Airport-driven urban transformation and emergent collective dynamics in Amazonian intermediate cities: evidence from Tarapoto, Peru

1 Introduction

Airport infrastructure emerges as strategic hubs that transform urban morphology and alter traditional patterns of growth. Accordingly, such infrastructure connects flows of people and goods, acting as focal points for spatial, economic and social dynamics, and shaping the way urban landscapes are planned (Freestone, 2009, p. 2). Furthermore, this type of large-scale infrastructure often fails to integrate adequately with the existing urban fabric (Viñas and Díaz, 2020, p. 86). Added to this is the lack of adequate urban planning and the uneven distribution of public resources, such as green spaces and recreational areas. This exacerbates inequalities in access and diminishes the capacity of the urban landscape to provide adequate urban wellbeing (Silva and Pafka, 2023, p. 38). Faced with the growing complexity of urban spaces resulting from continuous transformation, new forms of analysis are required to understand the various current territorial forms (Miyazaki, 2019, p. 19–37).

In this context, the relationship between the urban landscape and airport infrastructure can present an opportunity to improve the accessibility and adaptability of these spaces. However, it can also pose a challenge if its impact on the urban structure is not considered (Lipovich, 2012, p. 1905). In accordance with the principles of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it is important to consider Sustainable Development Goal 11, which focuses on sustainable cities and communities. Specifically, we focus on Target 11.7, which proposes that, by 2030, universal access to green spaces and safe, inclusive and accessible public spaces should be provided, particularly for women, children, older persons and persons with disabilities (United Nations, 2015).

1.1 Airport-led urban development: experiences from the Global North and Global South

As is evident, transportation infrastructure tends to drive spatial change, shaping the urban area, although the results vary depending on the context (Bazant, 2010, p. 500). In the Global North, models such as Schiphol in the Netherlands or Dallas-Fort Worth and Dulles International in the United States have successfully integrated airports into financial districts, generating jobs within a 2.5-mile radius and acting as logistics hubs that drive urban employment and planned growth (Bejrananda, 2024, p. 4). Even recent projects, such as the one in Sydney, Australia, recognize that airport infrastructure has the potential to shape the landscape and urban connectivity if planned from the initial stages (Silva and Pafka, 2023, p. 63).

However, this vision of functional urban planning contrasts with the reality of the Global South.

Unlike models in the Global North, airport management in Latin America is often intertwined with political arrangements that disregard social needs. As seen in the Valley of Mexico, decision-making regarding airport infrastructure is frequently disconnected from the actual living environment, resulting in regulations that fail to address the impact on local communities (Mena and Sánchez, 2024, p. 2).

De Rezende and De Castro E Silva Bortolucci (2022) argue that certain urban infrastructures can act as drivers of spatial transformation. For example, the arrival of the railway in São José do Rio Pardo, Brazil, during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, particularly through the construction of the Central Station, became a key driver of territorial development. This process triggered urban modernization and profoundly reshaped the city's morphology and spatial dynamics (De Rezende and De Castro E Silva Bortolucci, 2022, p. 1).

Airport infrastructure interventions have the potential to reshape the urban landscape, surrounding urban morphology, and accessibility. However, they may also lead to inefficient urban development if the surrounding urban environment and the demand generated by urban expansion are not adequately considered (Loaiza Valencia and Alarcón Rodríguez, 2022, p. 110–111). This phenomenon is evident in the Cúcuta neighborhood of Colombia, where proximity to the airport has encouraged the appropriation of public spaces. This case illustrates that, in the Global South, airport infrastructure can function as a catalyst for informality rather than as a driver of planned urban development (García et al., 2024, p. 3).

1.2 Airport infrastructure and urban landscape challenges in Peru

In the national context, the capital city of Lima is implementing large-scale transport infrastructure projects. Various public entities have proven inadequate in managing and preserving the landscape in this context, impacting both the quality of the urban fabric and social cohesion (Schroeder and Coello-Torres, 2020, p. 28). The implementation of large-scale transport infrastructure projects, such as Metro Line 2, reflects the lack of integration between the design of the mobility system and the existing urban morphology. This weak connection has contributed to spatial fragmentation, limited accessibility to public spaces and the deterioration of environmental quality (López Varela and Moreno Sanz, 2020, p. 61). This finding is supported by studies such as Velarde (2025), which defines it as an instance of urban subordination in which the needs of logistics and airports are prioritized over citizens' right to an intact space.

With a similar approach, the construction of large-scale transport infrastructure such as the Southern Interoceanic Highway in Puerto Maldonado, Peru, has transformed the urban landscape by improving connectivity; however, it has also negatively impacted the landscape and people's daily routines.

