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Frontiers in Food Science and Technology ·

Volume 6 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/frfst.2026.1901708

Finger millet flour based batter coating: effects on frying behavior, oil uptake, and storage stability of chicken popcorn

  • Kiran M.1*corresponding author
  • Md. Yousufuddin1
  • B. Manojkumar1
  • Ravindra B. Dombar2
  • Jamadar Deepika1
  1. 1Department of Livestock Products Technology, Veterinary College Bidar, KVAFSU, Bidar, India
  2. 2Department of Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College Bidar, KVAFSU, Bidar, India
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Abstract

Batter coating systems in fried poultry products are primarily designed to enhance sensory attributes, such as crispiness and flavor; however, their potential role as functional matrices for improving frying performance and nutritional quality remains largely unexplored. This study investigated the effect of incorporating finger millet flour (FMF) as a functional batter ingredient on the frying behavior, oil uptake, and storage stability of chicken popcorn. Batter formulations were developed by replacing cornflour with FMF at 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%, designated as Control, T1, T2, and T3, respectively. The enrobed products were evaluated for proximate composition, cooking quality parameters, physicochemical characteristics, microbiological quality, and sensory attributes during four weeks of refrigerated storage (4 ± 1 °C). Incorporation of FMF significantly influenced frying performance (p < 0.05), resulting in improved cooking yield and moisture retention while reducing fat uptake during frying. The formulation containing 10% FMF (T2) exhibited the most favourable technological performance, with the highest cooking yield (86.38%) and moisture retention (83.01%) alongside reduced fat content in cooked samples compared with the control. During storage, progressive increases in pH, tyrosine value, thiobarbituric acid value, free fatty acids, and microbial counts were observed across all treatments, reflecting typical storage related spoilage. However, FMF treated samples exhibited comparatively lower oxidative and proteolytic changes, indicating modest improvement in physicochemical stability. Sensory evaluation further revealed that chicken popcorn coated with 10% FMF achieved the highest overall acceptability. Overall, the results demonstrate that FMF can serve as an effective functional batter coating ingredient capable of modulating frying behaviour, reducing oil absorption, and improving storage stability of fried poultry snacks without compromising sensory quality. This approach provides a promising strategy for developing nutritionally improved fried meat products using millet-based functional ingredients.

Keywords

1 Introduction

Globally, enrobed fried poultry products, such as chicken nuggets, strips, and popcorn, are widely consumed owing to their characteristic crisp texture, desirable flavor profile, and convenience (Gutiérrez-Silva et al., 2023; Yogesh et al., 2013). In such products, the batter-based enrobing system plays a critical technological role by forming a coating matrix that governs heat transfer, moisture migration, crust formation, and oil absorption during frying (Barbut, 2013; Bhuiyan and Ngadi, 2024). Batter formulations have traditionally focused on improving crispiness, colour, and flavour retention (Bhuiyan and Ngadi, 2024; Wang et al., 2023). Growing consumer awareness of the nutritional concerns associated with fried foods has encouraged reformulation strategies that enhance nutritional quality while preserving desirable sensory attributes (Juvvi et al., 2024; Ching et al., 2021). Deep-fat frying is a multifaceted heat and mass transfer process characterized by concurrent moisture evaporation and oil uptake within the food substrate. Excessive oil absorption elevates the caloric density of fried products and expedites oxidative degradation during storage (Cortés et al., 2015; Dangal et al., 2024; Del Rosario -Santiago et al., 2023). Contemporary investigations indicate that integrating fiber-enriched cereal constituents into batter formulations substantially alters coating rheology, bolsters hydrocolloid functionality, and refines crust microstructure, thereby reducing porosity and impeding oil uptake (Bhuiyan and Ngadi, 2024; Cui et al., 2022; Faloye et al., 2024; Gautam et al., 2023).

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana), commonly known as ragi, is an underutilized minor millet predominantly cultivated in the semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa. It has a notable nutritional profile, characterized by dietary fiber, calcium, essential amino acids, and bioactive compounds, including phenolic acids and polyphenols (Bhuiyan and Ngadi, 2024; Goudar et al., 2023; Jacob et al., 2024). These attributes have supported its use in bakery products, extruded snacks, and other cereal-based foods (Faloye et al., 2024; Onipe and Ramashia, 2022). However, its application in batter coatings for fried meat products has received limited attention. The incorporation of FMF into batter may influence coating characteristics and, consequently, frying and storage attributes (Bhuiyan and Ngadi, 2024; Dangal et al., 2024). Although finger millet has been incorporated into various meat products, its application specifically in the batter coating of enrobed meat products, rather than directly into the meat matrix, remains insufficiently explored. In the present study, FMF was incorporated solely into the batter by partially replacing cornflour, while the other coating components and processing conditions were standardized. The effects of graded FMF incorporation on frying characteristics, oil uptake, physicochemical and microbiological quality, sensory attributes, and refrigerated storage stability of chicken popcorn were evaluated.

