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Frontiers in Ocean Sustainability ·

Volume 4 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/focsu.2026.1820278

International ocean governance framework shaping European maritime planning and innovations for sustainable blue economy and climate resilience

  • Patrycja Enet1,2*corresponding author
  1. 1Aktis Hydraulics, Zwolle, Netherlands
  2. 2The European Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) Assistance Mechanism, European MSP Platform, Zwolle, Netherlands
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Abstract

The International Ocean Governance Framework comprises a vast network of United Nations (UN) and regional instruments, serving sustainable ocean planning and management. For the framework to be effective, it demands cross-instrument synergies, sectoral implementation incentives, and integration into national policies and plans. To ensure long-term and holistic efficiency, country-led instrument of maritime spatial planning (MSP) must be grounded in international law, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and obligations and requirements set forth by relevant international agreements and frameworks, which collectively guide actions and development. These instruments include the Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Implementing Agreement of UNCLOS on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ Agreement), and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF). As the Triple Planetary Crisis (climate change, pollution and biodiversity loss) intensifies, the role of international frameworks becomes ever more critical. Emerging technologies and innovative approaches, such as offshore renewable energy, are rapidly expanding to meet the targets and objectives of these international instruments. As these developments, alongside growing sectors like aquaculture, restoration, and shipping, compete for limited space, the need for comprehensive, whole-system planning in MSP becomes ever more urgent to optimize marine space and balance competing demands. The European Ocean Pact (2025), a comprehensive strategy to align and strengthen the EU's ocean management policies, identifies the revision of the EU MSP Directive as a cornerstone of its action plan. This update seeks to modernize and reinforce MSP as a strategic tool, ensuring it supports the priorities of the forthcoming Ocean Act with enhanced cross-sectoral coordination and a more structured sea basin approach. Accelerating technological innovation in the North Sea and adopting innovative resilience-building approaches, such as those targeting the Maltese Islands, demonstrate examples of concerted action toward achieving these ambitious goals.

Keywords

1 Introduction

The ocean economy is expanding at a pace that outstrips global economic growth, according to data from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD, 2025). The global ocean economy's real value doubled over 25 years, rising from USD 1.3 trillion in gross value added (GVA) in 1995 to USD 2.6 trillion in 2020, reflecting an average annual growth rate of 2.8% (OECD, 2025). Encompassing all sectors tied to oceans, seas, and coasts, this rapid growth underscores both opportunity and urgency. While sectors have driven socio-economic prosperity, they have also contributed to exploitation, pollution, and environmental degradation, with maritime transport alone accounting for around 3% of global CO2 emissions. The United Nations (UN) First and Second World Ocean Assessments (United Nations, 2017, 2021; United Nations First World Ocean Assessment, 2017; United Nations Second World Ocean Assessment, 2021) alert that marine ecosystems are at or near their carrying capacity, while regional assessments, such as those by the Regional Seas Programmes (e.g., the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic—OSPAR, 2023; the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission—HELCOM, 2025), highlight relentless pressures from overfishing, habitat degradation, biodiversity loss, pollution, and climate change. According to the World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) 2025 Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide soared to record highs in 2024. CO2 levels reached 152% of pre-industrial values, with a global surface average of 423.9 ppm. The rate of CO2 increase has accelerated sharply from 0.8 ppm per year in the 1960s to 2.4 ppm annually between 2011 and 2020. CO2 concentrations surged by 3.5 ppm from 2023 to 2024, the largest single-year rise ever documented in modern records (WMO, 2025, 2024, 2023).

Anthropogenic emissions of these long-lived greenhouse gases (GHGs) have inflicted severe damage on the ocean, primarily by increasing ocean heat content. This warming has triggered widespread ecosystem disruption, including extensive bleaching of coral reefs worldwide (United Nations Second World Ocean Assessment, 2021). Rising ocean temperatures also drive sea level rise, mainly through the accelerated melting of ice sheets. Compounding the problem, human-caused GHGs contribute to thermal expansion of the ocean—as the ocean absorbs heat, water temperatures rise and seawater expands, further elevating global sea levels. Another devastating consequence is ocean acidification, where increased CO2 absorption lowers open ocean pH (Heinze et al., 2015). This process threatens marine biodiversity, risking losses across a broad spectrum of species (Widdicombe et al., 2023). Both the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, 2025) have assessed state of oceans as devastating (e.g., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019; IPBES, 2019; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2025), with climate change accelerating ocean warming, acidification and deoxygenation. These changes also devastate fisheries, tourism, and other marine-dependent industries, threatening the livelihoods of coastal economies, communities and nations that rely on ocean resources.