Although these projects promote overall development, they often fail to consider local wellbeing or integration with the surrounding environment, affecting quality of life and forcing residents to alter their daily routes and habits (Díaz, 2015, p. 48). The city of Tarapoto faces urbanization challenges, such as unplanned growth and a lack of integration between its airport infrastructure and the urban landscape. This leads to fragmentation and hinders connectivity. This unplanned expansion endangers natural resources and exacerbates inequalities, particularly in vulnerable communities. Comprehensive urban planning that promotes sustainable development, infrastructure integration and social inclusion is essential (Provincial Municipality of San Martín, 2019).

The city of Tarapoto is considered one of the main economic hubs of Peru's Amazon region due to its strategic role in regional commerce, services, and connectivity. Peru's economic performance showed a GDP growth rate of 2.1% in 2024, reflecting the country's gradual economic recovery [Central Reserve Bank of Peru (BCRP), 2025]. In addition, Peru's GDP per capita reached approximately US$8,452 in 2024, according to World Bank indicators (World Bank, 2025). The Guillermo del Castillo Paredes–Tarapoto National Airport is the only high-capacity air transport hub in the Amazon Region, connecting regional production with metropolitan Lima, Iquitos, and Chiclayo due to the absence of alternative airport infrastructure of comparable scale. The nearest airports are located in Yurimaguas (approximately 130 km) and Chachapoyas (approximately 230 km), neither of which provides equivalent operational capacity or connectivity [Organismo Supervisor de la Inversión en Infraestructura de Transporte de Uso Público (OSITRAN), 2023].

1.3 Urban transformation around tarapoto airport

In recent decades, Tarapoto has undergone a process of urban transformation, with the development of the Guillermo del Castillo Paredes Airport becoming a central feature of the city's landscape.

In its early days, around 1961, the city had little more than a heliport and was primarily tied to agriculture and livestock farming. It also had a fragile urban fabric with limited road connections. However, the addition of new infrastructure, such as the Fernando Belaunde Terry Highway and Aviación and G. de la Vega avenues, began to link the airport with the city center. This ushered in a period of consolidation, during which basic services, expansion areas and commercial activities emerged. By 2004, the relocation of the heliport and the growing demand for housing and jobs intensified the transformation of the urban landscape, progressively replacing vegetation and natural spaces with denser and more diverse urban development (Azabache Díaz and Blaz Miranda, 2004, p. 13).

In this context, it is important to consider the environmental and regulatory framework that accompanies this process. Municipal Ordinance No. 011-2009-A/MPSM, published in 2009, established criteria and land-use suitability maps defining which areas should retain their natural character and which could be designated for urban development. Based on this, the 2009 zoning plan still showed extensive low-density residential areas and green spaces. However, the current landscape reflects a drastic change: by 2025, the airport area is projected to become a hub for commercial, educational, and service activities, accompanied by an increase in residential density in its immediate vicinity (Rivero, 2009).

The contrast between the 2009 zoning plan and the current situation is evident. While green spaces and low residential density previously predominated, the 2025 plan shows the rapid growth of commercial and residential zones around the airport, highlighting its role as a driver of economic and urban activity. While this process has improved the city's connectivity and functionality, it has also led to a significant loss of green spaces and a fragmented urban landscape. This raises the question of how airport development can be reconciled with the long-term sustainability of the urban landscape and the identity of Tarapoto.

What factors have influenced the transformation of the urban landscape in the areas surrounding Tarapoto Airport in the San Martín region?

Despite its significant importance, few studies have examined how the presence of an airport influences the transformation of the urban landscape and surrounding land use. While airports play a significant role in enhancing accessibility, promoting urban expansion and reshaping territorial development, more research is required to grasp the impact of these dynamics on the quality and functionality of adjacent urban spaces. This study addresses the need to analyze the influence of airport infrastructure on urban landscape transformation in the Peruvian Amazon, where abundant vegetation is a defining characteristic of the territory, and intermediate cities such as Tarapoto have undergone significant landscape changes over time. Adopting this perspective, the city, its public spaces and its built environment are considered materially constructed and continuously evolving entities, emphasizing the role of airport infrastructure in shaping modernity and reorganizing urban landscapes.

The primary objective of this study is to assess the transformation of the urban landscape in the vicinity of airport infrastructure. To achieve this, the following specific objectives are proposed: (1) to characterize the current urban landscape and its evolution in the vicinity of Tarapoto Airport; (2) to analyze the relationship between the growth of the airport infrastructure and the surrounding urban expansion; (3) To analyze how the initial decision to locate the airport in an area considered ‘outside the urban reach' came to constitute a focal point for spatial changes.

One of the central elements of this research is analyzing the influence of airport infrastructure on the urban dynamics of the surrounding area. To better interpret the results, the analysis is organized into categories.