2 Methodology

2.1 Raw materials and preparation of chicken popcorn

Fresh boneless chicken meat was procured from a local retail market in Bidar, Karnataka, India, and transported to the laboratory under hygienic conditions. Visible fat and connective tissues were carefully removed prior to processing to obtain lean meat suitable for product preparation. Finger millet flour (FMF), cornflour, Gram flour (besan), refined wheat flour (maida), rusk powder, semolina (suji), cornflakes, sesame seeds, spices, and condiments were obtained from local commercial sources. Refined sunflower oil, used for deep-fat frying, was purchased from a local market and stored under ambient conditions until use (Verma et al., 2010).

Chicken popcorn was prepared in six separate batches using a standardized meat emulsion formulation commonly adopted for coated poultry products. The emulsion consisted of chicken meat (70%), condiment mix (12%), cooked and mashed potatoes (11.33%), refined wheat flour (3.6%), spice mix (1.5%), and common salt (1.5%). All ingredients were thoroughly mixed using a bowl mixer until a uniform emulsion was obtained. The prepared emulsion was manually shaped into bite-sized portions weighing approximately 10 ± 1 g each, ensuring a uniform size to achieve consistent frying and heat transfer during processing (Kiran et al., 2018).

A standardized three-stage coating system comprising pre-dusting, battering, and breading was used to prepare the coated chicken popcorn, following procedures commonly used for coated meat products to improve adhesion and texture (Albert et al., 2014; Labropoulos et al., 2013). The chicken pieces were first lightly pre-dusted with finger millet flour to facilitate batter adhesion. The batter formulations were prepared to evaluate the effect of finger millet flour (FMF) incorporation on frying characteristics and oil uptake by partially replacing cornflour. Four formulations containing 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% FMF were designated as Control (A), T1 (B), T2 (C), and T3 (D), respectively. The control batter contained cornflour (50%), Gram flour (30%), rusk powder (16.5%), salt (1.7%), and spice mix (1.8%). In the treatment formulations, FMF replaced an equivalent proportion of cornflour, while all other ingredients remained unchanged. Thus, T1, T2, and T3 contained 45%, 40%, and 35% cornflour with 5%, 10%, and 15% FMF, respectively, along with Gram flour (30%), rusk powder (16.5%), salt (1.7%), and spice mix (1.8%). A batter slurry was prepared by mixing 100 g of batter formulation with 100 mL of potable water to obtain a homogeneous coating slurry. Following battering, all samples were coated with the same standardized breading mixture comprising rusk powder (40%), cornflakes (27%), semolina (20%), sesame seeds (10%), salt (1.5%), and spice mix (1.5%). Thus, the breading composition and processing conditions were identical for all treatments, with FMF incorporation in the batter being the only variable coating component. The breading layer provided the uniform outer crust required for the fried product and contributed to its crispness and structural characteristics (Sumnu and Sahin, 2009). In the present study, the term ‘enrobing system’ refers to the complete three-stage coating system comprising pre-dusting, battering, and breading.

The coated samples were allowed to equilibrate for 5 min at room temperature to ensure proper batter adhesion prior to frying. Deep-fat frying was carried out in refined sunflower oil maintained at 175 °C ± 2 °C using a thermostatically controlled electric fryer. Fresh frying oil was used for each treatment/batch to minimize the influence of oil deterioration on frying characteristics. Frying was conducted at a controlled temperature; therefore, additional monitoring of oil quality during frying was not performed. The samples were fried for 4 min until a uniform golden-brown color was obtained. An oil-to-product ratio of 8:1 (w/w) was maintained to minimize temperature fluctuations during frying. After frying, the samples were drained on absorbent paper for 2 min to remove excess surface oil and cooled to room temperature before further analysis. This approach allowed the evaluation of finger millet flour as a functional enrobing ingredient that influences frying behavior and oil uptake without altering the meat matrix composition. The overall process for preparing finger millet flour–based enrobed chicken popcorn is illustrated in Graphical Abstract.

2.2 Proximate composition

Proximate composition of raw and cooked samples, including moisture, crude protein, crude fat, and ash, was determined according to AOAC (2000) standard procedures. Moisture content was determined by oven drying at 105 °C until a constant weight was achieved. Crude protein was determined using the Kjeldahl method and expressed as nitrogen × 6.25. Fat content was determined by Soxhlet extraction using petroleum ether, and ash content was determined by incineration in a muffle furnace at 550 °C for 6 h. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference. Each treatment was analysed in six independent batches (n = 6) and was used for statistical analysis.

