Editorial: Working in fisheries - fish and aquaculture: a celebration of women's contribution and experience

1 Overview

In early 2025 we sent out our call for contributions to a Research Topic that would encourage women with a background in fisheries and aquaculture to explore gender equity and gender equality in their workplace. We aimed to highlight lessons learned in areas of engagement, research and policy to inform decision-making, shape policies, and guide inclusive progress in the blue food provisions sector. We asked the women to review the scope of their role in the industry, and to consider the following questions:

1. How did you get into your area of work?

2. Did you perceive there were barriers for women during your studies and/or subsequent working life?

3. What would you say to women and gender minorities who are thinking of working in fisheries or aquaculture- from working in the field, industry, management, or science?

We were particularly interested to hear how fisheries and aquaculture research has (or has not) changed over time, about recent work in the field, how research has had a real-world impact and whether organizations are now welcoming more women and gender minorities through individual stories and through quantitative surveys. Some provided unique regional and generational stories from which context-specific recommendations were made. Not surprisingly, gender related barriers to career development are still widespread, and while some organizations, including those in industry, are now welcoming more women and gender minorities into this area, we still have a long way to go.

We hope, however, that by reading these stories and focusing on the recommendations—progress in the workplace around gender equity and equality will be made.

2 Women in the blue carbon economy

In this Research Topic (RT) we focus on the blue carbon economy and particularly on the experiences of women working in fisheries and aquaculture. The history of women's contributions in these industries is a long one, both as industry participants and in scientific research. We have encouraged contributions from authors of different ages and different continents. We received a rich catch of essays from women working in government institutes, universities, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), the fishing industry, and in private companies. These articles, some based on systematic surveys and others describing individual experiences, showcase the changes experienced first-hand over the past decades. Although the historical contexts are similar in many ways, there are also important cultural differences.

Women have always played a role in securing food and other valuable products from the oceans. Women work as pearl divers, in seaweed/macroalgae and shellfish harvesting, shucking shellfish, salting/drying fish, and repairing nets. Women are shipowners and run the market stalls selling ocean foods. Women produce and analyze research data enabling science-based management of fisheries and conservation, and as activists women communicate and organize public and government actions to promote and protect the blue carbon economy.

We celebrate this amazing work through this Research Topic of opinion articles, but we also hear in the personal narratives about the gender bias, and lack of opportunity that has occurred in the last decades—and continues to this day. Several authors have written about the persistence of career road blocks and the need to redefine leadership style (Russell). A few perceived no disadvantages being a woman or they noted a positive shift toward inclusivity. The implication and visibility of women has clearly increased in recent decades, but there is still room for progress (Trenkel). Asking the authors to highlight changes that afford women more opportunity in this blue economy has been a key focus of this RT.

3 Historical perspective

Seafood has always been culturally and economically vital around the world, and women's roles in these traditions have made significant contributions. There are instances where women have historically been equal partners to their menfolk even in capture fisheries, such as in Vietnam, Sri Lanka and some countries in South America, West Africa, the Caribbean, and the South Pacific. In some of these countries they are hailed as skillful navigators, and in some others, they also participate in the construction of sea-going craft (Nayak, 1992). Globally seafood has been culturally and economically vital and traditional fisheries such as those for Maori, have been extensive, sophisticated, and involved traditional cultural practices (Haukamau and Pouwhare, 2025).

Indigenous women have not just filled crucial roles in gathering, processing, and preserving seafood over time. Many examples in this RT show how these women skillfully blend traditional gathering with conservation, research and sustainability.

4 Women's contribution to the development of modern fisheries science

As natural history emerged as the study of organisms and their environment, and evolved into ‘modern' science, women often contributed major breakthroughs. These contributions were often attributed to male colleagues, and recognition of the value of these women's contributions has only come belatedly in recent years, as the following examples indicate.

Prior to the 20th century the pursuit of natural science and its relevance to seafood was less acceptable for women. Even those who did have the freedom of time and economic security were restricted in their pursuits. Botany was considered ‘ladylike' enough as an interest, so some of the 18th and 19th century descriptions of seaweeds were made by women. Indeed, aquatic botany has always had a good representation of women, whose scientific contributions are widely recognized.

