Rejigging smart sustainable city development in Saudi Arabia: artificial intelligence, megaprojects, smart mobility, and green initiative

1 Introduction

Today, the current rate of people living in urban areas worldwide accounts for around 55 percent of the total population and is expected to increase to around 68 percent by 2050 (United Nations, 2018). A significant rise in the amount of pressure placed on natural and environmental resources is taking place due to this fast urbanization, which produces worries over the future of water and energy (Almulhim and Cobbinah, 2023). The concept of smart city was introduced and has evolved through the years as a solution to the problems that were caused by urbanization (Aina, 2017). In general, a smart city makes significant use of digital information and technical instruments to develop efficiencies and promote economic growth, thus strengthening urban sustainability and improving the quality of life in urban areas. A number of definitions exist, stressing the significance of information and communication technology in the process of developing smart cities. A global controversy persists regarding the smart city concept, and all of these definitions vary. Based on (Ismagilova et al. 2019), a smart city is a collection of intricate structures that collaborate with one another and function in accordance with the principles of interconnection and inter-function amongst various industries. Concerning this, municipalities have grown smart not just through the digitization of urban areas but also in ways that assist local governments in analyzing, monitoring, and evaluating the city and, thus, planning the city to boost the overall quality of life (Almulhim and Yigitcanlar, 2025).

Smart cities, while offering transformative benefits, face notable challenges, especially regarding data security and privacy (Alshuwaikhat et al., 2022a; Hasija et al., 2020; Chia, 2016). As societies become increasingly dependent on digital technologies for urban management, concerns around safeguarding sensitive information, securing resources, and protecting citizens have grown (Kogan and Lee, 2014; Yigitcanlar et al., 2020; Fabrègue and Bogoni, 2023). Globally, cities such as Barcelona have pioneered smart initiatives like energy-efficient lighting and IoT-based urban management, yet struggle with balancing data integration, privacy, and individual rights within extensive sensor networks (Pardo-Bosch et al., 2022; Bakici et al., 2013). The complexity of managing and utilizing vast streams of urban data poses ongoing hurdles for decision-makers (Miao and Phelps, 2019; Gascó, 2016; Geray, 2018; Mohammed et al., 2014). Singapore's Smart Nation Initiative, known for integrating IoT, AI, and blockchain to enhance public services and smart mobility, also highlights cybersecurity threats and the digital divide particularly for low-income and older residents who may lack digital literacy and access (Chang and Das, 2020). Similarly, Dubai's ambitious shift toward digital government and blockchain-enabled services underlines challenges of cost-effectiveness, technological reliance, and persistent cybersecurity vulnerabilities, all of which risk exacerbating inequality (Riadh, 2022; Sahib, 2020). Songdo, South Korea exemplifies a purpose-built smart city, featuring advanced infrastructure, extensive sensor networks, and integrated data management for energy, environment, and traffic (Kuecker and Hartley, 2020; Kim, 2019). While Songdo showcases the benefits of smart city innovation, including increased efficiency and improved quality of life, it also faces challenges such as high development costs, changing political will, questions around long-term sustainability, and social isolation due to its planned nature (Huh et al., 2024; Kim, 2022; Prakash, 2025). These global examples demonstrate that, while smart cities strive to improve urban life through technology, they must also address issues of governance, political will, inclusiveness, data protection, and equitable access to ensure truly sustainable and resilient urban environments.

Beyond these implementation challenges, the smart city paradigm has also been criticized for placing excessive emphasis on technology while giving insufficient attention to the social and political dimensions of urban transformation. Although technological innovation can improve urban efficiency and service delivery, smart city development should not be reduced to technological optimization, as its effectiveness also depends on social equity, digital inclusion, citizen participation, data governance, and institutional capacity (Almulhim and Yigitcanlar, 2025). (Kummitha 2025) further highlights the limitations of passive and tokenistic citizen engagement and emphasizes the importance of more active citizen involvement in smart city development. From a social justice perspective, (Kapitsinis 2026) argues that smart city research has often adopted apolitical, aspatial, and insufficiently critical approaches, with limited attention to the socio-spatially uneven effects of smart city deployment. These critiques suggest that smart city development should be assessed not only in terms of technological advancement and efficiency, but also in terms of social inclusion, equitable outcomes, citizen participation, and responsiveness to local social and institutional contexts.