1.4 Category 1: urban dynamics in airport infrastructure

The ‘strength' of an airport's influence is not constant within its catchment area. An airport exerts its influence on all neighborhoods within its catchment area, and that influence diminishes as the distance from the airport increases (Gao et al., 2023, p. 4). Large-scale infrastructure development has the potential to reconfigure nearby urban morphological spaces and transform accessibility to them. However, it also carries risks of inefficiency if the urban environment and demand for these spaces in relation to the area's expansion are not adequately considered (Loaiza Valencia and Alarcón Rodríguez, 2022, p. 110–111). Recent studies have highlighted how certain urban elements act as drivers of spatial transformation.

1.5 Category 2: Urban landscape

The landscape emerges from the set of constituents — material and abstract, natural and cultural, real and imaginary — that make up the inhabited space. These constituents are perceived and interpreted to give rise to the definition of the whole: a representative image with meaning and significance of an established environment (Períes and Barraud, 2022, p. 3). This pressure intensifies with the implementation of large-scale infrastructure, which has profoundly transformed urban morphology by altering traditional growth patterns, reorganizing space and generating configurations that often do not integrate adequately with the pre-existing urban fabric (Viñas and Díaz, 2020, p. 86). In this context, many municipalities fail to fulfill their role effectively in the management and maintenance of these spaces, directly affecting the quality of the urban and social fabric (Schroeder and Coello-Torres, 2020, p. 28).

2 Methodology

2.1 Research design

The design of this study is part of basic research, whose central purpose is to generate theoretical knowledge about the changes experienced by the urban landscape in areas near airport infrastructures, taking the Tarapoto airport in the San Martín region as a case of analysis. An immediate application of the results is not sought, but rather to understand how these transformations reflect broader processes of territorial reorganization.

The methodological approach was mixed and exploratory, since it allowed a comprehensive analysis of urban phenomena and their territorial context. This implies not only observing the physical aspects, but also considering the interactions between structural, social, regulatory, economic, and territorial factors that affect the transformation of the urban environment. According to Hernández Sampieri et al. (2014, p. 9), this qualitative approach is appropriate for investigating complex phenomena because it enables an in-depth understanding that goes beyond a superficial analysis.

In this framework, the research will adopt a case study design, allowing for a detailed analysis of the situation in its specific context (Baxter and Jack, 2015, p. 545-546). The study was oriented toward the impact that the construction and operation of the airport have generated on the surrounding public spaces and on the configuration of the urban landscape in general. For this purpose, various sources of information were used, such as urban plans, technical documents, and strategic plans related to airport infrastructure, as well as the analysis of previous urban projects that have affected the area.

Analysis of these materials made it possible to identify urbanization patterns and processes that have shaped the area's urban structure and morphology over time (Hernández Sampieri et al., 2014, p. 65–77).

2.2 Study area

The study area consists of the areas adjacent to the Cadete FAP Guillermo Airport, located 8 kilometers from the Plaza de Armas in Tarapoto, in the department of San Martín, Peru. Tarapoto is the most populous city in the department and is located in the Peruvian high jungle. Its growth is limited by natural barriers: to the northeast, the Escalera mountain range, which is a National Protected Area (ANP); and to the west and south, the Cumbaza River (Provincial Municipality of San Martín, 2019). It is the only domestic airport in the department of San Martín. Established 46 years ago, it is classified as Group 1 within the national concessionary network, handling more than 500,000 passengers annually. It currently serves four commercial airlines (LATAM, SKY Airline, Star Perú, and JetSmart), which operate direct routes to Lima, Iquitos, and Chiclayo within the country. The airport also provides key services related to the Peruvian Air Force, such as helicopter and light aircraft operations for regional support missions [Organismo Supervisor de la Inversión en Infraestructura de Transporte de Uso Público (OSITRAN), 2023].

This research aims to understand how airport infrastructure contributes to the transformation of the urban fabric and public spaces in intermediate-sized cities such as Tarapoto, where accelerated urban growth has modified the morphology, accessibility, and functional organization of the urban environment (Provincial Municipality of San Martín, 2019, p. 7). The study area is located at approximately 6°30′17″ S latitude and 76°22′06″ W longitude. Tarapoto encompasses approximately 4,500 hectares and has a population of around 187,320 inhabitants [National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI), 2018].

The public spaces located within the airport's surrounding influence area include Aviación Park, 10 de Agosto Park, Los Jardines Park, and Santa Rosa de Cumbaza Park. The Guillermo del Castillo Paredes–Tarapoto Airport has a runway measuring 2,600 m in length and 45 m in width, while its apron extends approximately 300.5 m in length and 175 m in width (see Figure 1).

This study examines the relationship between airport infrastructure and the transformation of Tarapoto's urban landscape, an Amazonian city in northern Peru, through a historical analysis covering the period from 1865 to 2025, with particular emphasis on the most recent period (2009–2025). The expansion and modernization of the Guillermo del Castillo Paredes Airport have contributed to changes in urban structure, land-use patterns, and interactions between built and natural environments, becoming a key element in shaping new territorial dynamics.

The research follows a descriptive qualitative approach, based on direct observation, cartographic analysis, spatial interpretation, and documentary review, including Municipal Ordinance No. 011-2009-A/MPSM.

