Bibliometric insights into fruit waste valorization for pectin- based sustainable packaging within the circular economy paradigm

1 Introduction

Bio-based packaging in sustainability has a significant mission as the advance alternative for the environmental pollution initiated by conventional plastic packaging. Global plastic consumption now exceeds 400 million tons per year, with less than 10% appropriately recycled, underscoring the critical need for sustainable alternatives. Furthermore, a substantial quantity of plastic garbage is mishandled, resulting in environmental leakage and long-term environmental destruction. Despite increasing interest in sustainable materials, bioplastics account for only a minuscule fraction of total polymer manufacturing, emphasizing the urgent demand for scalable bio-based packaging solutions (Programme, 2023). The reduction of food industry’s impact strategy provide a path for using the biodegradable and compostable capability of bio-based packaging materials (Mittal et al., 2019; Donkor et al., 2023). According to the global sustainability goals and circular economy’s tenets, these bio-materials are derived from replenishable resources such as, agricultural biomass, microorganisms and micro and macro algae (Gururani et al., 2023; Rafey et al., 2023). In recent decades, the development of green packaging has increased due to the growing demand for eco-friendly packaging options among consumers and mounting regulatory restrictions. This regulatory environment has fuelled innovation and emerging research in packaging sector. Beyond being biodegradable, bio-based packaging enhances the barrier qualities, mechanical strength and food safety for fulfilling the sophisticated requirements of food preservation (Versino et al., 2023).

Intelligent and smart packaging are one of the major functionality aids of bio-based food packaging. In the field of nanotechnology, nano sensor active packaging, antimicrobial substances and bioactive chemistry are employed for improving food safety and to extend shelf life of the product (Mahmud et al., 2024). The switch to bio-based packaging, which utilities waste materials as a feedstock from agricultural and food processing residues has addressed the research productivity. Packaging materials that are made from biopolymers such as, pectin, starch, cellulose, chitosan and lignin are found abundant in agricultural and food processing waste. These processing wastes are currently utilized as a biofilm packaging material. This approach defends circular economy, as it reduces the accumulation of garbage in landfills and necessity to depend on resource and promotes value-added products (Jha and Kumar, 2019).

Biopolymer is the biological material that is build-up of several repeating units including, polysaccharide, lipid, protein, polyhydroxyalkanoate and peptide. Numerous biopolymers extracted from fruit waste such as pectin, cellulose, lignin and starch are emerging polymer as efficient candidates for their profusion, renewability and gelling properties in biodegradable packaging (Fang et al., 2021; González-López et al., 2023; Luo et al., 2023; Roy et al., 2023). Pectin is currently persistent in research for its remarkable ability to create films, which is due to the presence of galacturonic acid in its backbone. This capability allows for the development of flexible and strong films with excellent oxygen barrier properties. Although pectin has gained popularity as a sustainable biopolymer for packaging, pure pectin films exhibit significant water solubility, increased moisture permeability, and intrinsic fragility, notably in the lack of plasticizers. These limitations considerably restrict their direct employment in food packaging systems, necessitating the addition of plasticizers, coupling agents, or nanofillers to improve mechanical durability and water repellency (Ren et al., 2022; Rawat et al., 2024). Pectin is low-cost biomaterial and it can also be tailored compatible with chitosan, polylactic acid (PLA) and starch to achieve customization of flexibility, barrier efficiency and biodegradability addressing the solution to combat plastic pollution (Adetunji et al., 2017). To maximize production while reducing environmental effect, deep eutectic solvents, enzyme-assisted extraction, subcritical fluid extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-based extraction, or a combination of these technologies are currently being used to extract pectin from a variety of fruit waste (Ramos et al., 2022; Riyamol et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023; Said and Lee, 2025).

Fruit waste is abundant, inexpensive, and contains high levels of useful biopolymers including cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. It is becoming progressively recognized as an excellent source material for sustainable food packaging. These chemicals are abundant in the peels, pomace and seeds of fruits such as apples, citrus and berries (Song et al., 2023). Fruit waste derived packaging materials naturally break down, lowering landfill load and environmental contamination compared to petroleum-based plastics. One significant benefit of packaging made from fruit waste is its functional properties (Mphahlele et al., 2017). Fresh produce and other perishable items can be wrapped using biopolymers like pectin and cellulose that are derived from fruit residues because of their superior film-forming capabilities, oxygen barrier qualities and mechanical strength (Güzel and Akpınar, 2019; Ramos et al., 2022; Riveros-Gomez et al., 2022).

Standardization of pectin quality for food packaging is under explored. There are no or very few studies in the literature that has systematically explored the fruit waste valorisation for pectin extraction aimed at packaging applications. Integrating NTFPs sources into fruit-waste pectin valorisation accords with biodegradable packaging films and reinforcing circular bioeconomy system across food and forest value chains. Therefore, this systematic review focuses on the extraction of pectin from various fruit waste like, peels, seeds and pulp through conventional and non-conventional methods for the formation of biodegradable food packaging films. This article also assembles the bibliometric analysis of biodegradable food packaging from pectin, with linkage to fruit waste, along with pectin based smart food packaging from fruit waste for circular economy.