Despite the challenges previously mentioned, the development of smart cities continues to gain recognition across the globe, encouraged by breakthroughs in technological advances, the expansion of cities, and the demand for green alternatives. For example, Barcelona, which is famous for its notable utilization of Internet of Things technology, maintains significant value on smart lighting, transit systems, and waste management (Bibri and Krogstie, 2020). By leveraging multiple digital channels, the city fosters participation from the public. Being an innovator at the forefront of smart city endeavors, Singapore uses complex data analysis to boost public wellness, environmental sustainability, and traffic control to make a living in cities more pleasant (Guernieri, 2023). On the other hand, sustainability is the main focus of Helsinki's smart city attempts, encompassing ventures featuring energy-efficient structures and smart transit systems, while residents get involved in the development of urban planning (Martin, 2019). The movement toward urban areas that are more inclusive, sustainable, and successful is apparent in the general upward trajectory in the development of smart cities throughout the globe. Cities across the globe are not just successfully dealing with the urban issues that they currently face, but they simultaneously lay the foundation for future development and sustainability by making use of technological advances and innovative techniques. Moreover, the importance of governance and political will was emphasized in the case of using smart technology for mobility in Copenhagen (Nikolaeva, 2024).

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as of 2024, there were around 31.3 million people living within cities (Worldometer, 2024). This makes Saudi Arabia the most densely populated nation in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia is experiencing a rapid urbanization rate, which has resulted in a number of challenges that call for innovative solutions. As a consequence of this, certain goals were defined by Saudi Vision 2030 in 2016 in order to improve on the smart city initiatives. Moreover, around 9 years ago in 2017, the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs and Housing (MOMRAH) made the decision to establish the inaugural Smart Cities plan of action in partnership with Saudi Vision 2030 (Arab News, 2017). This plan of action is intended to stimulate the move toward smart cities, and 17 cities, which account for around 73 percent of the country's total population, have been selected to carry out smart city initiatives. Included in this plan for smart cities are various projects that are implemented in the following major urban areas: Medina, Riyadh, Al-Ahsa, Neom, Yanbu Industrial City, Jeddah, and Makkah. (Gaul and Sumant 2021) determined that the Saudi smart cities business had an economic value of 3.5 billion US dollars in 2019. Hence, the Saudi smart city development landscape can be characterized as having three temporal phases. The first phase started from 2005 to 2015 when there were no regulations and the smart cities were uncoordinated, adopting mainly a top-down approach (Aina, 2017). The second phase began in 2016 with the introduction of Saudi Vision 2030 and subsequent initiatives by MOMRAH, representing a significant shift in smart city governance and development (Aina et al., 2019). The current phase is the third phase, which was inaugurated in 2021 by Saudi Data and AI Authority (SDAIA) to support smart cities with data and AI solutions (Arab News, 2021).

Based on the transformation, Saudi Arabia has made substantial progress in adopting smart city initiatives as part of its Vision 2030 strategy, aiming to enhance quality of life and diversify the nation's economy (Alshuwaikhat and Mohammed, 2017). Central to this transformation is the integration of advanced technologies, such as big data, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things, into urban infrastructure, public services, and transportation networks (Bendary and Rajadurai, 2024). These efforts are not only digitizing municipal services but also fostering closer collaboration between government and the private sector, encouraging innovation and sustained investment in urban development (Alamoudi et al., 2021). Electronic governance has become a cornerstone of these advancements, promoting transparency, accessibility, and efficiency in government services (Ibrahim et al., 2015). Citizens now find it easier to interact with public agencies, reinforcing trust and civic engagement. Sustainability is another significant focus, with concerted efforts to reduce carbon footprints, expand the use of renewable energy, and implement environmentally friendly practices across all smart city projects (Abubakar and Dano, 2020). Energy-efficient buildings, smarter resource management, and green construction standards are distinguishing features of this new urban era.

Several high-profile projects exemplify these trends. NEOM stands as the flagship of Vision 2030, envisioned as a next-generation city built on smart technologies and sustainability, targeting advanced industries like biotechnology and food production (Farag, 2019). The Red Sea Project emphasizes eco-friendly tourism and conservation, using digital technologies to manage environmental impact (Chalastani et al., 2020). Qiddiya, a vast recreational city near Riyadh, leverages smart urban design for an integrated complex of entertainment and cultural facilities (Mazzetto and Alduraibi, 2024). King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC) is evolving into an international business hub through innovative logistics and commercial solutions (Moussa, 2019), while Jeddah Smart City focuses on smarter utilities, waste management, and transportation (Aljoufie and Tiwari, 2022). These initiatives represent Saudi Arabia's commitment to sustainable, technology-driven urban growth, setting an example for the region and beyond.

