The effect of effective training on civil servants' productivity in Somaliland: the mediating role of transfer of training

1 Introduction

Effective training has many advantages that increase job happiness, encouragement, promotion, and environmental adaptability of work, as well as diminishing errors, increasing the quality of the job, and fostering compliance with the rules and regulations of the organizations and on the productivity of individual employees (Ghebregiorgis and Negusse, 2022). When there is a discrepancy between the necessary and actual levels of knowledge or skill, training becomes necessary, and training needs assessments identify these gaps and determine the specific training required, tailored to the varying needs of officials at different levels of government (Nor, 2017). Many studies have mentioned the training and effectiveness of the organization have found to enhance the productivity, service quality and customer satisfaction (Alias et al., 2019).

Western countries, training programs are known to improve the effectiveness of public sector operations and the caliber of services rendered (Aldehaim et al., 2025). Education and training develop human capital, enhance individual efficiency, support economic growth, and improve public service effectiveness, particularly in developing countries (Oyelude, 2023). Every year, businesses spend millions of dollars on employee training in an effort to improve human resource development and maintain competitiveness in the global economy (Iqbal and Dastgeer, 2017). Training and development include initiatives that promote coaching, leadership development, career advancement, performance enhancement, personal growth, talent retention, education, and organizational capacity. This ensures that workers have the know-how to function well, particularly in emergencies (Rishi et al., 2024).

Organizations invest significantly in employee training each year, viewing employee development as a means of organizational growth (De Jong et al., 2025). Providing employees with training improves their knowledge, skills, and competencies, which supports the attainment of organizational objectives while increasing workforce efficiency and the standard of services delivered to citizens (Atunga and Ng'eno, 2022; Nor, 2025). Although training is meant to give workers knowledge and abilities that they can use on a daily basis; in order to create a competitive edge, its scope must go beyond simple skill development (Aljamili and Ozyesil, 2021). Training is widely regarded as crucial for developing and sustaining an effective workforce, enhancing organizational performance, and providing competitive advantages (Saks and Burke-Smalley, 2014).

Training enables employees to translate their formal education into practical skills, boosting workforce productivity, and can be delivered either within the workplace or through external programs (Urbancová et al., 2021). Manpower training serves as a critical organizational driver, forming the backbone of an organization's survival and its growth. As one of the most effective means of improving employee productivity, the training process also plays a vital role in aligning staff with organizational goals and ensuring these objectives are clearly communicated across the workforce (Ozioma Obi-Anike and Ekwe, 2014). Employees must successfully apply and transfer the knowledge and skills they have learned during training to their on-the-job activities in order to provide a competitive advantage and improve business performance (Saks and Burke-Smalley, 2014).

Human resources represent an organization's most valuable asset; however, their true potential is realized only when they are effectively trained and their skills are continuously enhanced (Asfaw et al., 2015). With rapid technological advancements, competencies that were once considered less important have now become essential, making it crucial for supervisors to assess employees' abilities and provide the necessary training and development to support their ongoing growth (Hossein Rahmati et al., 2014). Firms that allocate more resources to employee training tend to achieve greater revenue, higher profits, and stronger productivity growth than those that invest less in training (Alias et al., 2019). Training requires sufficient time investment from both parties, as well as the dedication and support of the trainees and their companies, to be successful. However, training needs assessments often reveal that some capacity gaps cannot be addressed through training alone (Nor, 2017).

Training has a major impact on the growth of government institutions and the provision of high-quality services in the public sector. In situations where the legitimacy of the government depends on the confidence and support of the populace, citizen satisfaction is a crucial indicator of its performance (Aldehaim et al., 2025). The effectiveness of any government is closely tied to the productivity of its civil servants, who are the primary actors responsible for implementing policies, delivering services, and ensuring efficient management of public resources. When civil servants perform their duties effectively, government programs are executed as intended, public services are delivered in a timely and reliable manner, and citizens' trust in state institutions is strengthened. Conversely, low productivity among civil servants can result in delays, inefficiencies, and poor service delivery, ultimately hindering the achievement of national development goals. Therefore, enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of civil servants is essential for a government's overall functionality and ability to meet the needs of its people (Adebusoye and Helen, 2023).

Civil service refers to government institutions tasked with administering and implementing laws, regulations, and government decisions and managing the provision of public services (Ghebregiorgis and Negusse, 2022). Civil servants are central to the effective functioning of any government, as no administration can fulfill its responsibilities and commitments to citizens without capable, efficient, and well-functioning public service. Consequently, enhancing public employees' competence is essential for ensuring efficient service delivery (Ismail Nor, 2023). The Somaliland Civil Service Commission was established in 1993 to develop the efficiency of public human resources to deliver services to the community in a better way (Abdi, 2024). Civil service institute has trained more than 5,500 civil servants in short training programs of which 1,865 were females, the purpose was to increase the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of civil servants to provide the services in the citizens through the efficiency and effectiveness (Civil Service Institute, 2022).

