanobiosensors for soil temperature monitoring, farmers can optimize irrigation, fertilization, and planting schedules, leading to improved crop productivity and sustainable farming practices (Singh et al., 2024b).

Nanobiosensors for soil temperature measurement typically function by detecting temperature-induced biochemical or enzymatic changes in soil microorganisms. For instance, enzyme-based nanobiosensors use temperature-sensitive biological molecules that undergo specific reactions when exposed to heat variations, generating an electrical or optical signal that can be measured in real-time (Table 5). Similarly, DNA-based nanobiosensors exploit temperature-dependent changes in soil to provide highly accurate temperature readings. These biosensors are often embedded in nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, or gold nanoparticles to enhance their sensitivity and stability (Wang et al., 2023).

TABLE 5. Applications of nanobiosensors in soil temperature monitoring

Vanadium oxide–doped laser-induced graphene foam sensor that can decouple temperature measurements from gas detection through encapsulation, enabling precise thermal readings under varying humidity and soil conditions (Das et al., 2024). In another example, a heat-pulse thermal probe enhanced with nanocrystallized materials demonstrated a sensitivity of 0.632 °C per 1% change in volumetric water content, showing how nanoscale engineering improves temperature responsiveness and stability in field measurements (Salouti and Khadivi Derakhshan, 2020). Multi-parameter nanobiosensor arrays using carbon nanotubes and graphene, embed miniature thermal sensors alongside nutrient and pH detection modules, providing comprehensive soil health profiles. Practical field deployment has also been demonstrated, where a 7-in-1 IoT-enabled soil station incorporated nanotechnology-based thermal sensors for real-time temperature logging along with NPK, pH, and EC monitoring (Debnath and Das, 2020).

Fiber-optic sensors embedded with gold nanoparticles leveraged nanoplasmonic effects to deliver real-time and localized micro-temperature readings in seedbeds, optimizing sowing conditions. Likewise, carbon nanotube (CNT)–polymer composites functioned as nanoscale thermistors, displaying rapid thermal responses and resilience under fluctuating soil salinity and moisture regimes, which is particularly beneficial for IoT-based precision agriculture Moreover, nanostructured biosensors coupling enzymes such as urease with bio-nanocomposites have demonstrated how soil temperature variations modulate enzyme kinetics and nutrient cycling, bridging microbial activity with soil thermal monitoring.

Enzyme-functionalized gold nanoparticles that responded to temperature fluctuations in soil was developed. The results showed that these nanobiosensors provided continuous real-time temperature data, allowing for improved climate adaptation strategies in greenhouse farming. Microbial nanobiosensors to monitor soil temperature variations in rice paddies, helping optimize planting times and reduce crop losses due to unexpected temperature shifts. Similarly, in a project in Brazil, DNA-based nanobiosensors were deployed in soybean fields to detect soil temperature variations affecting root growth, leading to a 15% increase in yield through improved management practices. By integrating nanobiosensors with wireless communication technologies, farmers can remotely monitor soil temperature variations and make data-driven decisions to enhance crop health and productivity.

3.5 Nanobiosenors in microbial activity monitoring

Nanobiosensors are advanced analytical devices that integrate nanomaterials with biological recognition elements to detect and monitor microbial activity with exceptional sensitivity and specificity (Bhalla et al., 2023; Verma et al., 2024). Their application spans diverse fields, including environmental monitoring, food safety, and biomedical diagnostics (Parameswari et al., 2024) (Table 6).

TABLE 6. Nanobiosensors used in microbial activity monitoring.

Soil microbial activity has been investigated using bioelectrochemical sensors, which use electrochemically active biofilms on polarized electrodes. As stand-ins for measuring soil fertility, these sensors can produce electrochemical signals indicative of microbial activity and nutrient accessibility (Webster et al., 2024). Early intervention in soil management techniques is made possible by nanobiosensors great selectivity in detecting low concentrations of microbial targets. These sensors enable prompt decision-making in agricultural management by giving instant input on microbial presence and activity (Sashidhar et al., 2019). ​

Deployment of microbial whole-cell biosensors (MWCBs) integrated with nanomaterials was made to enhance sensitivity and stability. These genetically engineered microorganisms are coupled with bioluminescent reporter genes—such as luxCDABE—under the control of nutrient-responsive promoters like phoA (phosphate) and glnAp2 (ammonium). Upon encountering nutrient-deficient soil microenvironments, the biosensors emit a quantifiable luminescent signal, allowing real-time estimation of bioavailable carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in the rhizosphere. Such systems have been successfully applied in both laboratory microcosms and field settings to monitor nutrient fluxes that directly influence microbial community structure and function (Krausz et al., 2021; Kufa, 2012).