2.3 Cooking quality parameters

The cooking quality characteristics of the enrobed chicken popcorn were evaluated in terms of cooking yield, moisture retention, fat retention, fat uptake, and water loss during frying. Cooking yield was determined as the ratio of the weight of the cooked sample to the weight of the raw sample and expressed as a percentage. Moisture retention and fat retention were calculated using the relationship between cooking yield and the proximate composition of cooked samples, following the method described for cooked meat products (Murphy et al., 1975). Moisture retention was estimated as the product of cooking yield and the percentage moisture content of cooked samples (Gautam et al., 2023), whereas fat retention was calculated as the product of cooking yield and fat content of cooked samples relative to the fat content of raw samples (Singh et al., 2011). Fat uptake during frying was determined from the increase in fat content of cooked samples compared with the corresponding raw samples. Water loss due to frying was calculated from the difference between moisture content of raw and cooked samples (Albert and Mittal, 2002). The calculations were performed using the following equations: cooking yield (%) = (weight of cooked sample/weight of raw sample) × 100; moisture retention (%) = (cooking yield × % moisture in cooked sample)/100; fat retention (%) = (cooking yield × % fat in cooked sample)/% fat in raw sample; and fat uptake (%) = (% fat in cooked sample − % fat in raw sample). Each treatment was analysed in six independent batches (n = 6) and was used for statistical analysis.

2.4 Instrumental color scores

The CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage) employed for evaluation of instrumental color of developed product by using a Konica Minolta colour reader (Model No: CR 20) by using illuminant D-65 with a 10° standard observer and aperture size was 25 mm. The instrument used was pre-calibrated, and the color meter’s aperture was positioned vertically on the surface of the samples. The results were digitally displayed on an LCD screen of the color reader, indicating lightness (L), redness (a) and yellowness (b*). Each sample underwent three measurements at different locations, and the mean value was calculated (n = 6). Hue and chroma of the meat samples were determined using a colorimeter (Model: CR10 Plus, Konica Minolta Limited Inc., Japan) (CIE, 1976) standards. Measurements were calculated using equations given below.

C h r o m a = a 2 + b 2

H u e = tan − 1 b a

2.5 Storage study design

After frying and cooling to room temperature (30 °C ± 2 °C), samples from each treatment were packaged aerobically in food-grade low-density polyethylene (LDPE) pouches (thickness 80 µm) and heat-sealed using an impulse sealer. The packaged samples were stored under refrigerated conditions at 4 °C ± 1 °C for 4 weeks. Quality evaluation was conducted at five sampling intervals: 0 (initial), 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks of storage. At each interval, samples from each treatment were aseptically withdrawn and analyzed for physicochemical (pH, thiobarbituric acid value, tyrosine value, and free fatty acids), microbiological (total plate count and coliform count), color, and sensory attributes. Each treatment was analysed in six independent batches (n = 6) and was used for statistical analysis.

2.6 Physicochemical analysis

Physicochemical quality parameters including pH, lipid oxidation, tyrosine value, and free fatty acids (FFA) were determined during storage. The pH of the samples was measured by homogenizing 10 g of the sample in 50 mL distilled water, and the pH of the homogenate was recorded using a calibrated digital pH meter (Troutt et al., 1992). Lipid oxidation was evaluated by determining the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value following the method described by Tarladgis et al. (1960), and the results were expressed as mg malondialdehyde (MDA)/kg sample. Proteolytic degradation during storage was assessed by determining the tyrosine value using the Folin–Ciocalteu method, as described by Strange et al. (1977), with absorbance measured at 660 nm using a spectrophotometer and the results expressed as mg tyrosine/100 g sample. The extent of lipid hydrolysis was determined by measuring the FFA content using acid titration, and the results were expressed as percentage oleic acid (Pearson, 1976). Each treatment was analysed in six independent batches (n = 6) and was used for statistical analysis.

2.7 Microbiological analysis

The microbiological quality of the samples during storage was evaluated by determining the total plate count (TPC) and coliform count. For analysis, 10 g of the sample was aseptically homogenized in 90 mL of sterile 0.1% peptone water, and appropriate serial dilutions were prepared. Total plate counts were determined using Plate Count Agar, followed by incubation at 37 °C for 48 h, while coliform counts were determined using Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBA) after incubation at 37 °C for 24 h. Microbial counts were expressed as log CFU/g according to standard procedures Each treatment was analysed in six independent batches (n = 6) and was used for statistical analysis.