Although training and development have been extensively studied in both the public and private sectors worldwide, there remains a notable scarcity of empirical evidence on their impact on Somaliland's civil service. Prior studies have largely focused on the direct relationship between training and employee performance, often overlooking the mediating role of training transfer in enhancing productivity (Saks and Burke-Smalley, 2014; Tonhäuser and Büker, 2016). In Somaliland, despite significant government investment in civil service reforms and the training of over 5,500 civil servants (Civil Service Institute, 2022). There is no systematic evaluation of whether these capacity-building programs translate into improved productivity and service delivery. Earlier research emphasizes broad outcomes such as organizational effectiveness or service quality (Amadi, 2014; Asfaw et al., 2015; Abdi, 2024), but few studies have explicitly examined how training effectiveness, training transfer, and civil servant productivity interact in this context. Therefore, the key research gap lies in the lack of empirical and theoretical studies assessing how training outcomes are applied on the job and how the transfer of training mediates the link between training and productivity in Somaliland's public sector. Addressing this gap will provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of training programs and their role in strengthening government institutions and improving service delivery.

2 Literature review and hypothesis development

2.1 Training effectiveness, transfer of training, and civil servants' productivity

Training effectiveness is a comprehensive concept that considers the situational and contextual factors influencing learning, knowledge retention, and the application of abilities in the workplace. This perspective is essential in determining whether a training program's success or failure is due to the program's design and implementation or to external factors beyond the control of the training system (Nor, 2017). Alias et al. (2019) defined training effectiveness is as the extent to which training initiatives yield the desired results. From a broader perspective, it can be understood as how well training inputs such as program design, participant characteristics, and the work environment to meet participants' needs, accomplish the training objectives, encourage the use of knowledge in the workplace, and generate benefits for both the employees and the organization. Effective training is widely acknowledged to be an essential investment in an organization's people resources, with both immediate and long-term advantages. However, investment alone is insufficient; organizations must strategically manage training programs to maximize returns. Increasing the value of human capital is the main goal of any training and development program (Ozioma Obi-Anike and Ekwe, 2014).

Institutions need training and development to develop their productivity and serve as key strategies for enhancing their performance (Akpalu and Markom, 2022; Amadi, 2014). Organizations often build extensive training in their employees to equip them with essential skills (Dabale et al., 2014). To perform their jobs effectively, training supports professional abilities and competence to encompass the knowledge, skills, and behaviors that are necessary for the duty of responsibility (Hossein Rahmati et al., 2014). Nor (2017) evaluated that training needs assessment practices play a pivotal role in identifying and determining training gaps.

The distinction also lies in the type of training content, namely, whether the focus is on soft or hard skills. Soft-skill training, often classified as open skills, emphasizes personal development and communication abilities, whereas hard-skill training, usually regarded as closed skills, concentrates on acquiring knowledge and mastering specific procedures (De Jong et al., 2025).

Transfer of training is the process through which learned knowledge, skills, and behaviors are applied, generalized, and sustained from the training setting to the actual workplace. For many decades, organizations have faced a transfer of training challenge, with only a small portion of the skills and knowledge gained in training being applied on the job (Saks and Burke-Smalley, 2014). Organizations invest considerable time and resources in training; for example, in 2002, the average U.S. employer spent an estimated 2.2% of payroll on education and training. However, since only 10% to 15% of employee training is usually applied in the workplace, these investments may not always result in increased productivity or abilities (Cromwell and Kolb, 2004).

According to Baldwin and Ford (1988), transfer of training refers to both the generalization of learned knowledge, skills, and behaviors from the training setting to the workplace and the maintenance of these skills over time, indicating how long the training content is applied on the job after program completion. In the different perspectives of definition (Iqbal and Dastgeer, 2017). The degree to which trainees adapt the behaviors, attitudes, information, and abilities they have learned in training to their real-world jobs is known as transfer of training. Investments in training are only worthwhile when the learned knowledge and abilities are regularly and effectively used in actual work settings (Tonhäuser and Büker, 2016).

To ensure that training truly affects job performance, the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) gained must be successfully applied on the job through the transfer of training. Although some studies have evaluated actual employee performance (Wang et al., 2022). Programs for training and development entail direct cash costs, employee training time, planning, and managerial time. Many studies observed in the 1990s that a sizable percentage of training expenditures did not produce the anticipated returns (Urbancová et al., 2021).