1.1 International ocean governance framework

The primary framework governing protection of the marine environment is the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) that was established as the first comprehensive, legally binding global treaty for ocean governance. With over 300 articles, UNCLOS provides provisions for delineation rules, and it defines rights and obligations of States, ensuring a balanced approach to resource use and environmental protection, providing the basis for national, regional and global action and cooperation. UNCLOS is supported by Implementing Agreements that operationalise its provisions, including the 1994 Agreement on Part XI UNCLOS, the UN Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA), and the Agreement under UNCLOS on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ Agreement) that entered into force in 2026. A number of bodies are identified as competent organizations under UNCLOS for the purpose of regulating specific activities in oceans, including: International Maritime Organization (IMO) for international shipping; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) for living marine resources; UN Environment Programme (UNEP), Regional Sea Conventions (RSCs) and Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) for conservation and sustainable use of the marine environment, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS); Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO for scientific research; and International Whaling Commission (IWC). As an example of recent developments, the 2023 IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships provides a framework to establish ambitious emissions reduction targets and guiding principles for the shipping sector. Furthermore, the IMO Net-Zero Framework was approved by the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) in 2025, introducing mandatory emissions limits and a GHG pricing across the entire industry sector.

UNCLOS remains the cornerstone of sustainable and equitable ocean planning and management, emphasizing the interconnected nature of ocean challenges, advocating for an integrated, holistic governance approach. It is supplemented by global, regional, and sectoral instruments, ensuring comprehensive regulation of marine activities. These include the Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)—a legally binding international treaty on climate change, and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) of the CBD, with targets for countries. Obligations and requirements set forth by these international treaties collectively guide actions and development in marine and coastal areas. The Paris Agreement, for example, contains ocean-based measures in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) (UNFCCC, 2023), the Ocean under the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA), and the Ocean and Climate Change Dialogue for building ocean-based climate action, needs, and opportunities (UNFCCC, 2024a). The CBD in 2022 delivered the GBF that sets out a pathway with 23 targets for 2030 and 4 goals for 2050, with implications for marine areas. Additionally, the sustainability conferences (e.g., the Rio Earth Summit) delivered the non-binding action plans, i.e., the Agenda 21, the Millennium Declaration, and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG14 to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. The UN Ocean Conferences, including the 2025 Third UN Ocean Conference (UNOC3), emphasize the need to harness the interconnected relationships between the ocean, climate, and biodiversity.

The recent advisory opinions issued by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS, 2024) and the International Court of Justice (ICJ, 2025) reaffirm the legal obligation of States to protect the marine environment from anthropogenic GHG emissions. The ITLOS Advisory Opinion on Climate Change has unequivocally classified anthropogenic GHG emissions into the atmosphere as pollution of the marine environment, as defined under Article 1(1)(4) of UNCLOS. In its opinion, ITLOS clarified that States Parties to the UNCLOS must take all necessary measures to prevent GHG emissions under their jurisdiction or control from causing transboundary harm or environmental damage. This obligation extends to ensuring that pollution from such emissions does not spread beyond areas where they exercise sovereign rights, reflecting a duty of due diligence. ITLOS also explicitly rejected the application of lex specialis between UNCLOS and the Paris Agreement, emphasizing that compliance with one framework does not automatically fulfill obligations under the other (ITLOS, 2024). The ICJ echoed this stance, underscoring that States are obligated to reduce and control pollution proactively, with the ultimate goal of preventing its occurrence entirely (ICJ, 2025).

At the regional level, the European Commission is advancing the Ocean Act for the European Union (European Ocean Pact, 2025, 281). This landmark legislative initiative consolidates all ocean-related targets, including climate action, into a single framework. Its purpose is to enhance cross-sectoral coordination, promote a structured sea basin approach, and strengthen the coherence and effectiveness of maritime governance. By serving as a central reference point for economic, climate, environmental, and social objectives, the Ocean Act aims to ensure the sustainable use and protection of ocean resources and services (European Parliament, 2025).

1.2 Methodology

Given the preparatory phase of the European Ocean Act and ongoing EU policy processes related to marine and coastal areas, such as a Call for Evidence for the European Commission (2026), Call for Evidence for a new strategy for coastal communities (2026), or ongoing revisions of marine-related EU directives, this paper uses Europe as a strategic lens to examine broader international ocean governance. Focusing on ocean-based climate action, it explores how the international ocean governance framework influences maritime planning and climate innovation, both technologically and governance-wise. To illustrate these dynamics, the paper presents two case studies: (i) Accelerating technological innovation for climate mitigation in the North Sea basin, (ii) Innovative resilience-building for climate adaptation in Malta, a small island state. These cases were selected for their explicit efforts in achieving the ambitious EU climate goals. Key selection criteria included compliance with UN governance frameworks, the development of pioneering approaches, and their transferability to other contexts. They also serve as good practices for the forthcoming European Ocean Act.

In the following sections, issuance of the EU policies and two case studies are outlined, followed by a discussion that transitions from the specific cases to the broader regional context of the EU. While the case studies are not designed for direct comparison due to their distinct focuses, i.e., climate mitigation in a sea basin (North Sea) and climate adaptation in a small island state (Malta), some of their aspects can be compared, particularly in areas like multi-level and cross-sectoral planning. Primarily, these cases serve as demonstrative examples of concerted action toward the EU's climate goals across different sea basins. They also illustrate approaches that the EU could adopt through the European Ocean Act. As a perspective article, this paper goes beyond policy advocacy, offering expert synthesis and practice-based reflections informed by professional involvement. It draws on conceptual insights from the two cases but does not provide empirical evidence for broader causal or comparative conclusions.