2.8 Sensory evaluation

Sensory evaluation of freshly prepared chicken popcorn samples was conducted on day 0 prior to storage using a semi-trained panel of 10 members (n = 10) familiar with poultry products. Samples were evaluated for color, flavor, texture, juiciness, and overall acceptability using a seven-point descriptive scale, following the method of Keeton (1994), where 1 = extremely undesirable and 7 = extremely desirable. Prior to evaluation, the samples were fried under identical conditions and served warm on randomly coded plates to minimize bias. The sensory evaluation was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions, and the panelists were provided with drinking water to cleanse their palate between successive samples. The mean sensory scores obtained from the panelists were used for statistical analysis. Sensory evaluation was conducted only on freshly prepared samples to assess the initial acceptability of the product.

2.9 Statistical analysis

Data obtained for proximate composition, cooking quality parameters, and sensory scores were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to evaluate differences among treatments. For the storage study, two-way ANOVA was applied to determine the effects of treatment, storage period, and their interaction. Mean comparisons were performed using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test at a significance level of p < 0.05. In addition, Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among cooking yield, moisture retention, fat retention, fat uptake, and water loss during frying, and correlation coefficients were calculated. All experimental data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical software (IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 25.0).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Proximate composition of raw and cooked enrobed chicken popcorn

The proximate composition of raw and cooked enrobed chicken popcorn formulated with different levels of finger millet flour is presented in Table 1. A comparison of the raw and cooked values provides important insights into the compositional modifications that occur during deep-fat frying and the functional role of FMF in influencing these changes.

TABLE 1. Effect of different levels of FMF on proximate composition and cooking quality parameters of enrobed chicken popcorn.

ParameterSampleControlT1T2T3
MoistureRaw63.01 ± 0.02a63.33 ± 0.38a64.49 ± 0.09b63.36 ± 0.23a
Cooked57.34 ± 0.02a60.08 ± 0.38b61.96 ± 0.09c61.73 ± 0.23bc
Crude proteinRaw21.44 ± 0.40a23.43 ± 0.22b21.67 ± 0.37a22.25 ± 0.30a
Cooked22.85 ± 0.62a23.19 ± 0.44a21.89 ± 0.62a23.04 ± 0.45a
Total fatRaw11.90 ± 0.24b10.26 ± 0.23a10.47 ± 0.28a10.69 ± 0.13a
Cooked14.01 ± 0.31c11.34 ± 0.09b9.90 ± 0.33a10.24 ± 0.36a
Total ashRaw2.30 ± 0.00a2.26 ± 0.12a2.36 ± 0.02a2.36 ± 0.031a
Cooked2.97 ± 0.06a2.79 ± 0.09a2.84 ± 0.14a2.87 ± 0.06a
CarbohydrateRaw1.34 ± 0.30a1.38 ± 0.27a1.34 ± 0.24a1.35 ± 0.196a
Cooked1.58 ± 0.26a1.25 ± 0.22a0.99 ± 0.15a1.01 ± 0.22a
Cooking yieldCooked78.94 ± 0.49a82.72 ± 1.03b86.38 ± 1.48c85.53 ± 1.03bc
Moisture retentionCooked71.84 ± 0.73a78.44 ± 0.43b83.01 ± 1.69c83.36 ± 1.66c
Fat retentionCooked92.94 ± 4.43b91.43 ± 4.62b81.64 ± 2.40a81.93 ± 2.81a
Fat uptakeCooked92.88 ± 0.85b91.53 ± 1.79b81.78 ± 3.50a81.91 ± 2.46a
Water loss due to fryingCooked8.99 ± 0.599c5.15 ± 0.72b3.91 ± 0.39ab2.6 ± 0.75a

Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Different superscripts within the same row indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). C- Control T1- 5% FMF, T2- 10% FMF, T3- 15% FMF.

The moisture content of the raw formulations ranged from 63.01% to 64.49%, with marginally elevated levels in FMF-incorporated treatments, attributable to the elevated dietary fiber (18.6%) and polysaccharide content of finger millet flour, which confers a superior water-holding capacity within the batter matrix (Abioye et al., 2022; Gorachiya et al., 2022). FMF-enriched cooked samples exhibited significantly superior moisture retention relative to the control, escalating from 57.34% (control) to 61.96% (T2) (Gamit et al., 2020; Mishra et al., 2023). This phenomenon aligns with the established interactions between cereal-derived fibers and myofibrillar proteins, fostering a stabilized protein–water matrix that mitigates drip loss and enhances juiciness during thermal denaturation (Mishra et al., 2023; Rashwan et al., 2024). Such moisture retention is pivotal for fried poultry, ameliorating textural firmness and sensory succulence (Gamit et al., 2020).