The results show that, despite regulatory efforts to preserve the area's natural character, the airport's surroundings have experienced rapid growth characterized by increased residential and commercial densification, loss of green spaces, and landscape fragmentation. These changes highlight the need to strengthen urban planning and integrate airport infrastructure into strategies that balance development and sustainability. The case of Tarapoto demonstrates that this type of infrastructure can improve connectivity but can also generate inequalities if it is not accompanied by coordinated and sustainable land-use management.

2.3 Universe and study sample

The study area was divided into three analytical zones, defined based on the urban expansion processes generated around the airport. Zone 1 covered approximately 5.83 km², Zone 2 covers 3.58 km², and Zone 3 covers 4.29 km². According to data from the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics [National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI), 2018], these areas had This analysis allowed an approximate density of 1,114 inhabitants per km².

The research was divided into two methodological phases: In the first phase, the urban evolution of the area was analyzed in order to characterize the current urban landscape and identify the social, economic, functional, and regulatory factors associated with its transformation. This analysis enabled the identification of a process of progressive urban expansion around the airport, characterized by the emergence of distinct urban areas driven primarily by population growth and the economic opportunities generated by the airport infrastructure.

In the second phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted, conducted using non-probabilistic sampling using the snowball technique, which allowed access to various actors linked to the social, economic, and urban dynamics of the study area (Hernández Sampieri et al., 2014, p. 388).

The sample consisted of 12 participants, including urban professionals, residents, local authorities, and actors linked to the development of the airport. The number of participants responds to the qualitative approach of the study, where the depth of perceptions and the diversity of perspectives are prioritized.

The fieldwork took place over 9 months (March-November 2025), a period in which a point of theoretical saturation was reached, evidenced by the fact that the interviews began to reiterate similar discursive patterns. The sociodemographic data and the professional profile of the participants are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Sociodemographic data and professional profile of participants.

Source: prepared by the authors based on conducted interviews.

2.4 Techniques and data collection instruments

For the collection of information, various techniques and instruments were used to analyze the transformation of the urban landscape from a comprehensive approach. Among the main techniques are structured direct observation, documentary analysis, and semi-structured interviews. The instruments used for each technique are presented in Figure 2.

The primary technique used in this study was structured direct observation, designed to record the physical and spatial changes associated with urban landscape transformation processes, taking into account both natural impacts and those resulting from human interventions.

Semi-structured observation forms were used as a tool, which included variables related to urban morphology, land-use reconfiguration, densification processes, environmental conservation, and the presence of green and blue infrastructure, as well as visible built elements such as parks, plazas, and urban facilities.

Fieldwork was supplemented by mapping and spatial analysis tools, using Adobe Photoshop software through a manual comparative method. Land-use classification was performed through a comparative visual analysis of satellite images obtained from Google Earth and Google Maps corresponding to the years 2004, 2009, and 2025 (accessed in March 2025) corresponding to different time periods, which were compared with cartographic information from the previous Tarapoto Urban Development Plan (2009) and its updated 2019 version, supplemented by municipal zoning maps updated through 2025.

In addition, a literature review was incorporated as a secondary method, allowing for the examination of relevant sources such as urban development plans, technical studies, and regulations related to land-use planning. This technique provided essential historical and regulatory context for understanding the airport's evolution and its influence on urban zoning in the city of Tarapoto. To this end, physical and digital archives available at local institutions, municipal offices, and government databases were consulted, facilitating access to official documents and technical studies related to urban development in the study area.

In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted during 2024 and 2025 to explore the perceptions, experiences, and knowledge of local stakeholders regarding the impact of the airport infrastructure. The interviews were conducted using open-ended question guides organized around topics such as perceptions of proximity, connectivity, accessibility, social impacts, and public acceptance of the airport. This method was applied to two groups of participants: on the one hand, residents, business owners, and passersby in the selected areas; and, on the other, authorities and experts who provided technical and regulatory information.

Mobile phone recording apps were used to capture the information, which ensured the accuracy of the responses and facilitated their subsequent transcription.

2.5 Aerial surveying and spatial analysis

To complement the spatial analysis, field observation surveys and photographic documentation were conducted using a DJI Mini 3 drone, which provided high-resolution aerial images (3840 × 2160 pixels) of strategic areas in the urban environment near the airport.

This procedure allowed for a visual comparison of urban expansion and changes in land cover over the years, ensuring an interpretation consistent with the cartographic evidence from the Provincial Municipality of San Martín (2019). Since this is a manual classification, accuracy was validated through visual verification and spatial alignment with the Provincial Municipality of San Martín (2019), without relying on automatic classification algorithms.

