The role of law in coastal ecosystem conservation: a case study on mangrove protection in the U.S., Egypt, and Saudi Arabia

1 Introduction

Law serves as a fundamental framework for organizing human interaction and ensuring societal harmony. Furthermore, law plays a critical role in regulating how humans interact with nature, safeguarding environmental resources for present and future generations. As the climate change crisis escalates, the importance of legal measures in shaping human behavior and promoting environmental sustainability has become increasingly evident.

Climate change poses serious threats to coastal ecosystems through sea-level rise, intensified storms, increased precipitation, rising ocean temperatures, and ocean acidification driven by higher atmospheric CO₂ levels. Coastal ecosystems are essential for commercially important fish species, enhancing human activities in these areas. However, these ecosystems experienced measurable decline, particularly in countries with extensive coastlines, underscoring the need for effective legal and regulatory protection.

Mangrove ecosystems represent a critical tool for mitigating coastal degradation. Mangroves thrive at the interface of land and sea, stabilizing shorelines, filtering pollutants, and functioning as significant carbon sinks. Sustainable mangrove management also provides socio-economic benefits for local communities, including fishing, shellfish harvesting, and beekeeping. Although Asia contains the largest share of global mangrove coverage, restoration efforts are expanding worldwide in response to climate and biodiversity concerns.

This paper examines mangrove protection laws in the United States and compares them with mangrove restoration initiatives in Saudi Arabia and Egypt. While the United States—particularly the state of Florida—has adopted enforceable, mangrove-specific legal frameworks that balance habitat conservation with property rights by regulating activities such as cutting and removal, Saudi Arabia and Egypt rely primarily on policy initiatives and restoration campaigns rather than binding statutory protections. In 2022, Saudi Arabia planted over 14.6 million mangroves along the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, while Egypt has focused its restoration efforts along the Red Sea coast, particularly in the Sinai Peninsula. This study argues that the absence of mangrove-specific legal frameworks in Saudi Arabia and Egypt represents a regulatory gap and that adopting targeted legal measures inspired by the U.S. approach could significantly strengthen long-term mangrove conservation.

2 Biological and geographic distribution of mangrove

Mangroves are coastal, intertidal wetlands made up of unique tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), n.d.]. These ecosystems are specially adapted to survive in low-oxygen, waterlogged soils, where tides bring in and deposit fine sediments (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2012). Because they cannot tolerate freezing temperatures, mangroves are typically found near the equator (Kang et al., 2023). In Florida, three native species play a vital ecological role: red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), and white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2012).

In Egypt, mangroves thrive in sheltered coastal areas protected by headlands, sand spits, islands, and coral reefs. The dominant species, Avicennia marina, extends from north of Hurghada to the southern Red Sea coast (Fouad, 2020). Similarly, in Saudi Arabia, mangrove ecosystems are considered some of the richest and most diverse in the region, primarily made up of Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia marina (United Nations Country Team Saudi Arabia, 2024). Mangroves provide a wide range of essential ecological services—from protecting coastlines and improving water quality to supporting biodiversity [(United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2023)]. They also serve as important breeding and nursery grounds for fish, including commercially valuable shrimp, and provide critical habitat for various species of waterfowl (United Nations Country Team Saudi Arabia, 2024).

3 The ecological and economic importance of mangroves

3.1 Feeding life from the roots up

Mangrove forests serve as a critical foundation of the coastal food web, supporting a rich diversity of organisms (American Museum of Natural History, n.d.). Their leaves, which fall in massive quantities each year, become the base of a highly productive nutrient cycle. As the leaves decay, they provide food for insects, crabs, and decomposers like microbes and fungi. These microorganisms not only break down the organic matter but also recycle key nutrients—such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and iron—back into the ecosystem, sustaining the mangroves and the species that rely on them (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2012). These nutrients circulate through tides into nearby mudflats, estuaries, and coral reefs, nourishing filter-feeders like oysters and supporting a complex chain of life (American Museum of Natural History, n.d.).