2 Bibliometric analysis

Determining the importance and scope of diverse research projects pertaining to various aspects of non-biodegradable packaging is the goal of bibliometric analysis on green packaging. Scopus, an online scholarly citation indexing database operated by Elsevier was used to conduct a thorough evaluation of the publicly available scientific literature in this area of study. “Food packaging OR packaging OR edible films OR biodegradable films OR active packaging” AND “Pectin” AND “Fruit waste OR fruit peel OR citrus peel OR agricultural waste OR food waste” are the Boolean search terms employed in the literature, under the “TITLE-ABS-KEY” field. The database returned with nearly 184 publications and the count dropped to 174, after sorting from last 5 years publication in English language. In the top seven academic disciplines including, “Agricultural and biological sciences”, “Chemistry”, “Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular biology”, “Environmental science”, “Chemical engineering”, “Material science” and “Engineering”, 149 publications were provided in the form of research, review, and brief communication. After excluding the articles with low relevance in food packaging application and deviation from fruit waste, 113 publications were considered for further analysis (Figure 1).

The network shows that research on biodegradable food packaging represents multiple disciplines, including environmental science, sustainability, waste management and polymeric science (Figure 2). This network was constructed and visualized using VOSviewer software. Groups of closely related terms that regularly occur together in the literature or conversations are indicated by the clusters, which are represented by various colours. The green colour cluster emphasizes concepts such as “pectin”, “extraction”, “fruit peel”, “bioactive compounds”, “phenol derivative”, “green chemistry” and “circular economy.” This cluster most likely reflects studies on the chemical characteristics, sustainability and circular economy of pectin and other biopolymers that are extracted from fruit. The red cluster centres for “fruit”, “antioxidant”, “nonhuman”, “agricultural waste”, “shelf life”, “food industry” along with “anthocyanin.” This cluster relates to the benefits of employing fruit waste in food packaging in terms of nutrition, antioxidants and shelf-life extension. The yellow cluster comprises “packaging machines”, “packaging”, “edible films”, “property”, “citrus peel” alongside “processing wastes”. The development of active/edible packaging, film formation and the use of extracted biopolymers (such as pectin) in packaging materials are the main objectives of this cluster. The blue cluster revolves around “chemistry”, “tensile strength”, “coatings”, “moisture”, “Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy” plus “thermostability”. This cluster pertains to packing materials’ mechanical characteristics, structural analysis and physicochemical characterisation.

The general trends in research activity of biodegradable packaging were identified over the period of last 5 years. Publication numbered 3 in 2020, 16 in 2021, 13 in 2022, 22 in 2023, 29 in 2024 and 29 in 2025 with maximum number of publications in the year, 2024 and 2025 (Figure 3). In turn, most citation over time for publication from 2021 to 2025, current research was examined by the data shown in (Figure 4). The publications in the year, 2020 has highlights 957 citation and sustained interest for pectin based biodegradable food packaging.

In addition, significant contribution in research was shown in India, China, Brazil, Italy and Saudi Arabia showcasing their intense output in the pectin based biodegradable food packaging from fruit waste (Figure 5). Along with their strong scientific infrastructure, research funding and committed research projects in biopolymer and sustainable packaging, these nations have become major contributors in propelling the subject forward.

3 Pectin

3.1 Structure of pectin

Pectin is an acidic heteropolymer with several branches that is composed of a partly methyl esterified 1,4-galacturonic acid (GalA) bond (Figure 6) (Muñoz-Almagro et al., 2020). Homogalacturonan I and homogalacturonan II, makes up 65% of the pectin polysaccharide and is the most prevalent kind of pectin. In general, Homogalacturonan is made up of galacturonic acid monomers joined by approximately 100 residues in lengthy stretches (Pasandide et al., 2018). Rhamnogalacturonan I, the second most common kind of pectin, with repeated units of the disaccharide (-α-d-GalA-1,2-α-l-Rha-1-4-) in the main chain and side chains composed of different sugars, oligosaccharides and branching oligosaccharides connected to the backbone’s rhamnosyl residue (Roy et al., 2023). The most complex form of pectin is rhamnogalacturonan II and it makes up only 10% of the pectin structure. It is known as substituted homogalacturonan due to the presence of 12 distinct types of sugar in the branching form with more than 20 links, similar to homogalacturonan structural backbone (Zdunek et al., 2021). Xylogalacturonan, the rare expressed form has β-linked xylose positioned at O-3 and O-4 by different β-linked xylose (Patova et al., 2021). The other seldom type of pectin is apiogalacturonan, they are bound covalently by 1,4 due to the production of d-apiofuraose in O-2 or O-3 locations (Dang et al., 2025).