A number of women were active participants in the development of a scientific basis for marine food production over the past 150 years or so, although recognition of their contributions has been slow. Examples of these women include the Scottish marine biologist Sheina Marshall (1896–1977) who laid much of the groundwork for planktonic food chain studies with her work on Calanus and the food of herring larvae. Mary Wanfred Parke (1908–1989) developed the methods for isolation and cultivation of marine microalgae and established early protocols for aquaculture hatchery production critical for fish and shellfish. Rosa Mabel Lee (1884–1976), a statistician, was the first woman to be employed as a government fisheries scientist in the United Kingdom. Her studies of fish growth in important commercial species were significant and are still widely cited (Lee, 1920). The Lee Phenomenon in fish growth data is a well-known process, and has more recently been referred to as the Rosa Lee phenomenon in recognition of her contribution. Rosa Lee worked as a government scientist for only 10 years before she was forced to retire in 1919 after getting married.

Margaret McKenzie was an eminent early New Zealand fisheries scientist who produced key early life history descriptions of Galanas attenuatus (inanga or whitebait) (McKenzie, 1933), and Nemadactylus macropterus (terakihi) (McKenzie, 1961). She was a frequent participant on the vessel Ikatere's surveys in the 1960s, always as the only woman on board. Her career was curtailed, as often for women, when she retired in the late 1960's to care for her ill mother.

Emmerentia (Emmy) Egidius (1929–1989) was a visionary who saw that Norway would need significant knowledge in fish health to support their expanding fish farming industry. She established a professional study program for fish health biologists at the University of Bergen in 1988 and Emmy was appointed as adjunct professor. Her first research field was diseases of wild fish and she published regularly on this topic, but she is best known for her work on farmed fish and aquaculture diseases. After a break to raise family she became the first female scientist employed at the Institute of Marine Research (IMR) in Bergen, in 1970. Egidius described and named the bacterium Vibrio salmonicida which is now recognized as the cause of cold water vibriosis (Hitrasyke). Through her work at the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), she understood the value of fieldwork and wanted to participate in research cruises with IMR's ocean-going vessels. Today, this may seem a given, but it took a lot of persuasion before she became the first female to participate in these cruises.

In the early 1900s Spanish women began to be involved and recognized in marine sciences. Josefa Sanz Echeverría (1889–1952) was the first fish illustrator contracted by the Museo de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN, CSIC Madrid) where she was a conservator, illustrator and author. Echeverria's publications included a series on fish otoliths starting in 1937. Together with Luisa de la Vega and Paula Millan, Echeverría illustrated the marine life at the MNCN and this special female collaboration created a body of work that is now considered a national treasure. However, the Civil War (1936–1939) truncated several careers. For instance, Jimena Quirós (1899–1983) was the first woman scientist contracted by the Spanish Institute of Oceanography (1920), at the same time serving as a politician in defense of the women's rights. She was removed from her positions after the war, although she was reinstated, honorarily, in 1966. Emilia Bardan (1899–1992) was also affected by the civil war. She was a marine chemist in 1924 and after the war changed to fisheries and was one of the first women participating in the Mediterranean Science Commission (CIESM). The first Spanish woman to obtain a Doctorate in plankton ecology (Madrid, 1951) was Angeles Alvariño (1916–2005). She was the first woman to participate as a scientist in R.V. Sarsia (UK) cruises (1953–1954) and later moved to Scripps Institution in La Jolla (USA) where she worked as well-respected plankton expert until her death in 2005.

American women have also contributed to marine fisheries and habitat conservation. The first woman fisheries scientist hired by the US Fish and Wildlife Service was Louella Cable (1900–1970) who specialized in fish identification keys and reared the eggs and larvae of many species to produce early scientific illustrations of development. Some like Dr. Nancy Foster (1941–2000), have worked as agency administrators to promote women's participation in marine fisheries and to establish marine sanctuaries and protected areas. Dr. Foster worked as the U.S. Assistant Administrator for Oceanic Services and Coastal Zone Management at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and Director of the National Ocean Service (NOS). Her dissertation researched marine polychaetes, but her major contribution was her promotion of marine protected areas to serve as nurseries and sanctuaries for exploited species. Her efforts were recognized by the Gold Metal of the Department of Commerce and a Presidential Rank Award for her leadership in marine conservation (Congressional Record, 2026).