The crude protein content in the raw samples ranged from 21.44% to 23.43% and remained statistically unchanged after frying across different treatments, suggesting that FMF has a negligible impact on proteolysis or denaturation pathways. The subtle differences between samples are likely due to the relative concentration effects resulting from varying levels of moisture expulsion (Mishra et al., 2023). Crude fat content, determined by Soxhlet extraction on a dry-matter basis, varied among raw and cooked samples and represents extractable lipid concentration rather than direct frying-oil uptake. Oil uptake was assessed separately using the method of Murphy et al. (1975). FMF-enrobed treatments showed lower oil uptake than the control, with T2 exhibiting the lowest value. This reduction may be attributed to the fiber-rich FMF matrix, which modifies batter rheology and coating microstructure, thereby limiting oil penetration during frying and cooling (Gorachiya et al., 2022; Rashwan et al., 2024).

The ash content exhibited slight increases in FMF treatments (raw/cooked), attributable to the high mineral density of finger millet, particularly its calcium (162–398 mg/100 g) and phosphorus (130–283 mg/100 g) levels among cereals (Abioye et al., 2022). The carbohydrate profiles showed no significant differences among treatments, with variations linked to batter polysaccharides. Overall, incorporating FMF in batter system enhances the nutritional value of fried products by increasing moisture retention, reducing lipid absorption, and enriching minerals, all while maintaining compositional balance.

3.2 Cooking quality parameters

The cooking quality parameters, including cooking yield, moisture retention, fat retention, fat uptake, and water loss during frying, are detailed in Table 2. Cooking yield significantly increased (P < 0.05) with higher FMF levels, reaching its peak in treatment T2, where it exceeded the control’s 78.94% (Gamit et al., 2020; Gorachiya et al., 2022). The FMF-fortified batter systems effectively retained moisture during frying (Gamit et al., 2020). This trend was evident in moisture retention, which increased from 71.84% in the control to 83.01% and 83.36% in T2 and T3, respectively, indicating an enhanced water-holding capacity in the batter coating for improved juiciness and texture (Gamit et al., 2020; Mishra et al., 2023). Similar increases in moisture retention have been observed in fiber-enriched meat products using cereal flours (Mishra et al., 2023). FMF incorporation influenced fat retention, with the lowest values observed in T2 (81.64%) and T3 (81.93%), compared with 92.94% in the control and 91.43% in T1. These differences may be related to the fiber-rich nature of FMF, which can increase batter viscosity and promote formation of a denser coating structure. During frying, moisture vaporization creates pores that can facilitate oil penetration and subsequent oil retention during cooling. The modified batter structure associated with FMF may reduce coating porosity and thereby influence oil penetration and retention (Faloye et al., 2024; Rashwan et al., 2024; Ching et al., 2021). Thus, FMF incorporation may contribute to modifying the fat-retention characteristics of enrobed chicken popcorn. The loss of water during frying significantly decreased with increased with FMF incorporation into batter layer, being minimal in T3 compared to maximal in the control, thus preventing pore formation that facilitates oil accumulation—a connection supported by deep-fat frying literature (Bhuiyan and Ngadi, 2024; Faloye et al., 2024). Overall, these findings confirm FMF’s beneficial influence on frying dynamics in coated chicken popcorn, with 10% FMF (T2) achieving optimal cooking yield, moisture retention, and oil reduction, establishing it as an effective functional coating agent for nutritionally enhanced coated poultry (Gamit et al., 2020; Rashwan et al., 2024).

TABLE 2. Correlation matrix illustrating the relationship between moisture retention, oil uptake, and frying quality attributes of finger millet flour–enrobed chicken popcorn.

ParameterCooking yieldMoisture retentionFat retentionFat uptakeWater loss
Cooking yield10.89**0.72*−0.81**−0.85**
Moisture retention​10.68*−0.76**−0.90**
Fat retention​​1−0.65*−0.60*
Fat uptake​​​10.79**
Water loss​​​​1

Significant at p < 0.05.

Significant at p < 0.01.

3.3 Mechanistic interpretation of frying behaviour through correlation analysis

Pearson correlation analysis showed a strong positive association between cooking yield and moisture retention (r > 0.8, p < 0.01), while fat uptake was negatively correlated with both cooking yield and moisture retention (r < −0.7, p < 0.01). Water loss also showed a positive correlation with fat uptake (r > 0.7, p < 0.01) (Table 2). These relationships indicate an association between moisture-related cooking changes and fat uptake in the fried product. However, as cooking yield, moisture retention, water loss, and fat uptake are interrelated measures, these correlations should be interpreted cautiously and do not establish causal or mechanistic relationships. The observed associations are consistent with previously reported relationships between moisture loss and oil uptake in fried foods (Devi et al., 2014; Pawase et al., 2019; Gamit et al., 2020; Gorachiya et al., 2022).