3.2 Properties of pectin

Pectin extraction methods and the nature of raw materials determines the constitution, physical, chemical properties, including esterification degree, solubility, galacturonic acid (GalA) content, emulsifying, as well as monosaccharide composition (Chandel et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022). The proportionality of methyl esterification, amidation and acetylation addition in pectin, is referred as esterification degree or methoxylation. The conformation and morphology of pectin is influenced by degree of esterification. Increased esterification degree can increase the hydration volume, reduce the curvature and extension of pectin. While, decreased esterification of degree can bring up the rigidity and decrease the chain flexibility. Pectin is categorised into high ester pectin (DE > 50%) and low ester pectin (DE < 50%) based on the esterification degree of pectin, which is impacted by the processing technology and raw materials. The degree of esterification of pectin also impacts in the formation of building complex with other materials (Liu et al., 2020; Said et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2025). As stated by Pillai et al. (2020), when the degree of esterification is decreasing the critical pH of pectin, the ability to form complex with other materials significantly increases. According to Warnakulasuriya et al. (2018), high ester pectin has resilient interaction with pea protein isolate under ideal mixing conditions.

Based on the solubility characteristics, pectin is categorized into water-soluble pectin and water insoluble pectin. Several factors including, the distribution of methoxy positions and the esterification degree influence the solubility property of pectin. Pectin with a higher esterification of degree and a lower molecular mass generally shows better solubility. Similar to hydrophilic compounds, pectin particles should be swollen prior for dissolution (Chandel et al., 2022; Du et al., 2022). Pectin is composed of neutral sugars including, D-galactose, L-rhamnose and D-arabinose along with the core of D-GalA. Recent studies use the galacturonic acid (GalA) content for the detection of pectin purification and the components of individual residual sugars for obliquely imitating the structure of pectin. The common neutral sugars present in pectin are side chains, where a high content of galacturonic acid (GalA) indicates the presences of high side chain content and a low galacturonic acid (GalA) content in pectin illustrates the presence of lower side chain contents (Protzko et al., 2018; Parkar et al., 2021).

4 Sources of pectin

Pectin sources can be broadly grouped into conventional commercial sources and non-timber forest product (NTFP)-derived sources according to their origin and degree of utilization in industry. Apple pomace and citrus peels are the main sources of conventional pectin because of its excellent extraction efficiency and reliable availability. On the contrary, plenty of underutilized and sustainable alternatives are found in NTFP-based sources, such as sisal (Agave sisalana) waste, bael fruit, tamarind, moringa leaves, Grewia spp., and other biomasses generated from forests. These sources present chances for resource diversification, waste valorization, and the establishment of pectin supply chains tailored to certain regions.

4.1 Conventional sources

Pectin is found in several natural source, like fruit and vegetable waste. These resources are considered to be sustainable for the extraction of biopolymer as they are discarded in landfills as waste (Rehman et al., 2019). Some of the popular sources including, citrus fruit peels, beet pulp, apple pomace, watermelon rind and sweet potato residues can yield from 2.2% to 38.72% of pectin using different conventional and advanced extraction methods with ideal optimization (Table 1) (Huang et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Muñoz-Almagro et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022). Commercially, citrus fruits (limes, lemons, grapefruit and orange) are used to derive pectin for diverse applications because of the large accessibility as by-product from the food industry. There are other new sources such as, coffee, olive, cashew, cocoa, pea and soy that are explored for pectin extraction due to the high availability and growing demand (Gerschenson et al., 2021; Reichembach and Lúcia de Oliveira Petkowicz, 2021; Nastasi et al., 2022; Reichembach and de Oliveira Petkowicz, 2022). Pectin derived from various different sources have altered functional properties of polysaccharides. Therefore, pectin functionality depends on the extracted raw material (Table 2) (Huang et al., 2021).

TABLE 1. Conventional pectin source and extraction method from various fruit sources.

TABLE 2. Advanced source of pectin extraction along with method of extraction.

4.2 Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) sources

NTFPs comprise non-wood biological materials derived from forest biodiversity in natural or modified environments, harvested without the extraction of high-value timber (Sardeshpande et al., 2019). The increased efficiency of pectin-based films with the inclusion of non-timber forest product (NTFP)-derived polysaccharides is potentially attributed to physicochemical interactions such as hydrogen bonding, chain entanglement, and partial electrostatic coupling. These interactions stimulate the synthesis of a more compact and cohesive polymer network, which improves tensile strength while diminishing water vapor permeability and overall hydrophilicity (Mellinas et al., 2020; Freitas et al., 2021). Santos et al. (2013) used modified aqueous extraction using 85 °C, 85 min to recover pectin from sisal waste, a conventional NTFP fiber residual, with a yield of up to 19.2% without the use of acids. High galacturonic acid concentration and appropriate esterification for gelling were demonstrated by the pectin, extending minimal chemical NTFP valorization across fruit sources (Santos et al., 2013). Patra and Basak (2020) assessed the pectin content of six edible wild fruits from Odisha, India (Citrus medica, P. emblica, Carissa carandas, Sonneratia caseolaris, S. apetala, and Ficus auriculata), emphasizing its potential as sources of pectin produced from NTFP. Pectin yields ranged from 5.38% to 25.34% dry weight, with yields similar to those of commercial fruits in C. medica, P. emblica, and C. carandas. Each of them had high-methoxyl pectin properties, with P. emblica showing the highest level of esterification and methoxyl levels. The investigation supports NTFP valorization as a sustainable alternative in the face of rising industrial pectin demand by highlighting the functional and commercial possibilities of pectins generated from forests (Patra and Basak, 2020).