2 Issuance of the European strategies and approaches

The EU is a leading advocate for a robust rules-based international ocean governance framework. This commitment is articulated in the 2022 Communication on International Ocean Governance (European Commission, 2022a) and reaffirmed in the Ocean Pact's priority area of ‘international ocean governance and reinforced ocean diplomacy' (European Commission, 2025a,b,c). The EU's actions align with these communications, ensuring coherence with global standards. The EU also plays an active role in UN ocean negotiations, including the BBNJ Agreement, and integrates their outcomes into its policies.

One keyway the EU strengthens international ocean governance is through the alignment of its policies with the International Ocean Governance framework, as demonstrated by numerous references in EU directives and strategies (Table 1). The European Green Deal (European Commission, 2020), closely aligned with global governance principles, provides a strategic framework for biodiversity, climate action, and pollution reduction. Complementing this, the Integrated Maritime Policy (European Commission Integrated Maritime Policy, 2007) promotes a cohesive approach to EU maritime policies, supported by legislative initiatives, such as the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (European Commission Marine Strategy Framework Directive, 2008), the (European Commission EU Blue Growth Strategy 2012), and the (European Commission Maritime Spatial Planning Directive 2014). The EGD's broader strategies, including the 2030 Climate Target Plan, EU Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, Zero Pollution Action Plan, and Sustainable Blue Economy Strategy, further reflect this alignment with international frameworks, reinforcing compliance (Boteler et al., 2024). Policies like the Offshore Renewable Energy Strategy, Biodiversity Strategy, and (European Commission Nature Restoration Law/Regulation 2024) align with global agreements such as the Paris Agreement and the GBF, guiding MSP and innovation to advance a sustainable blue economy. This includes accelerating technological progress, particularly in offshore wind energy and multi-use solutions, while fostering resilience as dependence on marine and coastal areas grows (European Commission European Climate, Enet, 2023; European Commission, Enet, 2022; European Commission European Climate, Enet, 2024; EU Blue Economy Report, 2025; UNESCO-IOC UN Global Compact, 2025).

Table 1. Examples of EU policy areas related to the topic of oceans, compliant with UN governance.