As a whole, the evidence of some empirical studies in their aspect, there are many determinants of transfer training, individual, organizational, and training levels findings become strongly positive and consistently related to the training of transfer (Tonhäuser and Büker, 2016). Approximately 170 articles were identified as relevant and classified into three primary categories influencing training transfer: learner characteristics, training intervention design, and work environment. The authors sought to examine, synthesize, and critically evaluate each of these factors based on the findings of the reviewed literature (Burke and Hutchins, 2007; Cheng and Ho, 2001). Training activities conducted before, during, and after the program all significantly influence the transfer of training; However, activities that take place in the workplace prior to and following training have a greater effect on transfer than those that take place during the training (Saks and Belcourt, 2006). The elements of the workplace that trainees believe either facilitate or impede the application of the knowledge, skills, and abilities they learned during training are sometimes referred to as the transfer climate (Cromwell and Kolb, 2004). Support is vital for training transfer, with peers encouraging application through feedback and goal-setting, while supervisors play a more active role by modeling behaviors, reinforcing content, and creating opportunities for skill use (van den Bossche et al., 2010).

Training motivation and motivation transfer are the key elements impacting the training's transfer (Tonhäuser and Büker, 2016). In both developing and industrialized nations, the effectiveness of government performance is assessed through the efficiency and effectiveness of its institutions, which largely depend on the productivity of individual employees (Ghebregiorgis and Negusse, 2022). The effectiveness of government development programs largely depends on civil servants' roles, functions, and positions. Therefore, enhancing their competencies is vital to achieving higher levels of work productivity. In essence, productivity refers to the execution of organizational activities aimed at achieving specific objectives (Fauzia et al., 2020). Productivity is defined as a mindset in which individuals continually strive for personal improvement, believing that today should be better than yesterday and tomorrow should be better than today. A productive mindset is characterized by motivation, discipline, creativity, innovation, dynamism, professionalism, and a persistent drive to succeed (Dwi Praptana and Riyanto, 2020).

The productivity of top-performing employees is measured by their ability to utilize organizational resources and inputs to the fullest (Atunga and Ng'eno, 2022). Work productivity measures the relationship between a company's inputs and outputs and the contribution of its workforce over a given period. In other words, assessing efficiency involves evaluating performance outcomes (Nasir and Syahnur, 2022). Productivity measures how effectively labor, capital, materials, time, and energy are utilized in a process. It plays a vital role in promoting economic growth and competitiveness and provides key statistical data for comparing countries and evaluating national performance (Adebusoye and Helen, 2023).

2.2 Theoretical review

This research integrates Human Capital Theory and Transfer of Training theory to highlight the role of training in improving civil servants' performance and the efficiency of public service delivery. Human capital, which includes an individual's knowledge, abilities, habits, and personal attributes, allows employees to carry out their duties successfully. Through Human Capital Development (HCD), employees can strengthen their current skills, acquire new competencies, and contribute to the provision of effective and high-quality services.

Transfer of Training Theory emphasizes that the benefits of training are realized only when the acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes are effectively applied in the workplace. According to Baldwin and Ford (1988) training alone does not automatically translate into improved job performance or organizational productivity. Instead, the extent of transfer determines whether training leads to meaningful outcomes.

Baldwin and Ford (1988) proposed a model in which three main factors influence the transfer process: trainee characteristics, training design, and the work environment. Trainee characteristics, such as ability, motivation, and self-efficacy, determine the readiness of employees to apply new learning. Training design elements, including relevance, practice, and feedback, ensure that employees are well-prepared to use what they learn in real job settings. Finally, the work environment, particularly supervisor support, peer encouragement, and opportunities to practice, plays a critical role in sustaining and reinforcing the application of training. Dermol and Cater (2013) demonstrated that the impact of training on productivity is mediated by the extent to which employees apply their acquired skills in practice.

In the context of civil service organizations, this theoretical perspective suggests that training interventions will only enhance employee productivity and service delivery when civil servants are motivated, adequately supported, and provided with opportunities to transfer their learning. Hence, this study adopts the transfer of training theory and human capital theory as its guiding framework to explore how training affects the productivity of civil servants.

2.3 Relationship between the effective training and civil servants' productivity

Education and training programs strongly influence the productivity of civil servants. Their impact is greater because they are held more often and are practically useful, even if partly theoretical. Well-designed programs can therefore significantly boost employee productivity (Priatna, 2020). A well-structured education and training program has supported the productivity of civil servants in Indonesia, contributing to the achievement of long-term objectives and development. This aligns with Flippo's theory, which highlights that training and education can enhance the productivity of civil servants and improve human resource management (Rachman et al., 2023). Dwi Praptana and Riyanto (2020) research indicates that productivity is shaped by five factors: abilities, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors. Investing in structured, appropriate, and continuous training initiatives for civil servants improves their personal performance while simultaneously strengthening the overall efficiency and effectiveness of governmental functions (Rachman et al., 2023). Along with work discipline, strong responsibility is essential, as it can enhance productivity in the workplace (Nasir and Syahnur, 2022). Improving administrative productivity requires broad strategies, especially those directed at reducing inefficiency and transforming the ineffective culture within the civil service. As part of its reform efforts, the government has introduced initiatives like civil servant training programs to enhance overall performance. A central objective is to shift the mindset of civil servants toward cultivating a culture that prioritizes quality public service (Taylor, 2011).