Recent pectin extraction methods have broadened the range of possible feedstocks beyond traditional citrus and apple residues, introducing NTFPs as intriguing alternative sources. NTFPs embodies a multitude of biological materials that are recovered from forests without the extraction of timber, including resins, wild flesh, seeding cones, tree nuts, and others originating from forests which typically comprise polysaccharides and bioactive constituents that are appropriate for usage in industries (Dobrucka et al., 2025). The employing of NTFP-derived fruit waste for pectin extraction is consistent with circular bioeconomy concepts, as mango harvesting alone produces 40%–60% solid waste by mass, with peels contributing to half of this farm residue. Mango peel accounts for approximately 25% of agro-industrial biomass and contains recoverable polysaccharide biopolymers such as high-yield pectin, carotenoids, polyphenols, and dietary fibers. Beyond commercial agriculture, wild and semi-cultivated NTFP species, such as dragon fruit (Cactaceae family), with peels accounting for 30%–45% of total fruit mass, represent secondary waste streams in Southeast Asia that can be valorized using enzyme-mediated and microwave-aided extraction techniques to yield pharmaceutical-grade pectin (Torres-Gallo et al., 2022). By turning underutilized forest resources and agricultural wastes into high-value functional materials, the incorporation of pectin derived from fruit processing residues and NTFPs biomass into biodegradable polymer matrices is consistent with circular bioeconomy approaches. While coupled with reinforcing fillers or plant extracts, pectin-based films and coatings derived from these renewable sources have demonstrated promising qualities for active and sustainable food packaging applications, including biodegradability, film-forming capacity, and potential for improved barrier and antimicrobial properties.

5 Extraction methods

Conventional and advanced extraction techniques can be used to extract pectin from biomasses originating from plants and forests. Due to their accessibility of use and industry familiarity, conventional methods like hot acid or aqueous extraction are frequently employed. On the other hand, cutting-edge techniques, including as enzyme, ultrasonic, and microwave-assisted extraction, are becoming effective and sustainable substitutes that provide better pectin quality and yield relatively little of an impact on the environment.

5.1 Pre-extraction preparation

Fruits are the major source of pectin. Factors like processing method, extraction duration and solid-to-liquid ratio not only influences the yield of pectin but it also alters the quality of pectin. There are various extraction methods employed to isolate pectin from fruit waste, such as enzymatic, physical, chemical, or combined extraction treatments (Table 1) (Freitas et al., 2021; Chandel et al., 2022). Pre-processing of pectin from fruit waste is normally necessary before the extraction process begins. Some of these steps can be optional, but it significantly affects and improves the quantity and quality of the final pectin extract. Firstly, the fruit waste from industry is sorted and cleaned for the removal of undesired materials present along with the fruit waste residues since contamination can affect the extraction efficiency. For improving the yield of pectin, acid-washing is recommended although alcohol-washing and water-washing is generally sufficient to remove the impurities. Then the raw material is left to dry the excess water, this step can help in maintain the solvent strength and hence the efficiency of extraction. Different extraction methods of pectin can be grouped into conventional and advanced methods (Tan et al., 2020; Chandel et al., 2022).

5.2 Conventional method

The convention acid method (CAE) or the acid assisted extraction is the traditional extraction method used for pectin extraction from various sources. This method involves treating the fruit pulp or peels with acids like sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric, or citric acid at raised temperatures close to boiling point. The hydrolysis of protopectin by heating the fruit waste material with agitation in an acidic buffer, allows pectin to solubilize in the buffer. Variables like raw material preparation, pH, time, acid type and temperature plays a vital role in improving extracted pectin yield and property (Duan H et al., 2022; Duan X et al., 2022). For instance, among various acids like HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄, citric and acetic acid used in one of the comparative studies, the highest yield (14.34%) was obtained using citric acid from potato pulp. However, chelating agents can be intricate to remove after the extraction of pectin, despite being effective in this process. While both organic acids and mineral are efficient, the selection of acid depends usually on their desired properties, availability, demand of the expected final extract and post-processing effects (Yang J et al., 2018). Dranca et al. (2020) shows that using citric acid solution in a 10 mL/g of liquid-to-solid ration, 90 °C of temperature, 148 min of extraction time along a pH of 1.9, has resulted in 84.40% DE and 23.26% of yield. Iñiguez-Moreno et al. (2024) used Box-Behnken design to optimize the extraction of pectin using citric acid from orange fruit peel estimating the impact of time, pH and temperature on both DE and yield. The highest yield of 27.75% was obtained in 68min, pH 2 °C and 97 °C, with a 33.28% DE resulting in an LMP. Higher DE was achieved by identifying conditions at a pH of 2.4, 65 min and 86 °C, with 33.28% of DE and 13.87% of yield in pectin. Eventually, the best balance of DE and yield of pectin was obtained at a pH of 2.48, 30 min and 100 °C, producing 52.75% of DE with 20.82% of yield.