EU Ocean policy areasUN international ocean governance compliance
Climate and Energy European Climate Law (2021/1119) – Focused on climate mitigation, and it acknowledges adaptation as a crucial element of the long-term global response to climate change. EU offshore renewable energy strategy – Climate-neutrality in the EU by 2050 – Countries cooperate on goals for offshore renewable generation to be deployed within each sea basin•Supports UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water) by promoting sustainable offshore energy while minimizing environmental impact, and the Paris Agreement. •Sets targets for 60 GW of offshore wind capacity by 2030 and 300 GW by 2050, aligning with the UN's call for renewable energy expansion and climate action—the Paris Agreement. •Emphasizes ecosystem-based management and marine spatial planning, reflecting the UN's precautionary principle and integrated ocean management approaches.
Climate Resilience EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change (2021) (COM/2021/82) – Sets out the pathway to adapt the EU to the impacts of climate change and become climate resilient by 2050. – Objective is to strengthen climate resilience globally.•It aligns with SDG13 and the UNFCCC Global Goal on Adaptation by improving knowledge of climate impacts and adaptation solutions, stepping up adaptation planning and climate risk assessments, accelerating adaptation action, and helping to strengthen climate resilience. •Aligns with the UNFCCC Paris Agreement and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. •Requires Member States to integrate climate adaptation into MSP and coastal management, reflecting the UN's call for climate-resilient development. •Promotes nature-based solutions for coastal protection, in line with UN guidance on ecosystem-based adaptation.
Marine Environment EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) (2008/56/EC) – Achieve Good Environmental Status (GES) of marine waters by 2020 – Monitor and assess bathing water•Implements the ecosystem approach advocated by the UNCLOS and SDG 14. •Requires Member States to achieve Good Environmental Status (GES) for EU marine waters by 2020 (with ongoing updates), aligning with the UN's precautionary and ecosystem-based management principles. •Addresses marine litter, underwater noise, and biodiversity loss, reflecting priorities under the CBD.
Biodiversity and Fisheries EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030 (COM/2020/380) – Restore at least 30%of the EU degraded sea areas by 2030, all ecosystems in need of restoration by 2050. – An extensive and ambitious long-term plan designed to safeguard nature and reverse the deterioration of ecosystems.•Supports SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and SDG 15 (Life on Land), as well as the UN CBD and GBF. •Commits to protecting 30% of EU seas as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) by 2030, aligning with the UN's 30x30 target for biodiversity conservation. •Integrates nature restoration targets for marine ecosystems, mirroring the UN's ecosystem restoration priorities. •Promotes sustainable fisheries management, in line with the UN Fish Stocks Agreement and FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.
EU Nature Restoration Law (2024) – Establishes binding targets to restore degraded ecosystems, especially those with the greatest potential to prevent and reduce the impact of climate and natural disasters. – National Restoration Plans by mid-2026 EU habitats and birds directive•Aligns with SDG 14.2 (Sustainably manage and protect marine ecosystems) and the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030). •Legally binds EU Member States to restore degraded marine habitats, including seagrass beds, coral reefs, and wetlands. •Requires measurable restoration targets for coastal and marine ecosystems, supporting the UN's call for science-based conservation. •Addresses ocean acidification and deoxygenation, key concerns under the UN Ocean Science Decade.
EU Habitats and Birds Directive – Establishes the Natura 2000 network of protected sites, the world's largest coordinated network of protected areas, including marine sites—the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs).•Supports SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and SDG 15 (Life on Land) by protecting marine and coastal biodiversity. •Aligns with the UN CBD and Aichi Biodiversity Targets. •Requires Member States to maintain or restore habitats and species, reflecting the UN's call for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.
EU common fisheries policy (CFP) – Ensure conservation of marine biological resources and management of fisheries – Achieve the goals of the CFP•Supports SDG 14.4 (End overfishing) and the UN Fish Stocks Agreement. •Implements maximum sustainable yield (MSY) targets to prevent overfishing, in line with FAO guidelines. •Promotes regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs), aligning with the UN's call for international cooperation in fisheries governance.
Pact for fisheries and oceans – Includes implementation reports on fisheries policy and action plans – It proposes a list of actions aimed at making fishing practices more sustainable – One action plan addresses the energy transition in the fisheries and aquaculture sector. – The other action plan -the marine action plan- aims to achieve more coherent implementation of EU environmental and fisheries policies, while contributing to the objective of protecting 30 % of EU marine waters by 2030
Shipping EU shipping and maritime transport policies – Shore-side electricity supply for certain vessels – Inventory of hazardous materials—EU list of ship recycling facilities – Maximum limits for yearly average GHG intensity of energy used by ships – Passenger and container ships to use onshore power supply (OPS) or alternative zero-emission technologies•Supports SDG 13 (Climate Action) and the IMO's 2023 Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships. •EU MRV Regulation (Monitoring, Reporting, Verification of CO2 emissions from ships): Aligns with the IMO Data Collection System, ensuring transparency in maritime emissions. •FuelEU Maritime Initiative: Mandates the use of low-carbon fuels in shipping, supporting the IMO's 2050 net-zero target. •EU Port Reception Facilities Directive: Reduces marine pollution by improving waste management in ports, in line with the IMO's MARPOL Convention.
Land and Sea EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) – Aims at achieving a good ecological status in all waterbodies through the establishment of long-term sustainable water management and high level of protection of an aquatic environment. – Establishes River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) and Programmes of Measures to achieve good chemical and ecological status – Aims to reduce and monitor water pollution caused by nitrates used in agriculture•Supports SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water) by ensuring good ecological status of all water bodies, including coastal and transitional waters. •Aligns with the UN Water Action Decade and the Global Water Partnership principles. •Sets binding targets for water quality, including marine waters, and requires integrated river basin management plans. •Promotes cross-border cooperation, reflecting the UN's call for transboundary water management.
EU Flood Directive (2007/60/EC) – The Directive aims at reducing and managing the floods risks for human health, environment, cultural heritage and economic activity. •It includes a requirement for Member States to assess the flood risk within their territory and to include the impacts of climate change in their flood risk management plans, including coastal floods.•Supports SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) and SDG 13 (Climate Action) by reducing flood risks in coastal and inland areas. •Aligns with the UN Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). •Encourages nature-based solutions and ecosystem-based approaches, in line with UN guidance.
EU Recommendation concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in Europe (2002/413/EC) – creates a framework to help the Member States develop a strategic approach for ICZM – Eight principles are established for good ICZM, targeting especially long-term approach, precautionary principles and working with natural processes and respecting the carrying capacity of ecosystems.•Supports SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and the UN's Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) guidelines. •Aligns with the UN Ocean Conference outcomes and the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. •Encourages Member States to adopt ICZM strategies, balancing economic, social, and environmental objectives. •Promotes stakeholder participation and cross-sectoral coordination, reflecting the UN's call for inclusive ocean governance.
European Water Resilience Strategy (COM/2025/280 final) – Sets out a comprehensive plan to ensure Europe's water security and resilience in the face of climate change. – Focuses on three main objectives: restoring and protecting the water cycle to guarantee sustainable water supply, building a water-smart economy that supports EU competitiveness and innovation, and securing clean, affordable water and sanitation for all citizens.•Supports SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 13 (Climate Action) by enhancing water resilience in the face of climate change. •Aligns with the UN Water Action Agenda and the Paris Agreement. •Focuses on drought and flood resilience, including for coastal and marine environments. •Promotes circular water use and nature-based solutions, in line with UN recommendations.
Cross-sectoral Integrated Ocean Management EU Integrated Maritime Policy (European Commission Integrated Maritime Policy, 2007) – communication, represented a first step toward a coherent approach to all EU maritime policies. It led to a series of legislative and non-legislative initiatives•Reflects the UN's Integrated Ocean Management approach, emphasizing cross-sectoral coordination. •Encourages marine spatial planning (MSP) and blue economy strategies, supporting the UN's Ocean Governance Framework. •Facilitates stakeholder engagement and science-policy interfaces, key elements of the UN Ocean Conference outcomes.
EU (European Commission EU Blue Growth Strategy, 2012) EU new approach for a sustainable blue economy in the EU (2021) – Includes actions to make the blue economy more sustainable, such as greening maritime transport, supporting circularity and sustainability in coastal tourism, and promoting nature-based solutions to protect coastlines against rising sea levels•Reflects the UN's Integrated Ocean Management approach, emphasizing cross-sectoral coordination. •Encourages blue economy strategies, supporting the UN's Ocean Governance Framework. •Supports SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 14 (Life Below Water). •Aligns with the UN's Blue Economy Initiative and the Ocean Panel's Sustainable Ocean Economy. •Promotes innovation and digitalization in the blue economy, reflecting the UN's call for sustainable ocean-based industries.
EU Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) Directive (2014/89/EU) – To plan for the use of their maritime spaces in an ecosystem-based approach. – Requires Member States to develop maritime spatial plans by 2021, ensuring sustainable use of marine resources.•Supports SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and the UN's Integrated Ocean Management principles. •Aligns with UNCLOS and the UN's Ocean Science Decade. •Promotes cross-border cooperation and ecosystem-based management, in line with UN guidance.
EU marine and maritime research strategy – Recognizes the importance of research in reconciling sustainable growth in the blue economy with marine conservation. – Funds research on marine biodiversity, climate adaptation, and sustainable blue economy.•Supports SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and the UN's Ocean Science Decade. •Aligns with the UN's Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and the UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) •Promotes international collaboration, reflecting the UN's call for global ocean science partnerships.