Mangroves support more than 1,500 species and are biodiversity havens that feed everything from small invertebrates to commercially valuable fish and birds [United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2023]. Fish and seafood are a critical source of nutrition for approximately 3.3 billion people, providing nearly 20 percent of their animal protein intake. Each year, 171 million tons of aquatic foods are harvested to help meet this demand, feeding over 3 billion people worldwide (The Nature Conservancy, 2021a,b). The loss of mangroves—key breeding and nursery grounds for many fish species—would severely impact fisheries productivity, posing serious threats to global food security and the livelihoods of coastal communities, especially in low-income, food-deficit countries. Climate change further compounds these challenges by disrupting fish habitats and altering species distribution (Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch, 2021). On the other hand, restoring mangrove ecosystems could contribute up to 60 trillion young fish and invertebrates annually to coastal waters, offering a major boost to food availability in a time of rapid global population growth (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2024).

3.2 Coastal defense and climate regulation

Mangroves form one of the world's most effective natural barriers against coastal erosion and extreme weather events an (van Hespen et al., 2023). Their dense, interlacing root systems anchor shorelines, reducing the impact of waves, tides, and storm surges (Mazda et al., 1997) Studies estimate that intact mangrove forests can reduce wave height by up to 66% over a 100 m stretch of forest (Shokatian-Beiragh et al., 2024). This wave attenuation protects not only the ecosystem itself, but also human settlements, infrastructure, and agricultural lands located near coasts (Sunkur et al., 2023) (Figure 1).

Beyond physical protection, mangroves play a crucial role in climate regulation by acting as significant carbon sinks (Choudhary et al., 2024). Through photosynthesis and sediment trapping, mangrove ecosystems store up to four times more carbon per hectare than most tropical rainforests (Choudhary et al., 2024).

Unfortunately, when mangroves are degraded or cleared, the carbon stored in their biomass and sediments is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, exacerbating global warming (Li et al., 2025).

3.3 Livelihoods and sustainable economies

Mangrove ecosystems provide diverse livelihood opportunities for millions of people living along tropical and subtropical coasts (The Commonwealth Secretariat, n.d.). In many developing nations, local communities depend directly on mangroves for fishing, shellfish harvesting, honey production, charcoal, and timber (Nyangoko et al., 2022).

Communities adjacent to mangrove ecosystems experience higher catch rates and more stable fishing incomes than those without such habitats (Ebeler et al., 2025). Notably, in some regions more than 7% of the world's mangrove area supports over 5,000 fisher-days per square kilometer each year (Mapping Ocean Wealth, 2020). Globally, an estimated 4.1 million small-scale fishers across 109 countries and territories engage in subsistence, small-scale, and near-shore commercial fisheries that depend, in part, on these ecosystems (zu Ermgassen et al., 2020).

Mangroves also generate income through ecotourism and education—think birdwatching, kayaking, and boardwalk tours that raise conservation awareness (Blanton et al., 2024). In places like Florida and Southeast Asia, community-run mangrove attractions have become important livelihoods (Spalding and Parrett, 2019). Globally, mangrove ecotourism is widespread, with about 3,945 attractions across 93 countries (Spalding and Parrett, 2019).

Balancing use and protection demand strong governance. Unsustainable wood harvest and conversion for aquaculture or urban growth rapidly degrade mangroves; laws that enable sustainable use and incentivize eco-friendly livelihoods are crucial. Community-based management, with locals in decision-making, has proven effective for restoring degraded sites and improving welfare (Nyumah and Brambilla, 2025).

3.4 Economic valuation

Mangrove ecosystem services are substantial: global modeling estimates that mangroves avert more than $65 billion in flood damages each year and reduce annual flood exposure for about 15 million people, with many urban-adjacent 20 km coastlines receiving over $250 million per year in protection benefits (Menéndez et al., 2020). These figures highlight mangroves' value as natural coastal defenses across global, national, and local scales. Complementary wealth-accounting work values the global stock of mangrove flood-protection services at roughly $855 billion (Menéndez et al., 2024). The structural features that enable these protective functions are illustrated in Figure 2.

3.5 Cultural and educational value

Mangroves also hold cultural, religious, spiritual, and educational importance (MarAlliance, 2025). In many coastal communities, especially in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, mangroves feature in local folklore as symbols of protection and fertility. In the United States, they are often incorporated into environmental education programs to teach students about the interconnectedness of ecosystems and human society (National Center for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification (NCVC), 2025).

Their accessibility makes them ideal “living laboratories” for research on ecology, climate adaptation, and coastal engineering. Universities and research centers around the Gulf of Mexico, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean regions increasingly use mangrove sites for student fieldwork and climate monitoring projects (Mascareño González, 2021).

Recognizing this cultural and scientific value can strengthen conservation efforts, helping policymakers justify protective laws and mobilize community support.