3.4 Colour characteristics

The instrumental colour characteristics of finger millet flour (FMF)-enrobed chicken popcorn are illustrated in Figure 1. The bar chart provides a comparative visualization of the three colour indices (hue, chroma, and value) and clearly demonstrates the influence of FMF incorporation on the optical properties of the fried coating. As evident from Figure 1, progressive replacement of cornflour with FMF significantly (p < 0.05) altered the colour profile of the product, particularly in terms of colour saturation and lightness. Among the treatments, T2 (10% FMF) exhibited the lowest hue, chroma, and value values, indicating the development of a darker and less saturated coating compared with the control. These changes may be attributed to the high concentration of phenolic compounds, tannins, and natural pigments present in finger millet flour, which promote thermal oxidation and intensify Maillard browning reactions during frying (Annor et al., 2017; Nani and Krishnaswamy, 2023). Furthermore, the fibre-rich composition of FMF may modify heat and moisture transfer within the coating matrix, thereby influencing surface browning kinetics and colour development (Ananthu et al., 2023; Devi et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2021; Murungweni et al., 2024).

Effect of finger millet flour (FMF) incorporation on instrumental colour characteristics (hue, chroma, and value) of enrobed chicken popcorn. Values are presented as mean ± standard error (SE). Error bars represent standard error.
Figure 1. Effect of finger millet flour (FMF) incorporation on instrumental colour characteristics (hue, chroma, and value) of enrobed chicken popcorn. Values are presented as mean ± standard error (SE). Error bars represent standard error.

The decline in chroma values suggests reduced colour vividness and saturation, whereas lower value scores indicate decreased lightness and the formation of a characteristic golden-brown surface typically associated with fried products (Yazıcıoğlu et al., 2025). Interestingly, the graphical representation reveals that colour changes were most pronounced at the 10% incorporation level, beyond which no further substantial darkening was observed. This observation corresponds well with the sensory evaluation results, where T2 achieved the highest overall acceptability despite exhibiting lower instrumental colour values. Such findings indicate that moderate darkening resulting from FMF incorporation enhanced the visual perception of frying quality without adversely affecting consumer acceptance. Similar colour modifications have been reported in millet-enriched meat products and cereal-based coating systems, where natural polyphenols and thermal browning reactions contributed to darker yet sensorially desirable products (Chatli et al., 2015; Rana et al., 2025; Singh et al., 2024).

3.5 Physicochemical changes during refrigerated storage

Changes in physicochemical parameters, including pH, thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value, tyrosine value, and free fatty acids (FFA), during refrigerated storage are summarized in Table 3. The increase in pH can be attributed to microbial metabolism and proteolytic reactions, resulting in the formation of alkaline compounds, such as ammonia and amines (Rodrigues et al., 2018). However, samples coated with finger millet flour (FMF) consistently exhibited slightly lower pH values than the control, suggesting improved stability of the product matrix. This effect may be associated with the presence of phenolic compounds and organic acids in finger millet, which can influence the buffering capacity of the coating system (Kumari et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2023). TBA values increased during storage in all treatments, reflecting progressive lipid oxidation in fried poultry products (Kumar et al., 2021; 2023). The FMF-treated samples exhibited comparatively lower TBA values, indicating improved oxidative stability. The reduced lipid oxidation may be attributed to the antioxidant potential of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and tannins naturally present in finger millet (Devi et al., 2014). Similarly, tyrosine values increased gradually during storage, reflecting ongoing proteolytic degradation of muscle proteins. However, samples containing FMF generally showed lower tyrosine values than the control, suggesting reduced protein breakdown. This observation may be linked to the antioxidant and mild antimicrobial activity of millet phenolics, which can slow enzymatic and microbial proteolysis (Jacob et al., 2024). A comparable trend was observed for FFA values, which increased during storage due to lipid hydrolysis. However, the magnitude of the increase was lower in FMF-treated samples, indicating improved lipid stability in the enrobed system.

TABLE 3. Effect of different levels of Finger Millet Flour (FMF) on physicochemical qualities of control and developed enrobed chicken popcorn during 4-week Storage studies.