Although previous studies have examined general smart city development concepts as well as techno-centric approaches in various countries (Neirotti et al., 2014; Viale Pereira et al., 2017; Taylor Buck and While, 2017; Hu and Zheng, 2021), studies in Saudi Arabia have approached smart city development from different perspectives. (Aina 2017) focused on the role of GeoICT in supporting smart sustainable city development, while (Aina et al. 2019) examined the transformation of sustainable urban governance in Saudi Arabia, with particular attention to the role of top-down governance in promoting sustainable urban development. Other studies have examined specific dimensions of this transformation, including citizen participation and stakeholder engagement (Alamoudi et al., 2021, 2023, 2024) and the progress of Saudi cities across key smart city dimensions (Aldegheishem, 2024). (Alanazi 2023) benchmarked smart mobility development in Saudi Arabia against leading Asia-Pacific countries, focusing on infrastructure, emerging technologies, governance, and transport services, and highlighted the need for a more integrated national approach to smart mobility. More recent studies have also addressed sustainable urbanism (Alqahtany, 2025) and the role of artificial intelligence in participatory urban planning (Alhowaish, 2026). These studies provide important insights into particular dimensions of Saudi smart city development; however, less attention has been given to examining the transformation through the combined roles of artificial intelligence, megaprojects, smart mobility, and green initiatives, particularly in the context of changes in governance.

This research addresses this gap through an integrated analysis of these interconnected dimensions within the Saudi context. The study examines major initiatives related to artificial intelligence, megaprojects, smart mobility, and green initiatives and combines this analysis with structured assessments from experts involved in smart and sustainable city development. Its contribution lies in bringing these dimensions together within a single analytical perspective and assessing both the progress achieved and the remaining gaps in Saudi smart city development. These include the balance between technology-centered and human-centered development, governance practices, implementation challenges, and priorities influencing sustainable urban transformation. The primary research questions addressed include: (1) What are the trends in sustainable smart city development in Saudi Arabia? (2) What challenges exist? (3) What initiatives are being implemented to revamp sustainable smart city development after the change in governance? (4) To what extent have these efforts been successful? By addressing these questions, this study provides a broader understanding of smart city development in Saudi Arabia and identifies areas where technological progress needs to be accompanied by stronger public participation, institutional capacity, and attention to local urban needs.

In this study, the term “rejigging” refers to the ongoing reorientation and restructuring of smart city development in Saudi Arabia through changes in governance and the growing emphasis on megaprojects, artificial intelligence, smart mobility, and green initiatives. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 discusses the role of political will and governance in smart city development, with particular attention to artificial intelligence, megaprojects, green initiatives, and smart mobility. Section 3 describes the research methodology, including the desktop research, content analysis, and the predominantly quantitative expert questionnaire. Section 4 presents and discusses the findings on Saudi Arabia's smart city initiatives, challenges, expert perspectives, and the success of ongoing initiatives. Finally, Section 5 presents the conclusions, followed by the lessons and recommendations derived from the study.

2 Political will and governance—enhancing smart city development

By making use of technological advances, smart cities aspire to improve the conditions of urban life through improvements to the quality of infrastructures, products and services, and sustainability. However, there are gaps between planned initiatives and implementation, especially in the Global South (Freestone and Favaro, 2025; Hamza et al., 2025). (Alizadeh and Prasad 2024) and (Duca et al. 2025) suggested a new approach to governance or governance transformation in improving smart city implementation in the Global South. The approach should consider the local context and ensure inclusiveness through participatory planning (Freestone and Favaro, 2025). Citizen engagement is very important in aligning the preferences of citizens and that of the government in smart city development (Kim et al., 2025). Governance reform and political will can help in bridging the gap in smart city development (Esposito et al., 2025). Political will and changes in governance can enhance the implementation of technology-driven initiatives to improve smart city development through emerging applications of AI and smart mobility. The development and implementation of artificial intelligence (AI), megaprojects, urban greening, and smart mobility are integral to the advancement and success of smart cities. The following section reviews the potential contributions of megaprojects, artificial intelligence, green initiatives, and smart mobility to smart city development, together with some global examples from literature research.