5.3 Advanced method

The advancement in efficient and sustainable extraction methods of pectin has managed to explore advanced techniques to outcome the traditional convention method. These innovative techniques leverage a new energy form to achieve pectin recovery as well as to minimize the impact on environment, thereby stimulating sustainability and promotes the circular bio-economy. Advanced extraction methods such as Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) and Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) utilizes microwave energy and ultrasound waves to disrupt cell walls and increase mass transfer, adjusting parameters such as solvent ratio, duration and power for effective extraction. While, Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) employ novel solvents for enhancing solvating power and to yield pectin. These methods collectively signify a shift towards advanced extraction techniques that not only achieve high pectin quality but also responsible for reduced environmental impacts caused by the extraction process. By implementing these advanced extraction techniques, the process of pectin recovery becomes green and sustainable by using fewer energy and less harmful chemicals for the valorization of food waste (Marić et al., 2018; Mao et al., 2019; Torres-Gallo et al., 2022).

5.3.1 Microwave-assisted extraction

Microwave-assisted extraction is an effective process than the traditional acid extraction method and it significantly reduces the period of extraction to a minute hierarchy. MAE is a valuable extraction technique for bioactive compound recovery from food waste due to its efficiency, low solvent requirement and distribution of uniform temperature. The sample is heated up by the tremendous heat produced by microwave and disrupts the cell wall. This accelerates pectin to dissolute in the solvent. Pectin can also be degraded by the rapid denaturing of pectinase from the microwave. However, several extraction conditions determine the quality of pectin (Jin and Yang, 2020; Belkheiri et al., 2021).

Dranca et al. (2021) investigated the comparative result of conventional acid-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction of pectin from apple pomace. The conventional method took 120 min for extraction duration in citric acid-based solution with a pH of 1.5 at 90 °C to yield 38.91% of pectin. However, microwave-assisted method achieved the similar yield (38.06%) in 90s with a solid-liquid ration 1:15 g/mL and pH 1.5, at 560 W microwave power. Karbuz and Tugrul (2021) highlights that yield of pectin from kiwi peel increased from 10.48% to 17.79% by an irradiation duration of 1-min to 3-min respectively, at 360 W microwave power. Whereas, the yield of pectin from the same kiwi peel decreased to 12.18% from 16.27% by an irradiation duration of 3-min to 1-min, with 600 W microwave power.

5.3.2 Ultrasound-assisted extraction

Ultrasound-assisted extraction of pectin uses sound wave with a frequency of 20–40 kHz range, which is out of the audible range for humans. The raw material serves several purposes when it is subjected to ultrasound waves. The ultrasound irradiation causes cell disruption by cavitation; this process ensures the exposure of inner composition of the cells into the solvent. Sonication also improves the penetration of the solvent by accelerating the rehydration of dry materials. In contrast, ultra sound also enables mass diffusivity due to its heating effect to improve the dissolution efficiency of pectin into the buffer solution (Wang M et al., 2016; Tyagi et al., 2024).

Patience et al. (2021) observed that sonication significantly enhanced the extraction of pectin at 30 °C in an acidic condition can yield 5 to 10 times more extract based on the duty cycle and pH of the solution from orange peels. However, the pectin yield at this range of temperature is still not equivalent to conventional extraction. When ultrasound-assisted method of extraction is integrated with heating extraction, it becomes an ultrasound-assisted heating extraction (UAHE) method and improves the solubility efficiency of pectin into the buffer solution. Banerjee et al. (2016) noticed that ultrasound-assisted heating extraction achieved slightly more yield in a lesser time from grape peels compared to the conventional method of pectin extraction. However, persistent UAHE can rapidly degrade pectin with the heat produced through the extraction process, leading to poor pectin yield. Pectin yield was efficient with the integration of microwave-assisted extraction and ultrasound-assisted extraction than when convention method of extraction alone was used (Liew et al., 2016).

5.3.3 Deep eutectic solvent extraction

Deep eutectic solvent extraction represents a new category of solvents generated from hydrogen bond donor and hydrogen bond acceptor, differentiated by their distinctive attributes like biodegradability, low toxicity and high thermal stability. In traditional acid methods of pectin extraction, the elevated temperature and use of harsh chemicals can lower the yield of pectin by degrading it. While, DES extraction obtains pectin in a gentler mechanism to improve the extraction. Deep eutectic solvent extraction stands as an sustainable and effective for the recovery of pectin by performing at a lower temperature with environmental friendly approach (Martínez et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2022).

Liew et al. (2018) investigated a pioneering study to evaluate the efficiency of deep eutectic solvent for pectin extraction in comparison with citric acid traditional method of extraction from grape peel. The study explored several variables including liquid-to-solid ratio, time, temperature and pH for optimizing the extraction conditions. The optimal condition for citric acid extraction was obtained at 88 °C, 141 min, pH 1.80 and 29:1 mL/g of liquid-to-solid ratio, with 39.72% of pectin yield and 57.56% of DE. Whereas, when using DES composed of glucose, water and lactic acid under the vital conditions at 88 °C, 141 min, with 6:1:6 ratio, 23.04% of highest pectin yield was observed with 59.23% of DE.