ParameterTreatments0 weeks1 week2 weeks3 weeks4 weeks
pHControl5.7150 ± 0.027aA5.8175 ± 0.008,5.7350 ± 0.027aA5.8400 ± 0.024cB5.9775 ± 0.012bC
T15.6800 ± 0.015aA5.7750 ± 0.009aB5.7075 ± 0.012abA5.7825 ± 0.008bcB5.8350 ± 0.020aC
T25.6750 ± 0.014aA5.7775 ± 0.016abB5.6700 ± 0.010aA5.7225 ± 0.033abAB5.7825 ± 0.038aB
T35.6975 ± 0.015aA5.7450 ± 0.015aA5.6700 ± 0.020aA5.6925 ± 0.020aA5.7500 ± 0.050aA
Tyrosine valueControl502.1650 ± 18.55aA703.7775 ± 15.90cB790.2500 ± 15.76Cb827.7500 ± 6.71cC1,057.4150 ± 31.98bD
T1522.4425 ± 28.24aA661.2775 ± 12.77bB708.2500 ± 9.21aB784.7500 ± 11.04bC1,042 ± 8.317bD
T2531.2500 ± 15.29aA638.8875 ± 8.01abB688.5825 ± 3.47aC707.5000 ± 7.24aC877.5000 ± 9.023aD
T3522.1100 ± 2.42aA619.4600 ± 5.62aB665.7500 ± 19.70Ca711.0000 ± 7.42aD849.2500 ± 11.586aE
Tbars valueControl0.2093 ± 0.009abA0.2760 ± 0.017aB0.3606 ± 0.013bC0.3943 ± 0.008cC0.4788 ± 0.009cD
T10.2022 ± 0.006aA0.2458 ± 0.013aB0.3375 ± 0.012bC0.3608 ± 0.008bC0.4635 ± 0.007bcD
T20.2133 ± 0.004abA0.2472 ± 0.015aB0.2985 ± 0.005aC0.3385 ± 0.014abD0.4385 ± 0.011abE
T30.2278 ± 0.009bA0.2435 ± 0.010aA0.3005 ± 0.007aB0.3148 ± 0.006aB0.4325 ± 0.010aC
Free fatty acidsControl0.1248 ± 0.011aA0.2023 ± 0.041aB0.2820 ± 0.020aC0.2478 ± 0.012aBC0.2750 ± 0.004aC
T10.1432 ± 0.023aA0.2559 ± 0.015aB0.2368 ± 0.021aB0.2418 ± 0.018aB0.2728 ± 0.011aB
T20.1323 ± 0.022aA0.2177 ± 0.041aB0.2306 ± 0.024aB0.2263 ± 0.024aB0.2410 ± 0.014aB
T30.1583 ± 0.022aA0.2263 ± 0.032aAB0.2256 ± 0.027aAB0.2578 ± 0.016aB0.2510 ± 0.012aB
Total plate countControl4.4178 ± 0.294aA4.7605 ± 0.155aAB4.4930 ± 0.221abA5.4253 ± 0.066aBC5.9583 ± 0.31aC
T14.2038 ± 0.062aA4.4868 ± 0.085aA5.1760 ± 0.117bB5.5650 ± 0.285aBC6.1593 ± 0.35aD
T23.9235 ± 0.267aA4.2418 ± 0.402aAB4.7450 ± 0.156abAB5.0535 ± 0.262aB6.3145 ± 0.12aC
T34.1525 ± 0.069aA4.3790 ± 0.039aAB4.1813 ± 0.391aaA5.0550 ± 0.235aB6.1668 ± 0.31aB
Coliform countControl2.4990 ± 0.127aA3.2565 ± 0.296aBC2.9223 ± 0.273aAB3.4870 ± 0.261aBC3.8025 ± 0.185aC
T12.3528 ± 0.215aA3.2898 ± 0.594aAB2.8940 ± 0.373aAB3.7025 ± 0.571aAB3.9973 ± 0.508aB
T22.3008 ± 0.182aA2.8438 ± 0.396aAB3.3910 ± 0.513aAB3.7810 ± 0.722aAB4.2035 ± 0.585aB
T32.5410 ± 0.128aA2.9625 ± 0.196aAB3.4233 ± 0.398aACB3.9025 ± 0.610aBC4.3965 ± 0.491aC

Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Different superscripts (Capital/small letters) within the same row and column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). C- Control T1- 5% FMF, T2- 10% FMF, T3- 15% FMF, TBA, Value- Thiobarbituric Acid reactive substance value.

3.6 Microbiological stability during refrigerated storage

The microbiological quality of enrobed chicken popcorn during refrigerated storage, expressed as aerobic plate count and coliform count, is presented in Table 3. Both parameters exhibited a logarithmic increase over the storage period across all treatments, consistent with psychrotrophic growth of residual microflora in refrigerated cooked meat products. Nonetheless, finger millet flour-coated samples consistently showed lower counts than the control, evidencing antimicrobial inhibition. This is attributable to phenolic compounds, tannins, and other bioactive antimicrobials in finger millet that suppress the proliferation of spoilage microorganisms (Devi et al., 2014; Kumari et al., 2019; Onipe and Ramashia, 2022). FMF incorporation in the batter coating thus enhances microbial stability. Importantly, even with progressive increases, all values remained below the regulatory limits for cooked meat products (e.g., APC <10^7 CFU/g), confirming satisfactory microbiological quality throughout storage. These findings demonstrate that the FMF-based enrobing system not only ensures safety but also enhances stability through the antimicrobial properties derived from millet.