The list is inexhaustive. (Source: own based on EU sources, including European MSP Platform, Climate-ADAPT, 2025).

By implementing EU law, Member States automatically align with the international ocean governance principles, as these principles are embedded in EU directives and regulations. The EU further reinforces transparency, accountability, and compliance by submitting progress reports to the UN, such as those on SDG 14 indicators. Beyond mere alignment, the EU's maritime policies actively advance the UN's International Ocean Governance. Through legally binding directives, comprehensive strategies, and robust laws, the EU ensures that its Member States aim at achieving global ocean sustainability goals.

The EU's priorities for the upcoming 5-year institutional cycle, as outlined in the 2024–2029 European Council's Strategic Agenda, emphasize the commitment to “protect nature and reverse the degradation of ecosystems, including oceans.” To achieve this, the proposed European Ocean Pact focuses on two core objectives: boosting the blue economy and ensuring the good governance and sustainability of oceans across all dimensions. The Pact underscores the need for a cohesive governance framework to harmonize ocean-related policies at the EU, national, regional, and local levels. Central to this effort is the European Ocean Act, a legislative proposal aimed at revising MSP Directive that provides a common framework for EU Member States to organize the use of marine waters under their jurisdiction, with the primary goal of promoting sustainable development, encompassing all economic sectors related to oceans, seas, and coasts, while minimizing conflicts among competing interests. After more than a decade of implementation, and valuable lessons learned, the directive is now being revised. A key takeaway from this European MSP experience has been the necessity to integrate evolving technologies and adaptive governance approaches, ensuring that MSP supports the ambitious strategies outlined in the EU policy.

3 Case study 1: The North Sea basin

The EU is committed to achieving climate neutrality by 2050 and fulfilling the Paris Agreement, through ambitious climate mitigation and adaptation strategies. The energy transition, a cornerstone of the European Green Deal, REPowerEU Plan and Clean Industrial Deal, seeks to revolutionize Europe's energy landscape by cutting greenhouse gas emissions and driving innovation. Yet, as the Triple Planetary Crisis -climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution- intensifies, MSP has become pivotal for reconciling the expansion of renewable and sustainable maritime industries with the urgent need to safeguard fragile marine ecosystems (European MSP Platform; European Parliament, 2026; UNESCO-IOC European Commission, 2025a,b, 2021; European Commission, Enet, 2022; Jay et al., 2013; Zaucha and Gee, 2019). Through the European Ocean Pact, the EU pledges to strengthen sustainable blue economy sectors while advancing its energy and climate objectives. To meet these goals, EU Member States must deploy over 300 GW of offshore wind energy by 2050, with the North Sea basin leading by hosting 28 GW of operational offshore wind and pioneering hydrogen and carbon capture pilots (Wind Europe, 2025; Ostend Declaration of Energy Ministers on The North Seas as Europe's Green Power Plant, 2023; European MSP Platform—European Commission European Climate, Enet, 2023; European Commission, Enet, 2022).

To accommodate this massive expansion of offshore renewables, Member States must rapidly scale up emerging sectors, grid infrastructure, and supporting systems—all within marine and coastal areas already strained by shipping, tourism, fishing, and competing uses (Kusters et al., 2025, 2026; EU Blue Economy Report, 2025; EUCC – Coastal Marine, 2025; EUCC, 2025a,b). This intensifying congestion demands enhanced regional cooperation and innovative solutions to address spatial constraints and ensure harmonious co-existence among blue economy sectors (North Sea Energy, 2025). While the North Sea already has significant offshore wind energy capacity planned or under development, achieving long-term objectives will require substantial additional space considering spatial constraints like wake effects from wind farms, dense shipping routes, marine aggregate extraction, and protected conservation areas (Keijser et al., 2025; Waldman et al., 2026). To address these challenges, numerous initiatives are underway, including multi-use pilots (European MSP Platform—Multi-use Compendium), innovations (Van Gerven et al., 2025; European MSP Platform—European Commission European Climate, Enet, 2024), governance frameworks, and collaborative platforms such as the North Sea Energy Cooperation (NSEC), Greater North Sea Basin Initiative, North Seas MSP Collaboration Group, North Sea Shipping Group, International Council for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES) Working Groups, OSPAR Commission and HELCOM-VASAB (Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea), which attempt to manage trade-offs and ensure cross-border coherence in the region (Kusters et al., 2026).