These observations were made during pre-planned flights along the following route: −6.50782, −76.37014. This required the use of a DJI RC Mini 3 (GL) drone on May 3, 2025. The use of the equipment focused on capturing oblique and vertical images for visual reconnaissance; therefore, a photogrammetric orthomosaic was not generated. Instead, the images were used as ground truth data, enabling us to obtain satellite imagery with a resolution of 3840 × 2160 pixels for better visualization of the area, prioritizing strategic points such as the main avenues and key public spaces near the airport. We were granted the necessary permission to fly the drone over the airport infrastructure by the General Directorate of Civil Aviation (DGAC), which allowed the drone to be operated within a 4-kilometer radius of the airport, as flying closer could interfere with airport operations. In addition, we encountered restrictions such as the maximum flight altitude limit at an airport, which is 30 meters. All of this enabled us to construct a comprehensive, multiscale understanding of the transforming urban landscape surrounding the Tarapoto Airport.

3 Results

3.1 Urban development in the vicinity of the airport

Before the development of the airport infrastructure, the area where Tarapoto Airport is currently located was predominantly rural. By 1961, the area began to become more integrated with urban life due to the presence of a heliport that responded to the increase in air traffic and the city's growing status as a tourist destination. During this phase, improvements were initiated on the main connecting roads, particularly at their junctions with the Fernando Belaunde Terry Highway, as well as with Aviación and G. de la Vega avenues. These infrastructure projects strengthened connectivity between the airport and other urban areas, fostering the emergence of complementary services, businesses, and new buildings. As a result, the surrounding area began a process of urban consolidation, accompanied by the introduction of basic services such as drinking water and electricity, as well as the expansion of new residential areas (E09, July 20, 2025).

By 1985, the airport was not yet fully developed, and urban growth was closely linked to agricultural and livestock activities. Buildings were scattered, access roads were limited, and the natural environment was dominated by abundant vegetation. In this context, the area later designated for the airport was integrated into the natural landscape and did not form part of the city's urban processes. However, small areas of population expansion were already evident within a settlement that was still precarious (E08, personal communication, July 20, 2025).

Around 2004, the heliport was relocated to another sector due to population and urban growth in the area. This process brought about significant transformations in the urban landscape, driven by the growing demand for housing and the expansion of commercial activities aimed at meeting the needs of a growing population.

In this context, it is essential to consider the regulatory framework that accompanied this process. Municipal Ordinance No. 011-2009-A/MPSM, published in 2009, established land-use criteria that defined areas designated for natural conservation and those suitable for urban development. The zoning established at that time reflected the presence of extensive low-density residential zones and significant expanses of green spaces. However, the current situation shows substantial changes: by 2025, the airport area had established itself as a major hub for commercial, educational, and service activities, accompanied by an increase in residential density in its immediate vicinity (Rivero, 2009).

Today, the airport is fully integrated into the urban fabric of Tarapoto. This process has led to significant transformations in the area's landscape, evidenced by a gradual reduction in green spaces, rapid growth in construction, and a spatial reconfiguration aimed at improving mobility, access, and urban functionality. As a result, the urban landscape has taken on an increasingly artificial character, reflecting the dynamics of a city in a constant process of expansion (National Institute of Civil Defense – INDECI) (see Figure 3).

3.2 Changes in zoning and land use

The formulation of the 2009 Urban Development Plan (UDP) marked a turning point in Tarapoto's territorial planning, orienting urban growth toward a more organized structure. In this process, the infrastructure of the Guillermo del Castillo Paredes airport played a decisive role by consolidating itself as a structuring axis of new urban dynamics.

In the zoning established in 2009, a predominance of low-density residential areas is observed in the peripheral sectors, while commercial activities were mainly concentrated in the urban center. At that time, the area of influence of the airport still showed limited articulation with other land uses, and the urban landscape maintained extensive green areas and undeveloped sectors, which evidenced an urban process still in transition.

However, the new zoning scheme in force by 2025 shows significant transformations in land use. In particular, there is an expansion of both intensive and specialized commercial areas in the direction of the airport. This phenomenon reflects how the radius of influence of airport infrastructure has acquired a greater role within the urban structure, becoming a pole of attraction for economic, educational, and service activities.

Likewise, there is an increase in higher-density residential areas in the sectors near the main access roads to the airport, which has contributed to consolidating a more compact and functional urban fabric. In parallel, many of the original green areas have been progressively replaced by urban developments, resulting from the growing demand for urban land and the accelerated expansion process of the city. As a result, the current urban landscape presents a more diverse and fragmented configuration, characterized by the coexistence of mixed uses, urban equipment, and new real estate developments (see Figure 4).

3.3 Landscape transformation and vegetation cover

The Land Use Plan and the Urban Development Plan (UDP) classify the different types of forests in the San Martín region, including the delimitation of green areas within the Tarapoto sector. Based on this information, a comparative analysis was carried out between 2009 and 2025, which shows a progressive reduction in plant cover and a significant modification in the distribution of green spaces within the study area (see Figure 5).