3.6 Water purification and nutrient cycling

Another critical ecological service provided by mangroves is water filtration (Weir, 2020). As tidal waters flow through mangrove roots, sediments and pollutants—such as heavy metals, excess nutrients, and organic matter—are trapped and detoxified by microbial processes (Li et al., 2025).

The complex microbial communities in mangrove soils perform key biochemical cycles—nitrogen fixation, denitrification, and sulfur reduction—that maintain overall productivity and nutrient balance in coastal zones (Anu et al., 2024). By regulating these cycles, mangroves enhance ecosystem resilience and maintain the ecological equilibrium necessary for healthy fisheries and coral systems (Anu et al., 2024).

Thus, the conservation of mangroves is not only about protecting trees but about sustaining an entire biogeochemical network that underpins marine biodiversity and human health.

4 Comparative legal frameworks for mangrove protection: the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt

4.1 United States

In the United States, mangrove protection is integrated into broader coastal management efforts through federal frameworks such as the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) and the Clean Water Act (CWA) (US Congress, 1972), which regulate activities and discharges that may damage wetlands, including mangroves. Additionally, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) support habitat restoration, monitoring, and coastal resilience initiatives (US Department of Commerce, NOAA Office for Coastal Management, (n.d.)) that increasingly recognize mangroves as “blue carbon” ecosystems contributing to climate-mitigation objectives consistent with the Paris Agreement (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2020).

Florida contains by far the largest extent of mangroves in the nation—over 90% of all U.S. mangrove forests—and supports approximately 555,000 acres of mangrove habitat (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2025). Florida's southwest coast alone includes one of the largest continuous mangrove swamps in the world (EPA, Mangrove Swamps).

Because of this immense ecological and economic value, Florida is the only U.S. state that has enacted a dedicated mangrove statute: the Mangrove Trimming and Preservation Act of 1996 (Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 1996b). No other state has a mangrove-specific law of this kind. The Act seeks to balance environmental conservation with private property rights by recognizing mangroves as vital to shoreline stability, fish habitats, and storm protection (Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2025). It establishes clear definitions for “trimming” and “alteration,” requires permits for removal or cutting beyond prescribed limits, and authorizes the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) and local governments to enforce compliance (Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 1996a). Violations may result in civil penalties of up to $10,000 per offense, along with mandatory restoration requirements (Fla. Stat. § 403.121). Limited exemptions are provided for property owners trimming small mangroves for shoreline views, provided ecosystem functions are not impaired.

The regulatory role of law in mangrove management is critically important because mangroves may provide substantial ecological benefits in some regions while causing ecological harm in others. This variation is especially evident in the United States, where diverse coastal ecosystems, governance structures, and management authorities require legal frameworks that determines when mangroves should be protected and when they should be controlled or removed.

Florida's mangrove-specific statute exemplifies a protection-oriented approach, whereas other coastal states rely on broader environmental and coastal management laws. Hawaii demonstrates the implications of this regulatory flexibility. There, mangroves—particularly Avicennia marina—are commonly treated as invasive species due to their documented adverse impacts on native ecosystems, including habitat degradation for endangered Hawaiian stilt populations, and are regulated accordingly by the (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR), 2022; Demopoulos and Smith, 2010).

This divergence underscores the need for adaptive, science-based legislation that clearly assigns institutional responsibility and establishes decision-making criteria to determine when mangroves should be conserved, managed, or removed—an approach essential for effective coastal governance under changing ecological conditions. Overall, Florida's regulatory approach demonstrates how strong legal standards, public engagement, scientific oversight, and restoration mandates can preserve coastal habitats while allowing sustainable human use. The integration of federal and state mechanisms—through the CZMA, CWA, NOAA, EPA, and FDEP—offers a comprehensive and robust framework for balancing conservation and development and serves as an instructive example for other coastal nations seeking to legislate mangrove protection.

4.2 Saudi Arabia

Under the Green Initiatives of Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman—one of the most ambitious environmental programs in the world—Saudi Arabia has launched large-scale mangrove restoration projects as part of its Saudi Vision 2030 (Vision 2030, 2025). By 2022, the Kingdom had planted more than 14.6 million mangrove trees along its Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coasts, with plans to reach 50 million by 2025 and expand to 100 million by 2030 (Red Sea Global, 2023). These restoration efforts focus on carbon storage, coastal protection, and biodiversity enhancement, contributing directly to both the Saudi Green Initiative and the Middle East Green Initiative (Saudi Green Initiative, n.d.).