A prominent example is the development of quantum dot (QD)-based fluorescence nanobiosensors for detecting urease activity in agricultural soils. In this system, cadmium telluride (CdTe) quantum dots are functionalized with urea-specific recognition layers. Urease produced by soil microbes catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide, leading to local pH changes. These changes modulate the fluorescence intensity of the QDs, providing a quantitative measure of enzyme activity in real time. This approach allows for high sensitivity even at low enzyme concentrations and is particularly useful for monitoring nitrogen transformation processes in fertilized soils (Zhou et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024).

Gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-based colorimetric biosensors have been widely used to assess acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase activities, both of which are critical for phosphorus cycling in soils. In these systems, AuNPs are conjugated with phosphate-containing chromogenic substrates, enabling selective enzyme detection (Della Pelle et al., 2023; Raliya et al., 2024). Enzymatic hydrolysis releases chromophores or induces nanoparticle aggregation, resulting in distinct color changes that can be observed visually or quantified spectrophotometrically (Shao et al., 2023). This technique has been successfully applied to field-collected soils to evaluate the effects of long-term fertilizer regimes on enzyme activity and phosphorus availability (Nannipieri et al., 2024; Jin et al., 2014).

An innovative field application is the integration of enzyme-specific nanobiosensors into portable microfluidic platforms, enabling simultaneous detection of multiple soil enzymes such as β-glucosidase, dehydrogenase, and phosphatases. These platforms use nanostructured electrodes to enhance electron transfer during enzyme–substrate reactions, significantly improving signal-to-noise ratios. Such multi-enzyme sensing provides a comprehensive snapshot of soil biochemical functioning, linking microbial metabolic status to soil fertility (Oh et al., 2019).

Electrochemical nanobiosensors, for instance, exploit the conductive properties of materials like graphene oxide or CNTs to detect electron transfer changes during microbial metabolism. These are particularly useful for identifying soil pathogens such as Ralstonia solanacearum or Pseudomonas fluorescens (Valenzuela-Amaro et al., 2023; Kim et al., 2021). Optical nanobiosensors use techniques such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), or localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) to enable real-time and often label-free detection of microbial toxins or volatile compounds. Piezoelectric and magnetoelastic sensors further extend detection capabilities to changes in mass or magnetic properties upon microbial interaction, making them suitable for in-field analysis in complex soil matrices.

Nanobiosensors are employed to detect microbial contaminants in water sources, ensuring safe drinking water and monitoring environmental pollution. For instance, microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have been utilized as biosensors to measure the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in wastewater, providing real-time data on organic matter concentration and microbial activity. ​ In the food industry, nanobiosensors facilitate the rapid detection of foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli, enhancing food safety protocols. These sensors can detect bacterial contamination at low concentrations, enabling timely intervention and reducing the risk of foodborne illnesses (Raghu et al., 2020).

4 Nanobiosensors for monitoring crop health

The combination of nanotechnology and biosensing methods has resulted in the creation of intelligent nanobiosensors designed for real-time monitoring of crop health (Sonu and Chaudhary, 2022). These sensors provide a quick, accurate, and non-invasive method for identifying plant stress factors, including nutrient deficiencies, pathogen attacks, and environmental stressors such as drought or extreme temperatures (Dar et al., 2020). Conventional approaches to evaluating crop health involve laboratory testing and visual examination, both of which can be inefficient and time-consuming (Sheikh et al., 2024; Kordrostami et al., 2021).