In Zone 1, located in the northern sector, high-density vegetation cover decreased from 45% in 2009 to 42% in 2025, while low coverage areas increased from 20 to 30%. This change reflects the pressure exerted by urban growth around airport infrastructure, where natural spaces were progressively occupied by new buildings and roads, reducing the continuity of the vegetation landscape and the availability of environmental buffer areas.

In Zone 2, corresponding to the central sector, the changes were more gradual. High coverage areas decreased from 55 to 33%, while medium coverage areas decreased from 30 to 28%. Although a certain balance is maintained between the different types of vegetation cover, the spatial pattern shows an increasing fragmentation of the green fabric and the loss of ecological connectivity between natural sectors, a product of residential growth and the expansion of urban facilities.

For its part, Zone 3, located in the far south, presents the most significant reduction in vegetation. Between 2009 and 2025, high coverage areas decreased from 50% to 30%, while low coverage areas increased from 20 to 43%. This process is mainly associated with the urbanization of rural soils and riverbanks, which has limited the ecological function of the territory and its ability to maintain environmental connectivity. These changes reflect a progressive loss of the natural landscape and an increase in urban density around the airport (see Figure 6).

3.4 Social perception of the airport's impact

With the projected transfer of the airport to another sector of the city, a decision linked to both the accelerated growth of Tarapoto and the need to order its urban expansion, a key question arises: how do those who have directly experienced the transformation of the environment perceive these changes?

Beyond the technical planning tools, the experiences of the inhabitants allow us to understand how the urban landscape has evolved from a social perspective. Therefore, participants were consulted about their memories of the airport environment before its integration into the urban fabric, to identify the characteristics of the natural landscape, infrastructure, and the predominant way of life in that period.

From the 13 interviews that were carried out, clear trends were identified in citizen perception regarding the impact of the airport on the city of Tarapoto. The most mentioned aspect was the increase in tourism, indicated by all participants (12/12), who consider that the airport infrastructure has contributed to positioning the city as an attractive destination both nationally and internationally.

Similarly, the appearance of new businesses and job opportunities linked to commerce, hospitality, transport, and gastronomy was highlighted by 11 of the interviewees (11/12), which shows a positive assessment of the economic impact generated by the airport. Likewise, nine participants (9/12) pointed out that the urban expansion to new areas and the growth of commercial activities have been processes directly related to the development of airport infrastructure. Eight interviewees (8/12) also highlighted the improvements in the access roads and in the surrounding road infrastructure.

However, critical perceptions also emerged. Six interviewees (6/12) reported problems associated with noise, urban disorder, and loss of tranquility in areas near the airport, factors that affect the quality of life of residents. Consequently, the perception of living in the area of influence of the airport is divided. While seven participants (7/12) consider that conditions have improved thanks to the economic opportunities generated, four (4/12) maintain that the situation has worsened due to increased noise pollution and vehicle congestion (see Table 2).

Table 2. Quotes.

Source: personal interviews conducted.

It should be noted that these results should be interpreted as trends within a qualitative sample, and not as percentages representative of the entire population. The selection of participants through snowball sampling allowed the inclusion of different profiles of local authorities, urban planners, residents, and actors linked to the project, which contributed to collecting a diversity of perspectives on the urban transformation of the sector.

The Sankey diagram allows us to visualize how the airport infrastructure acts as a trigger for multiple urban and social transformations in Tarapoto. First, the airport boosts the growth of tourism, the appearance of new businesses, and the generation of employment, as well as the urban expansion to new areas of the city. These processes generate differentiated impacts: on the one hand, they energize the local economy and expand job opportunities; on the other, they increase the pressure on urban mobility and the road system due to the increase in population and vehicles (see Figure 7).

Finally, Table 3 shows that airport infrastructure has functioned not only as a transport equipment, but as a true catalyst for urban and social transformations. Each expansion or milestone in the development of the airport is directly related to the expansion of the city, generating new dynamics in housing, commerce, and roads. While for some actors the airport represents modernization, job opportunities, and regional positioning, for others it implies problems associated with urban disorder, increased traffic, pressure on green areas, and deterioration in the quality of life of nearby residents. This contrast reveals the ambivalent character of the airport as an agent of territorial transformation within the urban landscape of Tarapoto (see Table 3).

Table 3. Comparative table.

Source: personal interviews conducted.

4 Discussion

The transformation of the urban environment of Tarapoto airport offers a revealing window on how an infrastructure originally conceived as peripheral can become a central engine of urban reconfiguration. In the discussion that follows, the study's findings are linked to the existing literature, addressing the three proposed objectives.