These mangrove restoration efforts also contribute to Saudi Arabia's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement by enhancing blue-carbon sequestration as part of the Kingdom's climate-mitigation and adaptation strategy (NOAA Climate.gov, 2022; Roy et al., 2025).

Saudi Arabia's environmental legislation provides a strong legal basis for mangrove conservation and restoration. The Environment Law, Royal Decree No. M/165 of 19 Dhu al-Qa‘dah 1441 (2020) and Environment Law, Royal Decree No. M/165 of 19 Dhu al-Qa‘dah 1441 (2020) and supported by the Executive Regulations for the Sustainable Management of the Marine and Coastal Environment (2021); Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (2020), establishes comprehensive provisions for protecting coastal and marine ecosystems from degradation and ensuring sustainable resource use.

Implementation and oversight are carried out by the National Center for Vegetation Cover and Combating Desertification (NCVC) and the National Center for Environmental Compliance (NCEC), alongside specialized institutions such as the National Center for Aquaculture under the Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (National Center for Aquaculture, Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, (n.d.); National Center for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification (NCVC), 2025).

The National Center for environmental Compliance (NCEC) plays a vital regulatory role in protecting and safeguarding the broader marine and coastal environment, which include mangrove habitats (Exec. Reg. for Sustainable Mgmt., art. 3). As the national authority responsible for environmental permitting, compliance monitoring, and enforcement under the Environmental Law and its executive regulations, NCEC oversees coastal activities, conducts inspections, and enforces compliance to prevent environmental harm to marine and mangrove ecosystems.

The Center reviews environmental impact assessments (EIAs), issue compliance conditions, and conducts fields inspections to ensure that coastal development adheres to environmental standers (The Environment Consultant, 2025). Although NCEC does not possess a mangrove-specific mandate, its monitoring stations, pollution-control programs, and enforcement mechanisms help prevent activities that could indirectly harm mangrove areas by controlling coastal pollution, regulating development, and ensuring sustainable use of marine resources. Through this comprehensive compliance framework, NCEC reinforces Saudi Arabia's broader commitment to sustainable coastal development under Vision 2030 (Reef Ecologic, n.d.).

While Saudi Arabia's EIA framework is grounded in strong regulatory oversight and centralized enforcement, it differs from systems that formally embed public participation within environmental review procedures. Unlike the United States—where the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) emphasizes public participation and where notice-and-comment procedures are core elements of the environmental review process [National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1969; Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), 2023]—Saudi Arabia's EIA framework places primary responsibility on regulatory authorities rather than formal public review. Public engagement in environmental decision-making is therefore more indirect and occurs through government-led awareness initiatives, consultations, and community-based programs coordinated by institutions such as the National Center for Vegetation Cover and Combating Desertification (NCVC), rather than through mandatory public hearings or formal public comment periods within the EIA process.

Under Article 38 of Royal Decree No. M/165 (2020), violations involving mangrove destruction or habitat degradation are subject to fines of up to 20 million Saudi riyals (approximately USD 5.3 million) and imprisonment for up to 10 years, reflecting the Kingdom's firm commitment to environmental enforcement and ecosystem restoration (Saudi Environmental Law, 2020).

Beyond formal legislation, Saudi Arabia has fostered extensive community participation in mangrove conservation. The National Center for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification (NCVC) ((n.d.)) has launched nationwide public awareness campaigns emphasizing mangroves as a vital national resource that protects coastlines, supports biodiversity, and enhances climate resilience (National Center for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification (NCVC), (n.d.)). These campaigns have reached major coastal cities—including Dammam, Jeddah, Asir, and Jazan—through educational programs, volunteer planting events, and local partnerships (U.N. Saudi Arabia, 2024).

Mangrove conservation in Saudi Arabia not only supports environmental protection but also strengthens local economies and investment opportunities. As Abdullah Al-Wutaid of the NCVC explained during one such campaign:

“In 2023, six tons of mangrove honey were produced, and the cultivation of mangrove trees contributes to increasing the income of coastal residents as well as improving the marine ecosystem” (U.N. Saudi Arabia, 2024). This emerging “mangrove honey” industry demonstrates how restoration efforts can create new livelihoods and employment for coastal communities (Haddad, 2024).