Smart nanobiosensors operate using different detection mechanisms, one of which is electrochemical sensing. This method detects electrical changes that occur when there is an interaction with plant biomarkers; optical sensing, in which fluorescence or colorimetric changes signal stress responses; and piezoelectric sensing, which identifies mechanical changes in plant tissues (El-Abeid et al., 2024; Chandna et al., 2022). A recent investigation illustrated how graphene-based electrochemical nanobiosensors can identify plant hormones like ethylene and abscisic acid, which serve as crucial markers of stress responses (Raval et al., 2023). Biosensor utilize gold nanoparticles that can recognize initial fungal infections in crops through the detection of proteins specific to the pathogen (Kulabhusan et al., 2022). Moreover, smart wearable nanobiosensors have been created that can be affixed to the leaves of plants for ongoing observation of factors like nutrient levels, temperature, and water stress facilitating precision agriculture (Hameed et al., 2023; Vero et al., 2024).

A near-infrared fluorescent nanobiosensor that can detect and distinguish between Fe(II) and Fe(III) in living plants was fabricated. This innovative technology enables nondestructive monitoring of iron dynamics, helping diagnose deficiencies and improve fertilization strategies (Khong et al., 2025; Wu et al., 2020). Successfully tested on spinach, the nanobiosensor is applicable to various plant species without the need for genetic modification (Khong et al., 2025). The Plant Eye F600 H-Portal scanner, designed to automate the measurement of key plant traits, including height, digital biomass, and leaf area. By reducing manual labor by approximately 85%, this technology allows researchers to efficiently monitor plant responses to different nutrient levels and environmental conditions. Operating around the clock, the scanner delivers precise, nondestructive measurements, accelerating research progress while lowering project costs (Gautam et al., 2025).

A sensor based on flexible graphene oxide that can be worn was created for the real-time monitoring of plant transpiration and water status (Li et al., 2024; Lan et al., 2020). The sensor, which is designed for non-invasive attachment, provides a rapid response (under 25 s) and high sensitivity, facilitating dynamic observation of maize photosynthesis and water transport. This technology is promising for precision irrigation and enhancing the monitoring of plant physiology (Li et al., 2022).

An electrochemical sensor that can be worn and affixed to the leaves of plants in order to track the concentration of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) a crucial sign of stress in plants (Yang et al., 2025). When tested on tobacco and soybean plants, the sensor identifies stress signals associated with dehydration, heat, infection, or pests prior to the emergence of visible symptoms (Zhang et al., 2022). With results delivered in under a minute, the device serves as a practical tool for early disease detection and efficient resource management in agriculture.

Farmers can access real-time information about their crops’ health, allowing them to take prompt action and reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. By allowing for precise nutrient management and early disease detection, smart nanobiosensors increase crop yield, foster sustainable farming practices, and strengthen food security. The progress in studies related to artificial intelligence and nanotechnology is expected to bring about a transformation of contemporary agriculture through the integration of automated farming systems with intelligent nanobiosensors. This will make farming more efficient, increase its reliance on data, and improve its environmental sustainability (Rahmani et al., 2023).

4.1 Nanobiosensors in pest and disease management

Nanobiosensors combine biological components like enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, or microbial cells with nanomaterials like graphene, gold nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes to detect plant infections, pest-induced biochemical changes, and poisons with high specificity and sensitivity (Madufor et al., 2022) (Table 7). By providing rapid and precise diagnostics, nanobiosensors help farmers implement early disease management strategies, reducing crop losses and minimizing the overuse of pesticides. One of the primary applications of nanobiosensors is the early detection of plant diseases by identifying pathogen-specific DNA, proteins, or metabolites before the appearance of symptoms (Pan et al., 2015) (Figure 6).

TABLE 7. Applications of nanobiosensors in pest and disease management.

Graphene-based DNA nanobiosensor to detect the Tomato Mosaic Virus (ToMV), which decreased tomato crop losses by 40% and accurately detected viral DNA with high precision (Dutta et al., 2022). Carbon nanotube-based biosensor to detect the rice blast disease-causing fungus Magnaporthe oryzae reduced the use of chemicals by 30% by enabling farmers to apply fungicides only when absolutely necessary (Ray et al., 2023). Helicoverpa armigera (cotton bollworm) larvae were detected using DNA-based nanobiosensors, resulting in a 20% increase in cotton yields through accurate pest control (Kumar and Sharma, 2022). Nanobiosensors are also useful for monitoring pest infestations by detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by plants under attack. Moreover, the capacity of these sensors to detect mycotoxins in stored grains guarantees food safety. An electrochemical nanobiosensor that can detect aflatoxins in stored grains to detect contamination and reduce post-harvest losses. The accuracy of this sensor is over 95%. Nanobiosensors also enable smart pesticide administration, reducing chemical exposure and preventing pesticide resistance by enabling precision spraying based on insect presence (Namanya et al., 2025).