3.7 Sensory characteristics

The sensory profile of finger millet flour (FMF)-enrobed chicken popcorn, evaluated using the 8-point descriptive scale of Keeton (1994), is presented and visualized through a radar plot (Figure 2). Radar plots provide a holistic representation of multidimensional sensory responses, where a larger enclosed area indicates superior overall sensory performance. As evident from Figure 2, incorporation of FMF markedly influenced the sensory characteristics of the product, with the 10% FMF treatment (T2) exhibiting the largest sensory polygon and the most balanced profile across all evaluated attributes. Although colour scores declined slightly with increasing FMF incorporation, likely due to enhanced browning and the natural pigmentation of finger millet flour (Adepehin et al., 2023; Devi et al., 2014; Ilamaran et al., 2021; Irondi et al., 2022; Krokida et al., 2001). More importantly, T2 achieved the highest scores for flavour, texture, juiciness, and overall acceptability, reflecting the positive impact of FMF on eating quality. The improved sensory perception of T2 might be due to its superior frying performance, particularly higher cooking yield and moisture retention coupled with lower oil uptake, which collectively contributed to a crisp coating and juicy internal texture. The close agreement between the sensory profile and the technological performance of the products indicates that moderate incorporation of FMF not only enhances functional properties but also improves consumer-perceived quality (Ahmadinia et al., 2023; Mishra et al., 2023; Cavenaghi-Altemio and Fonseca, 2024; Faloye et al., 2024). Overall, the radar plot clearly identifies 10% FMF as the optimum incorporation level, providing the best balance between sensory acceptability and functional enhancement of the enrobed chicken popcorn, thereby supporting the potential of finger millet flour as a value-added functional ingredient in fried poultry products (Thomas et al., 2024; Chatli et al., 2015; Verma et al., 2010). Sensory evaluation was limited to freshly prepared samples; therefore, changes in sensory quality and consumer acceptability during refrigerated storage were not assessed. Future studies should include sensory evaluation at relevant storage intervals to complement the instrumental and microbiological assessment of shelf life.

Radar plot illustrating the sensory profile of enrobed chicken popcorn formulated with different levels of finger millet flour.
Figure 2. Radar plot illustrating the sensory profile of enrobed chicken popcorn formulated with different levels of finger millet flour.

4 Conclusion

The present study demonstrated that finger millet flour can be effectively utilized as a functional enrobing ingredient in fried poultry products, offering technological and nutritional advantages. The incorporation of FMF in the batter system significantly influenced the frying behavior, compositional characteristics, and storage stability of enrobed chicken popcorn. Moderate inclusion levels improved moisture retention, cooking yield, and structural stability while reducing fat uptake during frying, owing to the fiber-rich composition of finger millet. FMF also enhanced physicochemical stability during refrigerated storage through lower lipid oxidation and proteolytic degradation, attributable to its natural phenolic compounds and antioxidants. Microbiological quality remained unaffected, and sensory evaluation indicated that 10% FMF provided the optimal balance between functional enhancement and consumer acceptability. A limitation of the present study is that instrumental texture, batter rheology, coating microstructure, porosity, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity were not directly evaluated. Therefore, the observed sensory differences in texture and the proposed mechanisms underlying the effects of FMF on frying and storage characteristics should be considered indicative rather than conclusive. Future studies should incorporate objective texture and structural analyses, along with functional and antioxidant measurements, to validate these proposed mechanisms. These findings highlight a novel application of FMF in enrobing systems, shifting batter coatings toward structural modification and nutritional optimization of fried meat products. From an industrial perspective, this approach enables the incorporation of nutrient-dense, fiber-rich millet ingredients into value-added poultry products, aligning with consumer demand for functional, clean-label convenience foods and enhancing product quality and market value.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Miguel Elias, University of Evora, Portugal

Reviewed by: Mingyu Yin, Shanghai Ocean University, China

Maria Inês Rouxinol, University of Evora, Portugal

Statements

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this works declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This work was supported by the Department of Science and Technology- Science and Engineering Research Board funded project no. 202016000228.

Data availability

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

KM: Funding acquisition, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Formal Analysis, Resources, Software, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration, Validation, Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing, Methodology, Data curation. MY: Writing – review and editing, Investigation, Methodology, Formal Analysis. BM: Methodology, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Writing – review and editing. RD: Writing – review and editing, Investigation, Methodology, Data curation, Formal Analysis. JD: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Formal Analysis, Validation, Data curation, Writing – review and editing.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University (KVAFSU) Bidar for providing necessary facilities.

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Citation

M., K., et al. (2026). Finger millet flour based batter coating: effects on frying behavior, oil uptake, and storage stability of chicken popcorn. Frontiers in Food Science and Technology, Volume 6. https://doi.org/
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Copyright © 2026 M., Yousufuddin, Manojkumar, Dombar and Deepika.

License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

*Correspondence: Kiran M.

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