Countries integrate offshore wind energy planning within MSP, covering offshore site development, investigations, suitability assessments, approvals, and operational monitoring, such as Germany's approach (BSH, 2025). However, competing sectoral demands risk over-allocating marine space, forcing difficult trade-offs between climate mitigation, biodiversity protection, and navigation (Kusters et al., 2025; UNESCO-IOC UN Global Compact, 2025). Shipping safety is central to the North Sea MSPs, while the rapid expansion of wind farms threatens to reduce maneuvering space and increase traffic density. Balancing international shipping freedoms under UNCLOS with safe navigation for all users is critical with proactive risk management and adaptive planning. To mitigate cumulative risks, the Netherlands and other countries in the region apply Formal Safety Assessments (FSA) (Noordzeeloket, 2025), guided by IMO standards, and supported by modeling tools like the Safety Assessment Models for Shipping and Offshore in the North Sea (MARIN, 2025).

The region is advancing comprehensive, whole-system MSP to optimize marine space and balance competing demands, with cross-border knowledge and technology sharing across the basin for building capacity for climate-smart planning (UNESCO-IOC and European Commission, 2025a,b; Kusters et al., 2025; Zaucha et al., 2025; European Commission European Climate, Enet, 2024). Efforts to strengthen cross-sectoral cooperation through policy alignment, digitalisation, and standardized practices, are accelerating. Data systems, stakeholder engagement, and cross-border data harmonization are improving to support data-driven MSP and sustainable ocean management. Key recommendations emerge from international initiatives, such as UNESCO-IOC (e.g., the UN Decade of Ocean Science) and the UN Global Compact's Ocean Stewardship Coalition (e.g., the Ocean Stewardship Coalition's working group “Ocean Business Leadership for Sustainable Ocean Management: Offshore Renewables and Sustainable Ocean Planning”—UN Global Compact Ocean Stewardship Coalition, 2021a,b, 2023, 2024, 2025), which promote sustainable ocean planning. In Europe, Digital Twin technology and emerging tools are enhancing evidence-based MSP, which is critical for achieving the offshore wind target, alongside multi-use integration and exclusion zones, that will require studying diverse scenarios and areas to ensure robust, adaptive planning.

4 Case study 2: The Maltese Islands

The Mediterranean Action Plan of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP/MAP) and the Barcelona Convention, including its Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Protocol, establish a robust multilateral legal framework to safeguard the Mediterranean's marine and coastal environments while promoting the sustainable use of its resources. Key instruments include the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD), the Regional Climate Change Adaptation Framework for Marine and Coastal Areas (RCCAF), and the Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean. As a Small Island State highly vulnerable to climate risks and environmental degradation, Malta actively upholds these regional instruments, alongside global frameworks like UNCLOS -to clarify jurisdiction and responsibilities- and aligns with EU directives and strategies. Its vast marine area, significantly larger than its land territory, presents significant opportunities for development. For example, Malta's government is driving the development of offshore renewable energy to achieve a climate-neutral island by 2050 (Energy Water Agency, 2024). The integration of ICZM into Malta's terrestrial planning process has further expanded, successfully leveraging MSP as a coordination tool, requiring both legal clarity and institutional capacity (Bocci et al., 2024). Since adopting MSP, Malta has developed sectoral plans for aquaculture, fisheries, and offshore renewable energy, while contributing to climate-smart MSP initiatives at the EU level and the Conceptual Framework for MSP by the Priority Actions Programme Regional Activity Center (PAP/RAC) of the ICZM Protocol (PAP/RAC, 2008). Its active participation in regional forums and projects further strengthens its commitment to sustainable governance of the Small Islands.