A non-enzymatic sensor array incorporating gold nanoparticles with various capping agents to detect and differentiate five distinct pesticides in citrus fruits. This sensor array effectively identified pesticides over a broad concentration range, offering a valuable tool for monitoring and ensuring food safety (Mirghafouri et al., 2020). A novel immunosensor was developed for the early detection of Karnal bunt disease in wheat, caused by Tilletia indica. This sensor utilizes diatomaceous earth functionalized with specific antibodies to detect fungal antigens, providing a highly sensitive and rapid diagnostic tool for this critical agricultural disease (Mishra et al., 2020).

Nanobiosensors that can identify volatile substances released by pests like stink bugs (Nezara viridula) showed the capacity to identify sex pheromones emitted by male stink bugs by employing substances such as graphene oxide or polyaniline mixed with silver nanoparticles. Monitoring the presence and activity of pests is made possible by this detection, which supports integrated pest management techniques (Singh et al., 2010). Because precision agriculture is connected to wireless networks and the Internet of Things, it can benefit from remote monitoring and automated decision-making. Overall, the application of nanobiosensors in pest and disease management enhances crop protection, promotes sustainable farming, and raises global food security by reducing losses and optimizing the use of pesticides (Khan et al., 2024).

5 Biosensors for small scale farmers

Agriculture remains the backbone of food security, economic development, and sustainability, particularly for small-scale farmers who contribute significantly to global food production. However, these farmers face numerous challenges, including declining soil fertility, unpredictable climate conditions, pest infestations, and inefficient resource utilization (Table 8). Advances in precision agriculture, particularly biosensor technology, offer promising solutions to improve productivity, sustainability, and profitability for small-scale farmers (Neglo et al., 2021; McDonagh et al., 2017). By integrating biosensors into agricultural practices, small-scale farmers can make informed decisions, leading to optimized resource use and improved crop yields (John et al., 2023).

TABLE 8. Smartphone-based sensors and their applications.

Small-scale farmers may find the application of biosensors in smart farming to be highly beneficial in terms of sustainability, productivity, and efficiency. It can assist them in identifying illnesses linked to pathogens, plants, and also aid in monitoring nutrient deficiencies. Improved crop management and monitoring could lead to higher profits for small-scale farmers (Gangopadhyay et al., 2024). More produce that is easily sold is linked to higher yields, which increases sales.

The claim that biosensors help small-scale farmers become more productive, efficient, and sustainable is supported by a number of studies and empirical data. For farmers, the only major expense they have to pay is for a smartphone. By using a smartphone, which has many applications that act as sensors in particular fields, they can avoid the expenses related to all those sensors (Mendes et al., 2020).

Biosensors help small-scale farmers monitor soil moisture, nutrient levels, and pH, allowing them to apply fertilizers and irrigation more precisely. This reduces waste, minimizes environmental damage, and enhances soil fertility over time (Zhang et al., 2024). Additionally, biosensors can detect contaminants in water sources, ensuring safe irrigation practices. Phytopathogens and pests can cause severe crop losses if not detected early. Biosensors enable rapid identification of plant diseases and pest infestations, allowing farmers to take preventive measures before significant damage occurs. This reduces dependency on chemical pesticides, promoting healthier crops and environmental sustainability. Traditional farming practices often involve excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, leading to increased costs and environmental degradation (Soussi et al., 2024). By using biosensors, farmers can optimize inputs based on actual field conditions, reducing production costs and maximizing efficiency. Biosensors can detect toxins, contaminants, and spoilage indicators in harvested produce, ensuring higher food quality and safety. Small-scale farmers can leverage these technologies to meet market standards, access premium pricing, and improve consumer trust in their products (Samal et al., 2023).