According to Fenizia (2022), one standard deviation improvement in managerial talent boosts office productivity by about 10%, mainly because older workers retire earlier when stronger managers take charge, making room for higher overall efficiency.

Organizational productivity relies on the performance of each individual. The organization's success in achieving its goals largely depends on how leaders guide and motivate employees to perform at their best (Nasir and Syahnur, 2022). The issue of productivity has come to occupy center stage in the life of every organization, whether private or public (Adebusoye and Helen, 2023). The study indicates that training alone does not directly boost productivity. Rather, it facilitates the acquisition and interpretation of knowledge, which, when aligned with organizational incentives, can result in cognitive and behavioral changes (Dermol and Cater, 2013). The Nigerian civil service, particularly in Ondo State, suffers from inadequate training, low-skilled and unmotivated employees, and insufficient pay, resulting in indiscipline, absenteeism, and corrupt practices that hinder overall productivity (Adebusoye and Helen, 2023). The labor productivity motivation framework in Iskandar Malaysia emphasizes that effective management, sound construction practices, monetary rewards, ongoing training, and a secure work environment are key strategies that jointly inspire workers and greatly enhance productivity (Fauzia et al., 2020).

H1: Effective training has a significant and positive relationship with the civil service productivity.

2.4 The relationship between the effective training and the role of the transfer of training

The training gained knowledge and was then applied in the job; they ensure the significance of the training, which equipped the knowledge and skills to increase the organizational outcomes and productivity (Iqbal and Dastgeer, 2017). Transfer of training is evidenced by the changes in the knowledge and behavior of the employee and ultimately enhances the organizational performance (Dermol and Cater, 2013). For enterprises to receive a return on their training investments, training transfer is essential. The article highlights that training is only beneficial if the acquired information and abilities are used in the workplace (Yamnill and Mclean, 2001).

The analysis showed that transfer of training has positively influenced the service quality of the organization (Zumrah, 2015). The transfer of training is positively impacted by self-efficacy, which is defined as an individual's confidence in their capacity to accomplish tasks. Higher self-efficacy among employees increases the likelihood that they will apply the knowledge and abilities they have acquired in the workplace (Iqbal and Dastgeer, 2017).

Trainers require both knowledge of transfer factors and skills to apply strategies effectively. Those with strong transfer knowledge identify key influences, apply them through all stages of training, and align efforts with learners' organizations to boost effectiveness (Wisshak et al., 2025). According to this theory, training transfer is a complex process that is impacted by a number of variables, such as the training program's design, the trainee's personal traits, and the workplace situation. The degree to which the knowledge and abilities learned during training are successfully used in the workplace is determined by the intricate interactions between these variables (Axtell et al., 1997).

This study underscores that the connection between training and its transfer is intricate and influenced by multiple factors present before, during, and after the training. It stresses that simply delivering training content is insufficient; organizations must also create an environment that supports the practical application of newly acquired skills, ensuring effective transfer and enhanced job performance (Bhatti and Kaur, 2010). Factors affecting the training are preparing trainees in advance, providing continuous support from supervisors and colleagues, and incorporating practical examples to develop confidence. Focusing on these elements enhances the chances that newly acquired skills will be effectively applied in the workplace, thereby strengthening overall organizational productivity (Bhatti et al., 2013). Study conducted in Nepal looked at how various environmental conditions influence technical education instructors' training transfer. The findings imply that training transfer is impacted by both internal and external contexts, with support and control being the most important factors (Bhurtel and Bhattarai, 2023). We proposed the following hypothesis from the literature.

H2: Effective training has positive and significant relationship with the transfer of training.

2.5 The direct relationship between transfer of training and civil servants' productivity, as well as mediating role of transfer of training in the link between effective training and civil servants' productivity

Training programs positively support the development of human capital and accelerate the service delivery of the public institutions due to facilitating the achievement of the target of the government; they enhance the competency and credibility of the civil servants (Oyelude, 2023). Developing staff capabilities and increasing corporate productivity require the implementation of successful T&D programs. By equipping workers with the professional, interpersonal, and technical abilities required for their positions, companies promote an atmosphere that supports personal development while also coordinating that development with organizational objectives (Saleh and Azimi, 2025). The findings show that employee training and development evaluation has a positive and large impact on the performance of decentralized companies, with effective training evaluation accounting for 98.6% of the performance variation (r = 0.986, p < 0.01). In the same way, training and development issues also have a favorable and noteworthy effect, suggesting that resolving them can improve productivity (Twesige, 2020). The finding of the study has shown that effective training has a positive and significant relationship with the productivity of the firms in quality and quantity (Bharthvajan and Fabiyola Kavitha, 2019).