It has been more difficult for American women to participate in the marine fishing industry where inclusion requires large capital outlays such as the purchase of vessels and gear. However, they have been active in marine aquaculture. One such story is Barbara Scully of Glidden Point Oyster Farm in Maine. She pioneered oyster culture in the 1980s and worked to develop the industry in that region (Olson, 2021). Through her leadership, she has paved the way for other women entering the aquaculture business.

5 Industry perspective/context

The old saying in the fishing industry: ‘women on land, men at sea' no longer applies. Women's roles and representation are changing. Women are filling the labor gap and stepping into leadership at all levels. Women in Spain are important contributors in blue food production. Shellfish harvesting in Galicia (NW Spain) is a centuries-long and economically valuable tradition, where women make up nearly three-quarters of the workforce (González-Laxe, 2023). Their work is well-organized and regulated through area-based management. Their contributions in the fishery are gaining recognition, although “machismo” attitudes are still an impediment. Although women did not participate in fishing at sea until very recently, they were very active supporting tasks on land (i.e., net mending, supplies, boat owners). They were also active in the commercial side, processing and selling their husbands' catches in the retail markets. Prior to the implementation of automatic shucking machines in Mallorca (Balearic Islands), women known as “Madonas” were in charge of shelling the catches at the landing ports. They used a system based on trust and earned a share of the profit equivalent to that earned by the fishing crew. As the society changes, more women have become involved at all levels, even in a government capacity.

In Japan women are addressing the desperate labor shortage in the industry. Tokyo Correspondent J McCurry of The Guardian Weekly (June 2024) describes a change in attitude in this country. Where once women faced a strong tradition of male workers and cultural resistance, the fishing industry now employs 11,000 women, making up 13% of workers in 2018. Despite government efforts however, the proportion of women working in fisheries remains low and a 2023 survey found that only about 60 of 300 firms hoping to employ workers said they would employ women. “The patriarchal culture in which men are at the top of the hierarchy needs to change” stated lecturer K Soejima (National Fisheries University, Tokyo). The large fisheries of the old USSR and Norway led the world in the employment of women on commercial fishing vessels (Heberley, 2005), and other nations including New Zealand followed. In New Zealand where the large Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) supports several large fisheries and produces just over NZ$ 2.2 billion in export revenue, women are in the minority but active in the fishing Industry—as skippers, mates, on at-sea factory processors. Here, as in Japan and Norway, men remain at the top in the fishing companies.

6 The emerging world

Women's work in Ocean Food has not only been in production and research, but also in management, conservation, and in government. We have trailblazers such as Sylvia Earle (b. 1935) who became famous as a scuba diver and shark biologist, now a major voice for conservation. Maria Helena Barahona Fernandes (1946–2005) was the director of the Portuguese marine research instituto (Português do Mar e Atmosfera, IPMA) in the 1980s and instigated the consolidation of important marine fisheries and zoological collections from former colonies into the national science museum. And recent years have seen women take on significant leadership roles in government departments concerned with marine affairs and aquatic food production. This list includes Emelia Arthur in Ghana, Inge Zamwaani in Namibia, and Angela Eagle in UK. Norway has had several woman fisheries ministers, including Lisbeth Berg-Hansen (2009–2013), Elisabeth Aspaker (2013–2015), Cecilie Myrseth (2023–2024), and currently Marianne Sivertsen Næss.

The opportunities for women to work in jobs connected to Ocean Food have changed enormously over the past 50 years. Part of this is a consequence of increased access to education for women and to the expansion of job opportunities in business and scientific research, communications, governmental and non-governmental (NGO) roles.

Women are better represented now, or at least their numbers are more widely recognized. With more women seeking scientific and technical degrees, we can anticipate even greater discoveries and contributions in the future. But it has not always been so—and this RT sets out to reflect on how the landscape has changed from personal perspectives. We have encouraged contributions from among a range of ages and across the continents. Here, we present the stories of women who work in research, in fisheries management, in conservation, and education in government institutes, universities, NGOs, the fishing industry, and in private companies.

7 This Research Topic (RT)

Our Research Topic points to the ongoing need for more opportunities for women in this economy. When we sent out our call for contributions to this RT, we hoped for a diversity of voices, representing the wide range of roles women hold in relation to fisheries and aquaculture. The 14 articles here present personal stories, essays, and reports of organizations and networks. These contributions represent a woman's view of the sector, from personal experience to professional overview.