6 Advanced film formulation and fabrication

The film formulation and fabrication methods are vital for defining the final biomaterials characteristics and pectin-based food packaging that are acquired for the commercial production. The film packaging is produced through the various industrial fabrication with specific technique depending on the type of films and its intended application. The casting, spraying and extrusion are the fundamental methods referred to the development of film packaging, as demonstrated in Table 3 (Figure 7) (Shafie et al., 2020).

TABLE 3. Recent advancement and functional applications in green packaging.

6.1 Casting

Casting method or solvent casting method is prominent technique used for fabricating the bio-composite as well as polysaccharide-based films to develop the biodegradable packaging materials. In this process, the biopolymer is first dissolved in a volatile solvent to form a homogeneous viscous solution. This solution is then poured or spread onto a flat casting surface or a non-sticky surface, where it is allowed to dry for enabling the solvent to evaporate and leaves behind a uniform thin film. It can significantly influence the homogeneity, defect reduction and integrity of the resulting coating. The casting method gets varies to different sources that are extraction from the residual waste. For instance, the pectin that are extracted from the dragon fruit peel are diluted in 2% v/v of water with supplemented of plasticizer as 30% w/w of glycerol used in the fabrication which shows excellent film formation as a commercial pectin film (Zhang et al., 2024). Another study has showed that combination of polymers is more stable when it’s compared to the single polymer. The hybrid citrus peel pectin and PLA are extracted and tailored to form a bilayer using 1.96% w/v of distilled water and 30% w/w of glycerol (Said et al., 2024).

The casting process enables the development of pectin-based films with a range of several properties and functionalities based on the composition of the casting solution and specific drying parameters. Pectin based film formulation faces various significant challenges but it can overcome the adoption of packaging application. The pectin fabrication involves in the reduction of lubrication in pectin-pectin interaction and increases in the interpolymer gaps between the pectin network for more uptake of water (Butler et al., 2023). Many researchers are focusing on the compatibility with other materials such as waxes, oils and nanoparticles incorporating with pectin to enhancing the barrier and mechanical qualities. The pectin-based film products are rapidly growing in the global market and the future trends of this packaging is emerging in agro-processing for valorization and this method gives way to green plastics manufacturing for a very promising imminent (Shafie et al., 2020).

6.2 Spraying

One of the methods that is predominantly used for fabricating the films that can easily deposited on the collector surface and make a thin film formation and this is called wet spraying method or electro spraying method. It encompasses techniques such as conventional spraying and electro spraying methods that are gaining concern in pectin constructed film packaging for their potential to precisely control film characteristics and functional components for integrated film formation. The electro spraying is a well-recognized technology, particularly in the pectin or other carbohydrates extracted film production. Zhang et al. (2024) have studied the edible film using pectin extracted from dragon peels by different boiling water treatment and preparation conditions with two parallel nozzles onto a rotating cylinder with 3 bar of air pressure, 3.0 mL/min of flow rate in the spraying method. Using the citrus peel pectin extraction, the sparging conditions that are used in the preparation are electro spraying using electric field with 4 mL/h of flow rate and 0.7 g/cm³ of film density as a product. The notably research on the advancements in pectin film spraying provides the promising development by enhancing film with nanoparticles and bio active ingredients for creating the multilayer films using sequential spraying to increase the strength by using different combination of the biopolymers (Zhang et al., 2024).

6.3 Extrusion

The dry process, which includes extrusion, is an uninterrupted process in which, pectin typically couples with other polymers or additives, is loaded into an extruder, heated, properly incorporated and then extruded amidst a die to make sheets or films. The preparation of the extrusion fabrication methods is highly suitable for the creation of biodegradable and sustainable packaging solution than the casting and spraying methods. Mechanism of extrusion mixture is introduced into a twin screw or single screw extruder. The polymer such as pectin is melted at the range of 80 °C to 150 °C and intensively mixed under screw speed and pressure conditions and controlling parameters are crucial for achieving uniform film properties. The molten materials are forced through a shaped die to form a films and sheets, with precise adjustments to control thickness and width. De Oliveira et al. (2021) using the extrusion compression of thermoplasticized pectin conditions are co-rotating twin screw extruder and results showed that the efficiency plasticized pectin films are possible for the industrial production.

The corporation of pectin and starch with plasticizer has used the twin screw extruder and shows more flexible at room temperature (Fishman et al., 2000). The blinding of pectin and poly vinyl alcohol shows excellent mechanical and oxygen barrier properties by using twin screw extruder. The recent advances in the pectin based extruded films are functional additives can incorporation with essential oils, plant extracts and nanoparticles for active packaging, smart packaging innovation in industrial sectors and custom structures for packaging applications. However, challenges and considerations in the pectin-based film packaging have thermal sensitivity, processability and less stability by using plasticizer and lose their functionalities. Continuous research is continuing to overcomes these obstacles by enhancing the suitability performance and competitiveness of pectin-based bio packaging (Fishman et al., 2006).