The effect has increased the workers productivity by more than 23%, and the premium wage is 12%. This implies that businesses gain more from training, which improves their productivity as a whole (Konings and Vanormelingen, 2010). The study examined employees' views at Unga Limited on factors influencing their productivity, focusing on the role of knowledge, attitude, skills gained from training, and capacity building Asava (2014). This research examines how training influences labor productivity using panel data from Italian companies between 2002 and 2005. The findings reveal that training notably boosts productivity, with a more pronounced effect for blue-collar employees compared to white-collar staff. It also contributes to higher wages, though the wage effect is only about half as large as the productivity effect (Colombo and Stanca, 2014). We proposed the following hypothesis from the literature.

H3: Transfer of training has significant and positive relationship with the civil servant's productivity.

H4: Transfer of the training mediates the relationship between the effective training and the civil servant's productivity.

2.3 Research gap

Despite extensive research on training effectiveness and employee productivity, significant gaps remain. First, Somaliland, a de facto state, has received little empirical attention, limiting understanding of training outcomes in its unique public sector context. Second, although the government has invested in training in civil servants, no systematic evaluation has assessed whether these investments have improved productivity. Third, previous studies have mainly examined direct relationships between training and performance, with limited integration of Human Capital Theory and Transfer of Training Theory to explain the underlying mechanism. Therefore, this study addresses these gaps by integrating the two theories and examining the mediating role of transfer of training in the relationship between effective training and civil servants' productivity using PLS-SEM.

2.4 Conceptual frame work

The conceptual structure of the study is depicted in Figure 1, which suggests that effective training (EF) enhances civil servants' productivity (CSP), thereby improving public service delivery. Transfer of Training (ToT) acts as a mediator, and the framework draws on Human Capital Theory and Transfer of Training Theory, emphasizing that training boosts productivity only when skills are effectively applied on the job.

3 Materials and methods

3.1 Research design and approach

This study has used explanatory design with quantitatively approach to examine their hypothesis.

A structured questionnaire was used to gather data for the study, which employed a cross-sectional explanatory research design adapted for this research. The study's target population was 1,207 civil servants who participated in the last 5 years of training held at the civil servants' institute. The study was conducted from June 2025 to August 2025, during which the participants were recruited. The questionnaire was administered to a sample of 288, which resulted in the use of the Slovens formula. Civil servants from ministries and agencies in Somaliland, who had participated in training programs provided by the Civil Service Institute in the last 2 years. To choose the respondents, a straightforward random sampling method was employed, we distributed questionnaires and responded 250 participants based on the three variables, effective training, civil servants' productivity and transfer of training with measured the five-point Likert scale of (1) strongly disagree while the (5) is strongly agree.

The study employed structural equation modeling (SEM) using Smart PLS software to test the research objectives. Before analysis, the dataset was cleaned, and outliers were removed to ensure internal consistency. Several diagnostic tests were conducted including multicollinearity, normality, discriminant validity, and construct reliability and validity and all passed successfully. In line with SEM protocols, outer loading greater than 0.5 were ensured for each construct (Byrne, 2016). According to Henseler et al. (2009), indicator deletion was considered only if it improved the reliability of indicators, as well as the average variance extracted (AVE) and construct reliability (CR).

To assess the predictive power of the model, PLS bootstrapping was performed to evaluate the R² values (Falk, 2014), an R² value of 44 % is considered moderate and 34 % substantial, establishing standards for evaluating how well the independent factors explain the dependent variables.

3.2 Variables and measurement

Effective training is the independent variable, public servant productivity is the dependent variable, and training transfer is the mediating variable in this study's three main constructs. Effective training, conceptualized as the regressor, is measured using five indicators (EF1–EF7) adapted from validated instruments in previous studies (Hossein Rahmati et al., 2014; Ozioma Obi-Anike and Ekwe, 2014; Twesige, 2020). Civil servants' productivity, representing the regress and of the study, is operationalized through five indicators (CSP1–CSP6) derived from established empirical works (Abdi, 2024; Adebusoye and Helen, 2023; Dwi Praptana and Riyanto, 2020; Nasir and Syahnur, 2022). Finally, transfer of training is introduced as the mediating construct and is assessed using five indicators (ToT1–ToT7) adapted from prior literature on training transfer (Bhurtel and Bhattarai, 2023; Dermol and Cater, 2013; Saks and Belcourt, 2006). This structure ensures that the measurement of each construct is firmly grounded in established scholarship, thereby enhancing both the validity and reliability of the study.

4 Results and discussion on findings

Initially, the dataset underwent a thorough cleaning procedure to guarantee accuracy, consistency, and completeness. In order to make the data more compatible with the analytic tools, the data were then transformed into CSV format. Subsequently, For analysis, the dataset was imported into a PLS-SEM. The proposed links between the research variables were subsequently investigated using inferential statistical techniques. First, the paper introduces the structural model and the measuring model, as illustrated in Figure 2.