As the islands highly vulnerable to climate risks, with impacts spanning socio-economic and ecosystem sectors (European Environment Agency, 2025; Galdies and Galdies, 2024; Galdies, 2022; UNFCCC, 2022; Jahan et al., 2022; Malta Low Carbon Development Strategy, 2021; Malta National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2012), the Maltese national government, supported by international experts, has developed resilience-building approaches for embedding climate action across its multi-level planning landscape (Climate-MATCH, 2026a). These efforts, integrated into multi-sectoral frameworks, were designed to be aligned with the goals of the Paris Agreement and its Global Goal on Adaptation, and with the regional instruments. Developed between 2024 and 2026 under the Climate-MATCH initiative “Mainstreaming of Climate Adaptation for Horizontal Coordination,” Malta's three-tier climate resilience framework delivered a coordinated approach, integrating policy, shared risk data, and asset-level assessments into a broad set of guidelines and tools to enhance cross-sectoral coordination and collaborative management of climate risks (Climate-MATCH, 2026a). At the national level, Malta's Umbrella Framework for Climate Change Adaptation Policy and Planning is a national tool to support the coherent integration of climate action across ministries and entities, fostering coherence, coordination, collaboration, and cooperation to reinforce a “whole-of-government” approach (Climate-MATCH, 2026b,c). Grounded in detailed analyses of national context, policies, and sectoral climate risks, and shaped by extensive consultations in Malta, the Umbrella Framework aims to drive transformational adaptation. It integrates multisectoral, multiscale resilience-building, context specificity, diverse knowledge systems, and sustained action through a structured, iterative adaptation policy cycle, guiding sectoral and cross-sectoral climate responses. The framework is scalable, transferable, and adaptable, allowing customization for diverse climate risks and sectors to meet specific needs in climate risk management and resilience-building.

5 Discussion

International ocean governance now stands at a critical juncture, bridging environmental protection, climate action, energy, transport, research, and global cooperation. Yet, the accelerating impacts of climate change are straining both vulnerable oceans and the international legal architecture of the sea itself. The Climate-Ocean Nexus considerations and climate-smart planning are rapidly emerging as central pillars within the law of the sea and broader ocean governance. Recent global forums, including the Third United Nations Ocean Conference Nice (2025); UNFCCC Ocean Climate Change Dialogue (2024, 2025), are pushing for greater synergy to overcome fragmented governance and sectoral silos. Key developments, such as the advisory opinions from ITLOS and the ICJ, alongside the momentum of the BBNJ process, are not only reinforcing the coherence and effectiveness of international ocean law but also catalyzing technological innovation in ocean-based climate solutions. Together, these shifts hold transformative potential for both governance and action.

The North Sea case study reveals how rapid advances in climate-smart technologies, new maritime activities, and climate-driven interventions are testing and expanding the capacity of national and transboundary rules to withstand the pressures of a global environmental crisis. Emerging infrastructure, such as energy hubs, offshore storage, hydrogen production, meshed grids, and interconnector cables, underscores the need for strategic, integrated management to balance competing spatial demands over the long term (European Commission European Climate, Enet, 2024; European Commission, Enet, 2022). With offshore renewable energy infrastructure set to surge by 2050 and the parallel goal of protecting 30% of marine habitats by 2030, policymakers and decision-makers must deploy a diverse toolkit of conflict resolution strategies tailored to institutional capacities. The North Sea experience shows that spatial conflicts can be addressed through a multifaceted approach: not only by designating protected areas in MSP or promoting multi-use and ecosystem-based management, but also by integrating spatial, technical, logistical, and financial solutions at the project level within permitting procedures to minimize and mitigate conflicts (Kusters et al., 2025; Waldman et al., 2026).

MSP can advance both climate adaptation and mitigation, however, European efforts have primarily focused on mitigation, especially the expansion of offshore renewable energy (Zaucha et al., 2025; European Commission European Climate, Enet, 2024). It stems primarily from the fact that effective climate adaptation demands highly localized, high-resolution data and assessments on climate impacts—data that are often still lacking in reliability or detail. For instance, acute climate hazards (such as extreme weather events and storm surges) and chronic hazards (like sea level rise and coastal erosion) require detailed risk assessments not only for the physical environment but also for coastal heritage, infrastructure, and other offshore assets. These assessments are essential for identifying vulnerabilities and shaping targeted adaptation strategies. Similarly, shifting habitats and species compositions, driven by temperature changes and acidification, pose significant challenges for aquaculture, fisheries, and conservation. However, the timing, location, and extent of these changes remain uncertain, including the scale of species migration, the emergence of new fisheries targets, and the most effective adaptive responses. As a result, climate adaptation in MSP is currently limited, often confined to coastal protection, and sometimes linked to sea level rise.

While progress has been made, the UNFCCC and IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014, 2023) emphasize that far greater, transformative action, integrating climate resilience with low-emission development, is urgently required across all sectors to meet the sustainable development goals. Malta is one of the few EU countries explicitly integrating MSP with climate adaptation strategies. Its National Umbrella Framework for Climate Change Adaptation also exemplifies this shift, adopting a system-wide, transformative approach that spans policy, technology, and society to anticipate and mitigate climate impacts at different spatial scales and sectors (Climate-MATCH, 2026b,c). Transformation applies to climate adaptation and mitigation with actionable criteria and social dimensions, including changes in social, technological and environmental systems (UNFCCC, 2024b; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2023; UNFCCC, 2020).

As illustrated by Malta's national adaptation framework, transformative change requires systemic shifts that make systems more adaptive, resilient, and innovative. This goes beyond technological solutions, demanding integrated approaches that address social, economic, and governance dimensions. Effective climate action planning must foster both horizontal and vertical collaboration, creating synergistic strategies that evolve alongside emerging climate challenges. Given the cross-sectoral nature of climate change, its impacts often cascade and compound, amplifying risks across sectors. A systemic, cross-sectoral perspective enables decision-makers to anticipate indirect effects and plan for holistic risk management. At the same time for MSP, climate change remains one of the most urgent yet under addressed practical challenges. Planners cite uncertainty about climate impacts as their greatest obstacle (Zaucha et al., 2025), underscoring the need for MSP to be an adaptive, flexible process, incorporating new scientific insights as they emerge. In this context, systemic integration of climate law and the law of the sea is critical, especially in regions like the Greater North Sea, where long-term, transboundary collaboration is essential for smart, sustainable sea use.