Saudi Arabia's mangrove zones also play a vital role in ecotourism and wildlife conservation. Stretching along the Red Sea coast shared with Egypt, these mangrove habitats provide refuge and feeding grounds for migratory birds such as pelicans, herons, and seagulls, supporting both biodiversity conservation and sustainable tourism development (Al- Jazirah, 2025; Asharq Al-Awsat, 2025).

Recognizing the vital role of mangroves in environmental balance, ecosystem health, and community livelihoods, the Saudi government has placed their conservation at the heart of Vision 2030 and its broader Green Initiatives, affirming the Kingdom's dedication to sustainability and climate resilience.

4.3 Egypt

Egypt has expanded its mangrove restoration efforts along the Red Sea Coast as part of its broader national strategy to combat climate change and protect vulnerable coastal ecosystems from sea-level rise, erosion, and habitat degradation (One Earth, 2020). Mangroves in Egypt act as a buffer zone between land and sea, preserving the shore and protecting it from submersion and corrosion.

Within Egypt's climate framework, mangrove restoration initiatives are increasingly understood as blue-carbon measures that support Egypt's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, particularly in relation to coastal resilience and carbon sequestration (Arab Republic of Egypt, 2023).

In 2022, Egypt launched a large-scale national mangrove restoration project to plant over 500 acres of mangrove arboretum in Safaga, Hamata, Shalateen, and the Sinai Peninsula [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2024]. Complementing this, the “Developing a Participatory Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration Model as a Nature-Based Solution to Climate Change (MERS)” project was introduced in 2021 as part of the Global Climate Solution Partnership between HSBC and the American University in Cairo's Center for Applied Research on the Environment and Sustainability (CARES) [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2024].

The MERS Project, implemented a long the Red Sea from El Gouna to Halayeb, focuses on five pillars:

• Mangrove Plantation – Planting 10,000 seeding annually (50,000 total) in degraded sites to restore mangrove cover and increase carbon storage, estimated at 0.20 Mt CO₂e across Egypt's mangroves (American University in Cairo – CARES HSBC, 2023).
• AUC Plantation – establishing 10,000 additional seeding in Hamata and Wadi El G-Gemal protectorate at part of AUC's carbon offset program (American University in Cairo – CARES HSBC, 2023).
• Climate-Smart Agri-Hub – creating national research and training center at CARES-AUC to support Innovation and education on Mangrove management and the climate smart practice (American University in Cairo – CARES HSBC, 2023).
• Community Engagement – involving local youth and residents in restoration and awareness activities such as Safaga Beach and cleanup Hamata schools' sessions, and Cairo Water week 2023, fostering long term stewardship (American University in Cairo – CARES HSBC, 2023).
• Economic Empowerment and GIS Platform – promoting ecotourism and small businesses in Marsa Alam while developing a GIS system to map mangrove coverage, carbon stocks, and biodiversity (American University in Cairo – CARES HSBC, 2023).

On the legal front, Egypt has adopted strict legislative measures to protect native plant species, including mangroves. Article 367 of the Egyptian Criminal Code criminalizes acts such as cutting, uprooting, or destroying vegetation, with penalties including imprisonment and fines. Additionally, Environmental Law No. 4 of 1994, as amended by Law No. 9 of 2009, provides the principal framework for environmental protection (Env't Law No. 4/1994 Egypt). Articles 28(2) and 84 prohibit the cutting, possession, transport, import, export, or sale of endangered plant species or their derivatives, with violators facing imprisonment and/or fines ranging from L.E. 5,000 ($100) to L.E. 50,000 ($1,000) (Env't Law No. 4/1994 Egypt). Enforcement is carried out by the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) under the Ministry of Environment.

Egypt's mangrove initiatives—combining scientific research, community participation, and legal enforcement—illustrate a growing national commitment to ecosystem restoration.

5 Legal gaps analysis: enforcement and regulatory specificity

A comparative review of the three jurisdictions reveals a significant legal gap between the United States and both Saudi Arabia and Egypt with respect to mangrove protection. Florida's Mangrove Trimming and Preservation Act illustrates how a dedicated, ecosystem-specific statute can translate environmental objectives into enforceable obligations. The Act provides precise definitions, clear permitting thresholds, identified enforcement authorities, and predictable penalties, thereby enabling consistent monitoring and compliance while offering legal certainly to property owners and regulators alike.