6.4 Others advance technology in the food packaging

Food packaging comprises a diversity of fabrication methods, each biopolymer are chosen based on the product conservancy needs, regulatory requirements and market preconceptions. Several other fabrication and packaging methods are used in the modern application such as industrial trends in food safety and sustainable packaging. Direct casting, spray coating and spread coating are all the foremost fabrication process that are using the film forming polymers. Some advances technologies are electrospinning, Non-Solvent- Induced Phase Separation (NIPS), lamination and metallization. These methods are adaptable and accumulable with the natural polymers and conventional to the synthetic materials. Particularly, NIPS is a prevailing method for fabricating polymeric membranes were as electrospinning is an incipient technique that can create ultrathin fibres for active and intelligent food packaging. The combination of multiple layers by binding or coating to produce the metalized films by metallization and laminated structures for lamination is widely used for sensitive product packaging. In other hands, to develop the shelf-life extension packaging membrane, researchers are employing the modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and vacuum packaging that can alters the internal environmental of the package to lessen the oxidation. By these techniques, the packaging technologies are expected to remain at the forefront of food conservation and attribute assurance across the global resource chain (Nešić et al., 2017; Šešlija et al., 2018; Jamwal et al., 2024).

7 Film performance with functionality and industrial application

Advancement of food packaging in biopolymers have underscored the pivotal capability of film materials in preserving product quality, extending shelf life and ensuring consumer safety drives a paradigm shift towards multifunctionality and sustainability. The functional characteristics induced by the biopolymers made a key prominence to achieve desired performance and functionalities such as integrity of film matrix, dominated by the molecular arrangement and interaction between the polymeric molecules, directly prompts essential attributes such as barrier effectiveness against moisture, gases and oils as well as mechanical potency and tractability. In fact, packaging waste has been an issue in environmental concerns over the decades. It covers around 65% of waste space because of its bulkiness and voluminous nature. Modern food packaging films provides the advance development in waste management and address sophisticated market requirement strategies in the ecofriendly features, beyond the traditional methods in the packaging. The cutting-edge innovations has been developed including, the smart and active packaging, sustainable with monomaterials films, multilayer with composite films, bio-based with edible films and high-performance films for intensified exploration of microstructure–properties relationships between the sustainable packaging (Lai and Wong, 2022).

7.1 Active and smart packaging

A revolutionary development in food packaging, active and smart packaging technologies move from passive containment to dynamic systems that improve safety, preservation and customer involvement. In order to actively extend shelf life and microbial growth prevention, active packaging incorporates functional components like oxygen scavengers, moisture absorbers, antimicrobial films, ethylene absorbers and modified atmosphere packaging. Natural biopolymers and nanotechnology are frequently used for the controlled release of bioactive agents. Choosing an appropriate polymer to serve as the film matrix is the first step in creating active films. Active agents are then added to the polymer solution or melted during the film-forming process. These active ingredients may consist of metal nanoparticles, plant extracts, essential oils and other compounds that help maintain the quality of the food (Sharaby et al., 2022).

Studies have shown that adding different essential oils to packaging films can effectively preserve food. Notably, when added to pectin-based films, the essential oils of clove buds, thyme and oregano have demonstrated strong antibacterial activity against common pathogens. By influencing both the film’s characteristics and functional capacities, the implantation of metal nanoparticles to pectin films greatly improves their performance through a variety of processes. By strengthening the pectin matrix and occupying interstitial spaces, metal nanoparticles like zinc oxide and silver increase tensile strength. Simultaneously, smart packaging employs sensor technologies including time-temperature indicators (TTIs), freshness and gas sensors, RFID tags, QR codes and IoT-enabled devices to monitor product condition and supply chain integrity in real time, thereby improving safety, traceability and consumer engagement. In packaging films, colour compounds, whether synthetic or natural, function as creative smart colour indicators, particularly when included into pectin-based systems. Through colour variations brought on by variables like pH changes, temperature swings or certain metabolites from food spoiling, they provide visual indications regarding the state of the food. Pectin-based smart packaging solutions go one step further by incorporating natural colorants (such as curcumin or anthocyanins) into the film matrix to create colorimetric indicators that react to vapour chemicals emitted during spoiling or pH variations. Customers can evaluate food quality non-destructively owning to these technologies, which offer real-time visual indicators of the products freshness or the beginning of spoiling. Pectin is a leading ingredient in next-generation intelligent packaging since some pectin-based films even incorporate sensors or biosensors to monitor the condition of the food while it is being transported and stored (Zeng et al., 2022; Lv et al., 2023; Dirpan et al., 2024).