The oceans provide an important source of protein for many cultures. Several contributing articles write of 1st nation women's stories and also describe present day initiatives. For example, Russell writes: “Māori women in Aotearoa New Zealand have historically played crucial roles in gathering, processing, and preserving kai moana (seafood), essential for food security and Tikanga (cultural traditions). With strong spiritual connections to the ocean (moana), Māori women remain central today in sustainable fisheries management, leadership, and the perpetuation of traditional knowledge within iwi (tribes)” (Stein, 2018; Enright, 2024). Scholarship programmes have supported Māori capability and potential (Thomas et al., 2025). Mexican women in small artisanal fishing businesses skillfully blend traditional practices with innovative conservation strategies to reduce bycatch, protect endangered species, and build sustainable livelihoods (Rousso et al.).

Livingston, Thomson et al., Moreno, Limburg, Volpedo, and Baez speak of their love and cultural connection to the ocean and nature as their motivating their path to a career connected to fisheries. Specific changes in attitudes are noted (Livingston; Moreno; Thomson et al.) and as well as substantial progress in reducing inequalities in pay and promotion/career development. In particular, the contributing scientific researchers have recounted their early experiences of the difficulty of access to field work and ship time, as well as the conditions they endured. Progress in this aspect of is readily acknowledged and women regularly have the opportunity to join and manage surveys and cruises (Thomson et al.; Moreno; Livingston). Changes in other widespread institutional attitudes are positive but slow, especially concerning support in relation to family commitments (Livingston), inappropriate expectations (Williams et al.), and lack of recognition (Trenkel). However, it is noteworthy that there was a lack of discussion about the effects of having children and taking maternity leave (but see Livingston). While in Thomas et al. (2025), many of the women surveyed highlighted the challenges of fieldwork for women scientists with family responsibilities, only some comments were made by other authors such as: “I was not affected because I do not have children” or superficial information such as “during this period I had two children” were provided. The relevance of having or not having family in the women life merits further consideration, but it is notable how this aspect has been dealt very discretely by several of the contributors.

The landscape of fisheries and aquaculture is changing, and the science and the industry support many new roles that are open and encouraging to women. Lord et al. describe the roles in legal work, communication, and education where women make up the majority of the workforce in Maine (USA)'s aquaculture industry. Segarra Diaz, Williams, and Baez, describe their activities within governmental and non-profit/non- governmental organizations, promoting conservation, sustainability, co-management, citizen science, and gender equality.

Williams et al., Damayanti et al., Lord et al., Segarra Diaz, and Rousso et al. all present case studies that highlight the impact that networks have on empowering women in the industrial sector, achieving recognition of their knowledge and experience and their role in improving the management and economic value of their businesses. Examples from Mexico (Rousso et al.), Indonesia (Damayanti et al.), New Zealand (Russell), Spain (Segarra Diaz), and the wider Pacific (Williams et al.) all illustrate how recognized and empowered women's groups combine cultural/traditional knowledge, innovation, and networking to develop strategies for sustainable fisheries management. Organizations that support gender equality in the fisheries and aquaculture industries recognize that support for women in these businesses is an effective action to reduce poverty (Williams; Williams et al.; Segarra Diaz). Our RT complements aspects of the machinery of the Gender in Aquaculture and Fisheries Section (GAFS) of the Asian Fisheries Society (AFS) (Williams et al.).

8 Summary and recommendations

As editors we share many similarities; we are of the same career cohort (early 1980s) and a similar work experience (academic or research institution). We recognized many of the situations and challenges described by the contributors to this RT. Their sentiments and insights into the blue carbon economy resonate with some of our own experiences and with all of our hopes for the future.

8.1 Summing up

A healthy planet needs all the intelligence available to master the problems we face and to accomplish this goal we need to include more women, women who support women, and men who are up for the challenge. Greater representation of women in fisheries research, and in the fishing industry is vital. The recommendations in this Editorial and in the RT articles are pivotal in ensuring there is increased gender equity to enable women to contribute significantly to both the sustainability and resilience of the sector (Table 1). Overall and not surprisingly fisheries and aquaculture research is slower to change compared to the commercial sector. Gender related barriers to career development are still widespread, and while some organizations, including the industry (Figure 1), are now welcoming more women into this area, we still have a long way to go.

Table 1. Key recommendations toward gender equity in fisheries and aquaculture.

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Footnotes

Edited and reviewed by: Angel Borja, AZTI Foundation, Spain