As shown in Table 1, the profile of respondents' age, gender, educational level, work experience, and institutional affiliation indicates that most civil servants are between 25 and 34 years old, with 61.6% of respondents, indicating that civil servants are young adults. Respondents with the lowest percentage (7.6%) are those under 25, while those aged 35–46 make up 22.4%. Finally, 8.6% of the respondents are aged 46 or older. This distribution shows that most civil servants are middle-aged, supporting the consecutive government's enrollment of university graduates through the Somaliland National Service program. Male respondents comprise 68.8% of the sample, while females comprise 31.2%. This demonstrates the existence of gender imbalance. A significant proportion of the respondents hold an undergraduate degree (57.2%), followed by those with a secondary certificate (21.6%) and a master's degree (14.8%), while diploma holders account for 6.4% of the respondents. Finally, no PhD holders are involved in the study. The educational profile of these respondents showed that most civil servants are well educated, with the majority holding undergraduate degrees. The data on work experience showed that less than 1 year of experience (13.6%), among the reported figures, 68.8% have more than 5 years of experience, and 31.2% have between 2 and 5 years. The predominance of experienced professionals may enhance the reliability of the responses, especially regarding institutional practices or perceptions. Nearly half of the participants are employed in ministries (49.6%), followed by agencies (34.8%) and local governments (15.6%). This distribution suggests that the findings may be most generalizable to ministries, with somewhat less representation from agencies and local governments.

Table 1. Respondents characteristics.

Table 2, All constructs satisfied the necessary reliability and validity levels, according to the measurement model evaluation. The outside loadings of indicators were more than 0.70, (Hair et al., 2021). Cronbach's alpha values exceeded 0.70, and composite reliability values (0.85–0.89) confirmed strong internal consistency Sekaran and Bougie (2003). The AVE values (0.53–0.63) were above the 0.50 benchmark, supporting convergent validity, while all VIF values remained below 5, indicating no multicollinearity issues (Fornell and Larcker, 1981a). Overall, the constructs of Civil Servants' Productivity, Effective Training, and Transfer of Training demonstrated satisfactory measurement properties and were deemed appropriate for further structural model analysis.

Table 2. Outer loading, Cronpach alpha.

Composite reliability, variance inflation factor and average variance extracted.

Tables 3, 4, are presented the discriminant validity was assessed using both the Fornell–Larcker criterion (Fornell and Larcker, 1981a; Hair et al., 2021) and the Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlations (Hair et al., 2021). As shown in Table 3, the square roots of the AVE values for each construct (CSP = 0.797, EF = 0.788, TOT = 0.787) are greater than the corresponding inter-construct correlations, thereby satisfying the Fornell–Larcker criterion. Similarly, the HTMT results in Table 4 indicate that all correlation ratios fall below the conservative threshold of 0.85 (CSP–EF = 0.681; CSP–ToT = 0.664; EF–ToT = 0.657), providing additional confirmation of discriminant validity. These findings collectively demonstrate that the constructs of Civil Servants' Productivity, Effective Training, and Transfer of Training are empirically distinct, hence confirming the measuring model's correctness.

Table 3. Fornell larcker.

Table 4. Htmt.

According to the Table 5, The cross-loading results show that all indicators load higher on their respective constructs than on other constructs, confirming discriminant validity. For example, CSP indicators load strongly on CSP (0.739–0.821), EF indicators on EF (0.726–0.838), and ToT indicators on ToT (0.765–0.819). They remain lower than the indicators' primary loadings, indicating that the constructs are empirically distinct and suitable for further structural model analysis.

Table 5. To check the discriminant variables.

Cross loading.

The structural model was assessed after confirming the validity of the measurement model, and the relationships between the independent, mediating, and dependent variables are presented in Tables 6–8. As shown in Table 6, the direct path from Effective Training (EF) to Civil Servants' Productivity (CSP) was statistically significant (β = 0.396, t = 7.249, p = 0.000), leading to the accpetance of this hypothesis. Also, Effective Training (EF) had a significant positive effect on Transfer of Training (ToT; β = 0.592, t = 16.028, p = 0.000), and Transfer of Training (ToT) significantly influenced Civil Servants' Productivity (CSP) (β = 0.359, t = 6.474, p = 0.000), both of which were supported. Table 7 presents the specific indirect effect, showing that EF indirectly affected CSP through ToT (β = 0.213, t = 5.997, p = 0.000), confirming mediation. Finally, the total effects reported in Table 8 demonstrate that EF exerts a significant overall influence on CSP when mediated by ToT (β = 0.608, t = 15.54, p = 0.000), while the direct paths from EF to ToT and from ToT to CSP remain significant. Collectively, these findings indicate that the impact of effective training on civil servants' productivity in Somaliland is realized primarily through the mediating role of transfer of training.

Table 6. Direct effect.

Table 7. Specific indirect effect.

Table 8. Total effect.