However, the role of citizens remains an important concern in smart city governance. A key question is whether citizens have a meaningful role in shaping smart city policies and projects or are mainly expected to use services and technologies that have already been designed for them. (Kummitha 2025) shows that citizen engagement can remain passive or tokenistic when citizens have limited influence over urban decision-making. Similar concerns arise in participatory urban planning, where participation may create an appearance of inclusion without giving citizens actual influence over decision-making (Almulhim and Abubakar, 2026). This highlights the need for governance mechanisms that allow citizens and other stakeholders to participate in urban decision-making rather than limiting their role to the adoption of technological solutions.

Accordingly, this study adopts smart city governance as an analytical lens for examining Saudi Arabia's smart city transformation. The analysis considers governance not only in terms of governmental direction and political commitment, but also through stakeholder collaboration, citizen participation, institutional capacity, and the balance between technology-centered and human-centered development. This lens is used to interpret how governance conditions shape the implementation and contribution of four interconnected areas to sustainable smart city development: artificial intelligence, megaprojects, green initiatives, and smart mobility. Within this analytical perspective, these four areas are considered interconnected components of smart city transformation rather than independent variables in a formal theoretical model. Artificial intelligence and smart mobility represent important technological dimensions, megaprojects provide major contexts for their implementation, and green initiatives reflect the environmental dimension of the transformation. Their contribution to sustainable smart city development is interpreted in relation to the governance conditions outlined above, including citizen participation and the capacity to align technological development with broader urban and societal needs.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is advancing smart city development by enabling data-driven decision-making and supporting infrastructure management, resource optimization, transportation, and energy systems (Almulhim, 2025). Applications include predictive analytics for traffic management (Akhtar and Moridpour, 2021), optimizing waste collection to cut costs and emissions (Nowakowski et al., 2018), and reducing energy consumption while supporting renewable energy (Lee and Yan, 2024). AI-powered tools such as chatbots also enhance citizen engagement, accessibility, and transparency in local governance (Vogl et al., 2020). Megaprojects are essential for smart city development, providing both the technological framework and critical infrastructure such as communication networks, transportation systems, and smart grids (Sarkheyli and Sarkheyli, 2019; Rothengatter, 2019). These initiatives frequently involve collaborations between public and private sectors, spurring innovation and investment in smart urban solutions (Pitsis et al., 2018). Key benefits include scalable infrastructure, integration with existing city systems, and robust public-private partnerships (Sturup and Low, 2019). For example, integrating AI-based traffic management with public transit illustrates how megaprojects accelerate AI adoption and infrastructure development (Chavhan and Sambare, 2024).

Singapore's Smart Nation Initiative exemplifies global leadership in smart city development, integrating artificial intelligence (AI) across diverse sectors to drive innovation (Ho, 2017). Key features include AI-powered public transit maintenance, traffic management, and smart waste systems, all supported by major projects like the Integrated Transport Hub (Ho, 2017). Similarly, Barcelona leverages AI within urban transport and government operations, incorporating AI-driven traffic sensors and smart street lighting as part of broader urban renewal efforts (Gascó, 2016). Songdo International Business District in South Korea stands out as a purpose-built smart city, utilizing advanced technologies such as AI for waste management and energy distribution to enhance urban living (Potera, 2023). Dubai's Smart City Strategy also illustrates ambitious adoption of AI across sectors like mobility and public security, aiming to position the city as a global smart city leader (Gugler et al., 2021).

Urban greening is a crucial aspect of smart city development, supporting healthier, more sustainable, and livable urban environments (Hui et al., 2023). By integrating green technology, green spaces, and sustainable landscapes, cities can advance sustainability, improve quality of life, and enhance climate resilience (Sturiale and Scuderi, 2019). Urban greening addresses urban ecological challenges such as heat islands, air pollution, and stormwater runoff (Khan et al., 2022). For example, Singapore's Park Connector Network and Gardens by the Bay have improved air quality, reduced heat island effects, and enhanced biodiversity within city limits (Sini and Sini, 2020). Economic and social benefits also arise, as seen in Melbourne's Urban Forest Strategy, which targets a 40% increase in tree canopy by 2040, creating job opportunities in agriculture, landscaping, and park management (Coenen et al., 2020; Nulkar, 2024). Incorporating smart technology—such as AI, sensors, and IoT, into urban greening enables data-driven resource management and environmental monitoring, as demonstrated by Songdo, South Korea (Hui et al., 2023; Lichá, 2018). Urban greening also supports food security through urban agriculture, as in Tokyo's rooftop gardens and vertical farms (Hammelman, 2022; Terada et al., 2016). Moreover, access to green spaces is linked to improved physical and mental well-being, exemplified by Vancouver's Greenest City Action Plan (Reyes-Riveros et al., 2021; Affolderbach and Schulz, 2017).