While the European Ocean Pact acknowledges the pressing challenges of climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution on Europe's oceans and seas, effective implementation demands coherence, scientific legitimacy, and long-term strategic direction. The EU's ongoing reforms, including revisions of the MSP Directive and the MSFD, seek to fulfill the ambitions of the Ocean Pact through the forthcoming Ocean Act. This process offers a historic opportunity to transform Europe's ocean governance into a coherent and strategically anchored framework, with strengthened governance architecture for ocean affairs and modernized planning and management in marine and coastal areas. A key focus of modernized MSP is integrating climate trends (climate change impacts and implications for planning), considerations (ocean-based technologies and innovations), and aligning with climate-smart MSP principles (UNESCO-IOC European Commission, 2025a; European MSP Platform—European Commission European Climate, Enet, 2024; European Maritime Spatial Planning Platform, 2025a,b; Climate-MATCH, 2026c). Scaling pilot initiatives for climate-smart technologies and approaches is essential to mainstream their adoption and maximize impact. To effectively address future effects and uses of the seas under the upcoming European Ocean Act, MSP must evolve to integrate both climate mitigation and adaptation, ensuring alignment with climate trends, technological advancements, and international governance. Climate-smart MSP is a cornerstone for delivering on the Pact's six priorities, making its effective implementation critical for Europe's resilient and sustainable future.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Adriana Vella, University of Malta, Malta

Reviewed by: Oscar Julian Esteban Cantillo, UMR8129 Institut Jean Nicod, France

Jian Chen, University College London, United Kingdom

Statements

Conflict of interest

PE was employed by Aktis Hydraulics that served as a subcontractor in the European Commission's SG REFORM TSI project ‘Climate-MATCH: Mainstreaming of Climate Adaptation for Horizontal Coordination' (TSI-2023-COMMONCOAST 101145916), and in the European Commission's DG MARE/CINEA initiative European Maritime Spatial Planning Assistance Mechanism/European MSP Platform.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The authors declare that this work received open access publication funding from the Environment and Resources Authority (ERA) Malta, Malta Enterprise and the Parliamentary Secretariat for Youth, Research and innovation of the Government of Malta as support to promote the outputs of the University of Malta UMP's international conference on Marine and Maritime Sustainable Developments: Research and Applications.

Data availability

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

PE: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Acknowledgements

The article draws on the author's firsthand experience with the implementation of the European MSP Assistance Mechanism, the European MSP Platform and the European Blue Forum, as the MSP North Sea focal point including the studies: “Future uses/needs of the seas: Integration of climate-smart trends and new technologies in maritime spatial planning” (European Commission, European Climate, Infrastructure and Environment Executive Agency, P.Enet, 2024, ISBN 978-92-9405-146-2, doi: 10.2926/8586762), “The Implications of the Ocean Governance Framework established by the United Nations for the Implementation of the EU MSP Directive” (European Commission, P.Enet, 2022, ISBN 978-92-95225-50-3, doi: 10.2926/135072), and the workshop she organized between the UN Secretariats and EU Member States on “Aligning the Implementation of the EU Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) Directive with the United Nations Ocean Governance Framework” (2026). The European MSP Assistance Mechanism, the European MSP Platform and the European Blue Forum are financed under the European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund (EMFAF). The European MSP Platform is a result of the MSP Assistance Mechanism implemented by the European Climate, Infrastructure and Environment Executive Agency (CINEA) on behalf of the Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (DG MARE) of the European Commission. Furthermore, the article reflects the author's direct experience implementing the projects of the European Commission's Technical Support Instrument (TSI) in cooperation with the European Commission's Reform and Investment Task Force (SG REFORM): TSI project “Developing a National Coastal Protection Strategy for the Maltese Islands” (2021–2023) following request from the Department for Public Works (PWD) and Malta Tourism Authority (MTA); and TSI project “Climate-MATCH: Mainstreaming of Climate Adaptation for Horizontal Coordination” (2024–2026) following request from the Ministry for the Environment, Energy, and Public Cleanliness (MEEC) and the Public Works Department (PWD) of the Ministry for Transport, Infrastructure and Public Works (MTIP) in Malta (TSI-2023-COMMONCOAST 101145916). The author led the development of the National Umbrella Framework for Climate Change Adaptation Policy and Planning (CAPPING national component) to strengthen coordination across sectors for collaborative management of climate change risks.

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Citation

Enet, P. (2026). International ocean governance framework shaping European maritime planning and innovations for sustainable blue economy and climate resilience. Frontiers in Ocean Sustainability, Volume 4. https://doi.org/
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4 - 2026

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Copyright © 2026 Enet.

License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

*Correspondence: Patrycja Enet

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