4.1 Spatial and functional changes of the urban landscape

The results reveal an unplanned process of “aerotropolis formation” in the vicinity of the Tarapoto airport, where air connectivity increased territorial accessibility and accelerated land value appreciation. Unlike in large cities, where airports are typically integrated through urban planning instruments, in Tarapoto the expansion occurred with limited territorial coordination and insufficient regulatory capacity. This pattern aligns with the “Airports and Urban Development” theory proposed by (Bednarek, 2020), which links airport infrastructure to processes of urban transformation and changes in land use. The transition from an agricultural setting in 1985 to a dense, mixed-use fabric in 2025 was not an orderly process; it was driven by the expansion of residential, commercial, and service uses. This pattern aligns with the “transition zones” described by Swangjang and Iamaram, where airport infrastructure accelerates land-use change and urban expansion. However, in Tarapoto, this process occurred more rapidly than the municipal regulatory capacity could keep pace (Swangjang and Iamaram, 2011).

This pattern is consistent with Bednarek (2020) discussion of the relationship between airports and urban development, where airport infrastructure acts as a catalyst for territorial transformation by promoting accessibility, economic activities, and changes in surrounding land-use patterns. In the case of Tarapoto, the presence of the airport has contributed to the densification and functional diversification of the urban fabric through the expansion of road networks, commercial activities, and services, reflecting a gradual transition from a rural landscape toward an increasingly urbanized environment. However, this process has also generated environmental pressures, particularly through the reduction and fragmentation of vegetation cover. A comparative analysis of vegetation cover between 2009 and 2025, based on the Land Use Plan and the Urban Development Plan (UDP), reveals significant changes in the spatial distribution of green areas within the study area, indicating the effects of urban expansion on local landscape structure.

These results indicate that urban expansion around the airport requires integrated planning between the city and airport infrastructure, as real estate development has advanced more rapidly than local regulatory capacity. Although Municipal Ordinance No. 011-2009-A/MPSM sought to guide this expansion process, the findings reveal limited coordination between urban growth and land-use management. Similar situations have been identified by Rajé et al. (2022), who notes conflicts between urbanization and land use in airport environments. Likewise, Pagliarin and Marks (2025) point out that, although airport connectivity drives urban development, it also increases environmental and social pressures on the territory.

4.2 Analyze the relationship between the growth of airport infrastructure and surrounding urban expansion

In recent years, the area surrounding Guillermo del Castillo Paredes Airport has evolved from a low-dynamic periphery into a hub of urban activity. The concentration of specialty retail, services, and higher-density residential areas around the airport corridor demonstrates that the airport infrastructure has served as a catalyst for territorial reorganization and changes in land use. This pattern aligns with the findings of Sheard (2018), who notes that airport connectivity is directly linked to increased employment and population density in urban areas near the airport (Sheard, 2018). Similarly, Kamruzzaman et al. (2021), identifies that airports transform their immediate surroundings into mixed-use urban areas where housing, commerce, and services converge. In Tarapoto, this process is reflected in the gradual change in land use and the consolidation of the airport as a hub for urban expansion and densification.

However, this growth has generated territorial and environmental tensions. The joint report by International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), (2018) warns that rapid urbanization around airports can lead to the loss of green spaces, mobility conflicts, and sustained pressure on urban land [International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), 2018]. In the case of Tarapoto, the reduction in vegetation cover and the sprawl of new residential developments highlight this imbalance between urban expansion and territorial sustainability. Although the airport has driven economic growth and connectivity, the urban expansion surrounding it still lacks planning that integrates environmental and territorial considerations. The result is spatial fragmentation and accelerated landscape transformation, where real estate dynamics are advancing more rapidly than urban regulatory mechanisms. In this context, the findings highlight the need for comprehensive planning that coordinates urban development, airport infrastructure, and environmental conservation.

4.3 To analyze, from the perspectives of various local stakeholders, how the airport's relocation drove spatial and land-use changes

The relocation of the airport to an area initially distant from formal urban expansion triggered a process of territorial reconfiguration in the Tarapoto area. A space characterized by low density, limited infrastructure, and a predominantly natural landscape began to transform gradually as the airport infrastructure established itself as a new hub of urban attraction. This process involved changes in land use, urban morphology, and land occupation, demonstrating how airport infrastructure can alter the spatial dynamics of mid-sized cities. The study shows that this type of airport relocation and expansion triggers changes in land use, urban morphology, and population density: for example, the study “Change of Land Use Patterns in the Areas Close to the Airport Development Area and Some Implicating Factors” analyzes a case in Thailand where areas near the airport showed a significant increase in residential and commercial urban development (Swangjang and Iamaram, 2011). In the case of Tarapoto, local stakeholders such as E05 and E07 confirm this trend, demonstrating that the airport has evolved from a peripheral facility to become a hub for activities related to commerce, tourism, employment, and urban expansion.

However, it is important to note that the expansion of airport infrastructure also generates tensions: the literature warns that when airport infrastructure acts as a hub for urban growth without sufficient planning, territorial, environmental, and social tensions may arise. According to the report by the International Civil Aviation Organization in collaboration with UN-Habitat (“Promoting Synergy between Cities and Airports”), unplanned urban growth around airports carries risks such as the loss of green spaces, land saturation, and land-use conflicts—especially in cities where urban expansion outpaces the capacity for land-use regulation [International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), 2018].