Table 9 displays the estimated and saturated models' model fit indices. An adequate model fit is shown by the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) value of 0.045, which is very below the upper limit of 0.10 (Hair et al., 2021; Hu and Bentler, 1999). Likewise, the d_ULS (0.431) and d_G (0.142) values are almost identical between the saturated and estimated models, suggesting minimal discrepancy (Henseler et al., 2016). The Chi-square statistic (202.496) is significant, which is common in SEM analyses due to sensitivity to sample size (Schermelleh-Engel et al., 2003). Finally, the Normed Fit Index (NFI = 0.928) is slightly above the traditional cutoff of 0.90, that is an acceptable range for the explanatory research in PLS-SEM (Bentler and Bonett, 1980; Hair et al., 2019).

Table 9. Model fit.

According to the Table 10, The structural model results show that the R² value for CSP was 0.454 (adjusted = 0.449), indicating that the model explains about 45% of the variance in CSP. According to (Hair et al., 2019; Henseler et al., 2009), R² values of 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25 are considered substantial, moderate, and weak, respectively. Therefore, the result for CSP reflects moderate explanatory power. For ToT, the R² value was 0.35 (adjusted = 0.348), which can be described as weak-to-moderate explanatory power.The predictive relevance (Q²) values obtained through blindfolding were 0.27 for CSP and 0.19 for ToT. Both values exceed zero, which means that the model has predictive relevance. Chin (1998) and Fornell and Larcker (1981b), underlined that a model's appropriate prediction performance is indicated by Q2 values larger than zero. Furthermore, Hair et al. (2021) suggested that Q² values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 correspond to small, medium, and large predictive relevance, respectively. Based on these thresholds, CSP demonstrates medium predictive relevance, while ToT shows small-to-medium predictive relevance. Overall, the findings confirm that the model demonstrates moderate explanatory power and satisfactory predictive capability.

Table 10. R-square and Q-square for predict values.

4.1 Discussion of the results

The study showed the important contribution of comprehending the role of effective training in enhancing the civil servants‘ productivity. Also, the study has a mediator to determine how they affect the training when the trainee applies for the job; that is known as transfer of training as a mediator of the study. The study applied a significance threshold of α = 0.05, using the resulting p-values to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypotheses. The study's four hypotheses are as follows:Training transfer has a significant and positive correlation with civil servant productivity, and effective training has a significant and positive correlation with civil service productivity. The relationship between civil servant productivity and effective training is mediated by training transfer. As whole they are supporting the hypothesis of the study. The first hypothesis, according to which public service output is positively impacted by good training, was approved (β = 0.396, t = 7.249, p = 0.00). The positive and statistically significant path coefficient demonstrates that effective training supports the productivity of civil servants. The findings indicate that well-designed training programs increase the capacity and the skills that ultimately enhance the output of the public services. This result also consistently supports the human capital theory and the studies that found effective training to be a key driver of public performance in the public sector are (Saleh and Azimi, 2025; Nor, 2017; Bharthvajan and Fabiyola Kavitha, 2019). The second hypothesis stated that effective training has a positive and significant relationship with the transfer of training. The results confirmed this assumption (β = 0.592, t = 16.028, p = 0.000), indicating a strong and significant effect. This finding suggests that training enhances civil servants' knowledge and skills, improves the quality of their work, and creates a supportive environment for achieving organizational goals and also support the transfer of training theory.The previous findings consisted in this are (Bhatti and Kaur, 2010; Saks and Belcourt, 2006; Wang et al., 2022).

The third hypothesis proposed that the transfer of training has a significant and positive relationship with civil service productivity. The results strongly support this assumption (β = 0.359, t = 6.474, p = 0.000), demonstrating that civil employee productivity rises significantly when they can successfully apply the knowledge and abilities they have learned throughout training. This suggests that merely offering training is insufficient; what is most important is the effective application of knowledge in the workplace, which directly improves work quality, productivity, and overall organizational performance and also supports the transfer of training theory. The earlier conclusions that this study supports include (Cromwell and Kolb, 2004; Saks and Burke-Smalley, 2014; Wang et al., 2022).

The final hypothesis examined whether the transfer of training mediates the relationship between effective training and civil service productivity. The findings confirmed a significant mediating effect (β = 0.213, t = 5.977, p = 0.000). This suggests that effective training alone does not directly lead to higher productivity; rather, productivity improvements occur when employees are able to apply and transfer the acquired skills and knowledge to their work tasks. In other words, training enhances civil servants' capabilities, but its impact on productivity is realized only through successful transfer into the workplace context. The previous findings consistently supporting are (Blume et al., 2010; Burke and Hutchins, 2007; Cheng and Ho, 2001; Dermol and Cater, 2013; Saks and Burke-Smalley, 2014; Wisshak et al., 2025; Yamnill and Mclean, 2001).