In recognition of its versatile structural and functional qualities, pectin derived from various biomass sources such as citrus peels, apple pomace, sugar beet pulp, tropical fruit wastes, and emerging non-timber forest products (NTFPs) plays an important role in a variety of industrial sectors. Citrus- and apple-derived pectins, which form the foundation of industrial pectin manufacturing, are widely employed in edible films and coatings due to their high gelling capability, durability, and efficient oxygen barrier qualities for fresh and minimally processed food products. Sugar beet pectin supplemented with acetyl groups and protein fractions has outstanding emulsifying properties, making it suited for composite and multilayer packaging systems intended for humid and liquid foods (Nehra et al., 2022; Yi et al., 2024). Although most industrial production of pectin-based films is currently based on pilot-scale efforts, various studies show encouraging performance findings that support scaling for food packaging applications. In comparison to single pectin films, optimized bilayer films made at larger casting scales that combined pectin and PLA demonstrated a tensile strength of approximately 7.04 MPa, an exceptionally high elongation at break (462%), and significantly improved water vapor (1.45 × 10⁻¹¹ g/m·s·Pa) and oxygen barrier properties, indicating improved mechanical and barrier performance for packaging applications (Said et al., 2024). Pectin films are getting closer to industrial viability as sustainable food packaging alternatives owing to recent pilot developments in cross-linked pectin plastic films, which have reported exceptionally high fracture stress values (41.7 MPa) with improved moisture resistance and UV barrier properties, complete biodegradability in soil (7 weeks), and the capacity to be processed into bags with excellent food preservation efficiency (Qiang et al., 2024).

8 Environmental impact and circular lifecycle

Pectin has minimal impact on the environment due to its renewable supply from agricultural byproducts and natural biodegradability, as seen from an environmental and circular lifecycle standpoint. Furthermore, being fully integrated into natural biocycles after disposal, pectin packaging is typically compostable and strongly matches with circular economy models that aim to reduce waste from single-use plastics. Pectin-based systems are becoming more widely recognized as safe, environmentally acceptable and operationally reliable substitutes for plastics made from petroleum as research and industry. In addition to the help of extensive collection infrastructures and legal frameworks such as Extended Producer Responsibility and end-of-life management is redesigned to place a higher priority on material recovery and controlled biodegradation. When combined, these methods help reduce waste and save resources while also reducing carbon emissions, which can occasionally reach 60% when reusable packaging is used instead of single-use packaging (Butler et al., 2023; Qiang et al., 2024). The utilization of NTFP-based pectin extraction not only broadens pectin sourcing geographically, however it further promotes sustainable forest management and creates livelihood prospects in tropical regions, all while lowering the environmental impact associated with conventional pectin production by valorizing otherwise discarded agroforestry biomass.

9 Future challenges and perspectives

Food packaging made of biopolymers and pectin has a bright future, but there are a number of significant obstacles that must be overcome before it can be widely used. Pectin films are biodegradable and environmentally friendly material. However, they frequently have drawbacks including poor gas and moisture barrier qualities, brittleness and low heat resistance that prevent them from being used directly without reinforcement or modification. Cost, manufacturing scalability and regulatory approval issues arise when mechanical strength and functional qualities are improved by adding hydrophobic coatings, nanoparticles, or combining with other biopolymers. The advancement in this pectin-based films are ongoing innovations in materials formulations and enhancing the functionality with encapsulating the various materials for making the packaging as a sustainable product in the circular economy system (Abdullah et al., 2022; Syarifuddin et al., 2025).

10 Conclusion

Numerous claims regarding health wellness have been attributed to pectin, endorsing its application in functional foods and dietary supplements. Pectin based packaging compromises the antimicrobial activity, antioxidant and blends with functionalized materials that considered as generally recognized as safe (GRAS), while pectin has promising application in the food packaging. Recent studies exhibit the significant progress in enlightening the functional properties of pectin films through innovative extraction methods and integration of polymers with natural additives, paving the way for the reduction usage of conventional plastics and offers an eco-friendly alternative for sustainable waste valorization. International measures aimed at reducing plastic pollution, such as those launched by the United Nations Environment Programme, have a significant impact on the transition toward sustainable packaging. As a consequence of their biodegradability and renewable nature, pectin-based products are ideal for achieving these goals.

Interdisciplinary research in food technology, materials engineering and environmental policy remains necessary to comprehensively addressing the current limitations. This review shows the systematic research on the recent developments in the pectin-based film fabrication methods, advancing the packaging strategies in the concerns of sustainable packaging within circular economy and open new avenues for biodegradable packaging technologies. Investigating synergistic blends with other biopolymers, developing nanocomposite configurations, using bio-based plasticizers and crosslinkers could provide some new avenues for high-performance sustainable package alternatives. Ultimately, valorization of fruit waste for pectin-based materials represents an important step towards lessening environmental harm and getting closer to a true circular and bio-based economy for packaging.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frfst.2026.1795841/full#supplementary-material

Supplementary material Supplementary material at the source

Footnotes

Edited by: Shuva Bhowmik, University of Otago, New Zealand

Reviewed by: Pınar Terzioğlu, Bursa Technical University, Türkiye

Abimbola Ige, University of Minnesota Duluth, United States