By contrast, Saudi Arabia and Egypt rely primarily on broad environmental legislation and large-scale restoration initiatives rather than mangrove-specific statutory frameworks. Although Saudi Arabia's Environmental Law authorizes substantial penalties—reaching up to 20 million SAR = USD 5.3 million—the absence of a dedicated mangrove statute means that enforcement mechanism is subsumed within general compliance. This raises question regarding the consistency of monitoring, the frequency of the inspections, and the transparency of enforcement actions specific to mangrove habitats. In practice, mangrove protection in Saudi Arabia remains largely driven by national project and policy initiatives rather than by right and duty based legal obligations applicable to coastal land users. The necessary of legal frameworks for mangrove protection is becoming increasing urgent, especially with the increase in mangrove planting in Saudi Arabia under the Green Initiatives of Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman.

Similarly, Egypt's legal framework criminalizes vegetation destruction and prohibits harm to endangered plant species, yet these provisions apply broadly across ecosystems and are not tailored to the ecological characteristics or management needs of mangrove forests. Enforcement capacity remains constrained, and statutory penalties are relatively modest when measured against the long-term environmental and economic value of mangrove ecosystems. As a result, mangrove protection in Egypt is heavily dependent on project-based interventions, donor-supported programs, and administrative discretion, rather than on a specialized legal regime that mandates proactive protection and systematic monitoring.

An additional regulatory gap concerns public participation in environmental decision-making. In the United States, public participation is a core element of environmental governance under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), including notice-and-comment procedures during environmental review. By contrast, both Saudi Arabia and Egypt lack legally mandated public participation mechanisms in their EIA or mangrove-related regulatory processes, relying instead on indirect, government-led awareness initiatives or project-based consultations. This absence of formal public participation limits transparency and weakens accountability in mangrove protection enforcement.

This comparison demonstrates that while restoration initiatives and general environmental laws are valuable, they do not provide the same level of regulatory certainly, enforceability, or long-term protection as dedicated mangrove-specific legal framework. The Florida model illustrates how targeted legislation can bridge this gap by institutionalizing enforcement mechanisms, clarifying permissible activities, and embedding mangrove conservation into binding coastal governance structures.

6 Conclusion

Mangroves are essential to coastal resilience, biodiversity conservation, and climate stability. They protect shorelines, store large amount of carbon, sustain fisheries, and directly support community livelihoods. In the United States, Florida—home to nearly 90% of all U.S mangroves—has developed one of the most advanced and targeted legal frameworks for mangrove protection. Because U.S states possess authority to enact environmental laws tailored to their specific coastal conditions, Florida adopted the Mangrove Trimming and Preservation Act, a specialized statute regulating mangrove trimming, cutting, restoration, and long-term ecosystem management. This state-level framework provides regulatory clarity, consistent enforcement mechanisms, and clear guidance for both property owners and environmental agencies.

Saudi and Egypt share extensive Red Sea coastlines and have demonstrated strong national commitments to mangrove restoration and environmental protection. Saudi Arabia has launched globally significant restoration projects under Vision 2030 and the Saudi Green Initiative, planting millions of mangrove trees and enforcing strict penalties for environmental violations. Egypt as similarly, expanded mangrove restoration programs along Red Sea, supported by scientific research, community engagement, and environmental legislation prohibiting harm to native vegetation. These initiatives reflect meaningful progress in safeguarding toward safeguarding coastal ecosystems.

Nevertheless, reliance on broad environmental legislation and project-based restoration programs limits regulatory clarity, consistency, and long-term enforceability. Adopting a dedicated mangrove-specific legal framework—modeled on Florida's Mangrove Trimming and Preservation Act—would significantly strengthen mangrove protection in both Saudi Arabia and Egypt. Such a statute could establish clear rules governing planting, trimming, cutting, restoration, and habitat management; improve institutional coordination; enhance compliance monitoring; and raise public awareness of the ecological and climate importance of mangroves, particularly their role in protecting Red Sea coastal cities from sea-level rise, erosion, and extreme weather events.

By complementing their existing national initiatives with a focused and enforceable legal framework, Saudi Arabia and Egypt can achieve stronger regulatory certainty, more sustainable mangrove expansion, deeper community engagement, and greater long-term resilience of coastal ecosystems—ultimately enhancing biodiversity and safeguarding human communities in the face of climate change.

Correction note

A correction has been made to this article. Details can be found at: 10.3389/focsu.2026.1861069.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Adriana Vella, University of Malta, Malta

Reviewed by: Nurul Habaib Al Mukarramah, Individual, Indonesia