Smartphone-based nanobiosensors offer a portable and low-cost approach for real-time soil and plant monitoring, making them promising for small-scale farmers. However, their applicability is limited by field variability, which can affect accuracy. The cost of devices, sensor kits, and maintenance may still be unaffordable for resource-limited farmers. Additionally, socioeconomic factors such as limited digital literacy, poor internet access, and lack of technical training hinder adoption. Therefore, developing affordable, user-friendly systems and providing training support are essential for wider implementation.

5.1 IoT and AI integration with nanobiosensors

The integration of nanobiosensors with Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies has significantly advanced soil health monitoring and precision agriculture. Nanobiosensors deployed in agricultural fields enable continuous, in situ detection of key soil parameters, including nutrient concentrations (N, P, K), pH, moisture, and contaminants, with high sensitivity and specificity. These sensors are integrated into IoT-enabled wireless sensor networks (WSNs), where data are transmitted in real time via communication protocols such as LoRaWAN, ZigBee, or GSM to cloud-based platforms for storage and processing. This real-time data acquisition facilitates remote monitoring and timely decision-making.

Furthermore, AI and machine learning (ML) algorithms, including artificial neural networks (ANN), support vector machines (SVM), and deep learning models, are applied to analyze large-scale sensor data. These models enable predictive analytics for nutrient dynamics, early detection of soil degradation, and site-specific fertilizer recommendations. AI-driven decision support systems can optimize input use efficiency, reduce environmental impacts, and enhance crop productivity. The synergistic integration of nanobiosensors, IoT, and AI thus forms the backbone of smart farming systems, promoting sustainable soil management and climate-resilient agriculture (Li et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2024c; Zhang et al., 2023).

5.2 Challenges and future perspectives

Despite significant advancements, several challenges limit the large-scale adoption of nanobiosensors in agriculture. One of the major constraints is sensor calibration and environmental variability, as soil heterogeneity and field conditions affect sensor accuracy and reproducibility. Additionally, high fabrication costs and scalability issues hinder commercialization, particularly for advanced nanomaterials (El-Chaghaby and Rashad, 2024; Miguel-Rojas and Pérez-de-Luque, 2023).

Another critical limitation is the long-term stability and durability of nanobiosensors, as biological recognition elements are prone to degradation and biofouling. Environmental concerns such as nanoparticle toxicity and accumulation also pose risks to soil ecosystems and human health (Virk et al., 2024).

Furthermore, integration with IoT and AI introduces challenges related to data management, connectivity, and infrastructure limitations, particularly in rural agricultural systems. The lack of standardized protocols and large-scale field validation further restricts practical implementation (Miguel-Rojas and Pérez-de-Luque, 2023).

Future research should focus on developing cost-effective, stable, and eco-friendly nanobiosensors, along with multi-functional sensing platforms for real-time monitoring. The integration of AI-driven predictive analytics and smart farming systems is expected to enhance decision-making and agricultural sustainability (Sarabandi et al., 2025).

6 Conclusion

Nanobiosensors, which provide real-time, highly sensitive, and accurate detection of a variety of biological and chemical parameters, have become excellent instruments for monitoring the health of plants and soil. By facilitating the early diagnosis of environmental stress, plant diseases, soil contamination, and nutrient deficits, these sophisticated sensors let farmers take prompt corrective action. Through the integration of nanotechnology and biosensing methodologies, these sensors improve resource efficiency, sustainability, and agricultural productivity. Despite their benefits, widespread implementation requires addressing issues such high production costs, sensor stability, field adaptability, and data interpretation. Enhancing sensor robustness, creating wireless and remote sensing capabilities, and combining nanobiosensors with digital platforms such as the Internet of Things (IoT) for precision farming should be the main goals of future research. With further development, nanobiosensors could completely transform crop health monitoring and soil fertility control, promoting sustainable farming methods and global food security.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. During the preparation of this work the authors used paperpal and quillbot in order to check grammer and spelling.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Footnotes

Edited by: Priyanka Shah, National Forensic Sciences University, India

Reviewed by: Rathod Sridhar, Nagaland University, India

Umalaxmi Thingujam, Visva-Bharati Siksha-Bhavana, India