This study demonstrates that while effective training is important, its also direct impact on civil service productivity. The findings show that training enhances productivity when workers effectively integrate the knowledge and abilities they have gained into their job procedures. In particular, the significant mediating role of training of transfer indicates that the effectiveness of training is realized through improved employee productivity, which ultimately drives service delivery. Therefore, public sector organizations should not only invest in structured training programs but also create supportive environments that facilitate the transfer of training into daily tasks. By aligning training with job requirements, ensuring managerial support, and monitoring outcomes, civil service institutions can strengthen employee performance and, in turn, achieve more effective and sustainable improvements in public service delivery.

5 Conclusion

This research examined the relationship between effective training, transfer of training, and the productivity of civil servants. The findings showed that effective training, its own, directly and significantly influence productivity. Rather, its impact becomes evident through the process of training transfer. In particular, employees' capacity to apply newly learned knowledge and skills was found to be improved by good training, and this successful transfer significantly increased civil service output. These findings are in line with human capital theory, which emphasizes that funding employee development increases the knowledge, abilities, and skills that improve performance. They also align with the Transfer of Training Theory, which stresses that the true value of training is realized only when learning is effectively applied in the workplace. The mediating effect of transfer of training highlights that productivity improvements rely not only on the provision of training but also on the extent to which employees can integrate what they learn into their everyday responsibilities. Accordingly, this study adds to the literature by demonstrating that civil service productivity is maximized when training initiatives are supported by mechanisms that facilitate knowledge application. Public organizations should therefore focus not only on designing comprehensive training programs but also on creating supportive environments, such as managerial encouragement, structured follow-up, and performance monitoring, that ensure knowledge transfer. By strengthening these processes, institutions can transform training investments into meaningful gains in civil service productivity. The present study contributes to Human Capital Theory by demonstrating that employees can strengthen their existing skills, acquire new competencies, and deliver high-quality, effective services. It also confirms the theory of Transfer of Training, which underscores that the training applied in the job enhances the employee's productivity and emphasizes that the benefits of training are realized only when the acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes are effectively applied in the workplace.

5.1 Implications of the study

The study has a number of real-world ramifications for the Ministry of Education, the Civil Service Commission, the Central Government, and organizations that work to develop the skills of public sector workers. The results demonstrate that good training is essential to raising the caliber of government servants' work, especially when the knowledge and abilities they gain are successfully used in their positions. It is therefore recommended that the Central Government actively explore both internal and external opportunities to provide continuous training and professional development for its staff. Furthermore, regional cooperation with neighboring countries such as Ethiopia and Djibouti could be leveraged to share best practices, exchange expertise, and expand capacity-building opportunities, thereby equipping Somaliland's civil servants with broader knowledge and valuable experience. The Somaliland Civil Service Commission should make sure that training programs are carefully aligned with the government's service delivery priorities so that gains in employee performance are effectively translated into improved public service outcomes. To support this, regular feedback and monitoring mechanisms should be introduced to evaluate both the success of training programs and the extent to which civil servants apply new knowledge in their daily work. Such mechanisms will help uncover weaknesses in existing programs while also guiding the development of future initiatives that remain practical, relevant, and results-driven.

Overall, by implementing these policy actions, public sector leaders in Somaliland can maximize the effectiveness of training programs, build stronger employee skills, and boost civil service productivity. The study's findings also provide a foundation for creating evidence-based frameworks that integrate training, employee performance, and service delivery objectives. This integrated approach can advance lasting reforms in the civil service, resulting in higher-quality public services and greater efficiency in addressing the needs of Somaliland's citizens.

5.2 Limitations and Future direction of researchers

This study's limitations are mostly related to its methodology, specifically the sample size and data collection strategy. The study used a relatively small sample and a cross-sectional strategy, which restricted the ability to fully capture and examine the relationships among the studied variables. This design also limits the capacity to draw conclusions about changes over time. To address these issues, future studies are encouraged to adopt longitudinal research designs, which would allow for comparisons across different time periods and provide stronger evidence of causal relationships. Expanding the sample size is also recommended to enhance the generalizability of the findings and to ensure broader representation of civil servants. Finally, while this study concentrated on how effective training might increase civil servants' productivity through training transfer as a mediating factor, future research could further explore additional factors that may strengthen or weaken these relationships. This research examined the vital connection between effective training, transfer of training, and the productivity of civil servants. Building on these findings, future research might concentrate on how training frequency and duration affect employee productivity and the general effectiveness of public service delivery. This includes examining institutional frameworks and organizational culture that either facilitate or hinder the success of training initiatives within Somaliland's public sector. Such investigations would provide deeper insights into the conditions under which training produces sustainable improvements in civil service performance.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Footnotes

Edited by: Hazem Aldabbas, University of Fujairah, United Arab Emirates

Reviewed by: Asal Wahyuni Erlin Mulyadi, Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia

Irfan Setiawan, Institut Pemerintahan Dalam Negeri (IPDN), Indonesia