5 Strategies

5.1 Territorial planning based on airport influence gradients

Research such as that of Wojewnik-Filipkowska and Koszarek-Cyra (2022) shows that airports modify the spatial structure by creating differentiated zones of urban pressure. From this principle, an applicable strategy consists of delimiting planning rings -for example, from 0 to 500 m, 500 to 1500 m, and 1500 to 3000 m— to assign land uses compatible with each level of impact. In the nearest areas, commercial activities or services linked to the airport can be prioritized. At the same time, in the intermediate rings, regulated residential densities are ordered and, outside, green or transition areas. This way of arranging space allows you to anticipate growth.

5.2 Continuous spatial monitoring with multiscalar tools

To properly manage landscape transformations, it is necessary to have up-to-date information. Recent literature in territorial analysis highlights that satellite monitoring and the use of drones allow detecting changes in vegetation, urban density, land use, and morphology with greater accuracy. Schroeder and Coello-Torres (2020) point out that continuous monitoring systems help correct early deviations and support urban policy decisions with evidence. Therefore, it is proposed to establish a quarterly monitoring system that evaluates changes in the areas near the airport and feeds back into urban development plans (Ferrulli, 2016).

5.3 Integration of green infrastructure as a landscape protection mechanism

The transformation of the landscape by urban expansion around airports is widely recognized in the literature. Swangjang and Iamaram (2011) showed that airport development tends to reduce vegetation cover and alter local ecosystems. Faced with this pressure, a recommended strategy is to consolidate green and blue infrastructure through ecological corridors, buffer parks, and plant networks that connect degraded sectors. This type of intervention not only helps to recover affected areas but also improves the perception of space and reduces impacts such as noise and urban heat. In addition, recent research carried out in Indonesia, such as the study of the Yogyakarta International Airport (2025), indicates that the design of green infrastructure can be modeled with climate tools to optimize ventilation, shade, and thermal comfort, which gives greater technical support to its implementation (Iswati et al., 2025).

6 Conclusions

The analysis of the urban evolution of Tarapoto shows that the infrastructure of the Guillermo del Castillo Paredes airport has functioned as an engine of territorial transformation. In addition, 43% of residential and commercial growth was concentrated in an approximate radius of 2 km from its installation. The maps and observations show that this expansion has generated a significant increase in urbanized density, accompanied by the reduction of green areas and the fragmentation of natural coverage, transforming the traditional spatial pattern of the city. The interviews confirm that the airport acts as an articulating axis between the regional economic dynamics and the expansion of the urban fabric, promoting tourism and the revaluation of the land, but also generating differentiated impacts on the quality of life, such as noise, congestion, and loss of tranquility perceived by nearby neighbors.

The study also revealed a critical land-use conflict in which special regulatory zones were established in the Urban Development Plan (PDU); urban development has disregarded noise contours by allowing low- and medium-density residential development in areas of high noise exposure, thereby validating the perception of participant E08.

The verifiable results show that the presence of the airport directly influences urbanization processes in Amazonian contexts, acting simultaneously as a driver of economic development and as a source of pressure on natural resources and the built environment. This highlights the need for concrete urban planning and management strategies—including buffer zones, ecological corridors, building density controls, and periodic environmental monitoring—to balance urban growth, environmental sustainability, and residents' quality of life.

Among the study's limitations are the limited availability of historical cartographic information and partial access to up-to-date technical data on airport infrastructure. Furthermore, the analysis focused on territorial and social dimensions; therefore, future research could incorporate environmental and economic indicators as well as isophane modeling, thereby establishing a foundation for future quantitative studies. It could also include comparisons with other regional airports in the country to identify common patterns and develop urban planning guidelines applicable nationwide.

Therefore, it is recommended that urban expansion around the Tarapoto Airport be accompanied by integrated environmental planning and management strategies, based on evidence of observed growth and international experiences. Priority actions include clear zoning of areas suitable for urban development, the conservation of ecological corridors, and the constant monitoring of vegetation cover. Likewise, it is necessary to establish controls on building density and regulate commercial activities to prevent excessive pressure on existing infrastructure. These measures would help balance urban development with environmental sustainability, ensuring the functional integration of the airport with its surroundings, improving the quality of life for nearby residents, and strengthening the city's capacity to manage the environmental and social impacts resulting from its expansion. The case of Tarapoto demonstrates that the interaction between urban development and airport infrastructure defines not only the city's physical expansion but also its territorial identity and socioeconomic dynamics.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frsc.2026.1840137/full#supplementary-material

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Footnotes

Edited by: Jianming Cai, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), China

Reviewed by: Tathiane Mayumi Anazawa, State University of Campinas, Brazil

Evandro Jose Da Silva, Aeronautics Institute of Technology (ITA), Brazil