Smart mobility is a key pillar in smart city development, enhancing citizens' quality of life, reducing transport's environmental impact, and improving transportation efficiency (Bielińska-Dusza et al., 2021). Leveraging innovative technologies and data analytics, smart mobility creates more connected and cost-effective networks. It supports sustainability by encouraging electric vehicles, shared mobility, and public transit, thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions and urban air pollution (Zawieska and Pieriegud, 2018). Real-time traffic control and predictive analytics help decrease congestion and improve travel times, maximizing the use of existing infrastructure (Balasubramanian, 2021). By collecting and analyzing transportation data, urban planners can make informed infrastructure investments and policy decisions. Smart mobility also promotes seamless integration among ride-sharing, buses, and bikes, ensuring accessibility for all, including people with disabilities (Mahrez et al., 2021; Jonell and Meritahti, 2017). These features demonstrate smart mobility's critical role in advancing smart cities globally.

Singapore exemplifies advanced smart mobility through its vast network of sensors and data analytics, enabling the city to manage traffic patterns and optimize transit operations as part of its Smart Nation initiative (Paiva et al., 2021). The government further promotes electric vehicle adoption with financial incentives and an extensive charging infrastructure. In Los Angeles, the mobility strategy reduces car dependency by expanding public transit, creating more cycling paths, leveraging data analytics, and fostering ride-sharing partnerships (Giuliano et al., 2022). Barcelona employs smart traffic signals, real-time congestion management, and an efficient public transportation system, allowing citizens to seamlessly combine various travel modes (Carpentiere et al., 2024). Seoul's integrated transit card simplifies payments across all transport types, making commuting more convenient (Robinson and Ji, 2022). Amsterdam's approach focuses on smart traffic controls and bike-sharing programs, enhancing public transit and promoting sustainable mobility (Mora and Bolici, 2017).

3 Methodology

This study utilized a mixed-method approach that combined qualitative desktop research and content analysis of secondary sources with a predominantly quantitative expert questionnaire. The qualitative component involved a literature review and content analysis of academic publications, public documents, reports, and relevant databases, while the quantitative component consisted primarily of closed-ended questionnaire items used to obtain structured assessments from participating experts. Two open-ended questions were included in the questionnaire as supplementary items to provide additional context for selected quantitative findings rather than as a separate qualitative component of the research design. The desktop research method was used to analyze foundational literature sources and secondary data. For this purpose, widely used search engines such as Google Scholar and Science Direct were employed to identify and collect relevant studies on topics including smart cities, sustainable cities, human-centric and techno-centric smart cities, artificial intelligence, smart mobility, megaprojects, green initiatives, and Saudi smart city development. The resources reviewed included articles from academic journals, reports from official forums, and information from national and international development agencies' websites. For instance, the Saudi Vision 2030 (https://www.vision2030.gov.sa/en) outlines the Kingdom's strategic vision, the General Authority for Statistics (https://www.stats.gov.sa/en/) provides demographic and statistical data, and the (United Nations 2018) offers insights into the current trends in urbanization.

Content analysis was used to examine and synthesize the secondary data and documents, consistent with its application in previous qualitative studies (Tiwari et al., 2021; Gao et al., 2020; Tang et al., 2019; Hajek et al., 2022). The analysis followed a three-stage process. First, the collected literature, documents, and secondary data were organized according to the main topics and keywords identified for the study. Individual sources were assigned to more than one category when relevant. Second, the sources were examined in relation to the main areas of investigation, including smart city development trends and challenges, megaprojects and artificial intelligence, and green initiatives and smart mobility in Saudi Arabia. Third, evidence from the different sources was compared and synthesized to identify relationships across these areas and develop an integrated assessment of smart city development in Saudi Arabia.

To complement the desktop research and obtain expert perspectives on smart city development in Saudi Arabia, an expert questionnaire was administered to thirty-two participants. A purposive sampling approach was used to recruit experts with substantial knowledge and experience relevant to smart and sustainable city development in Saudi Arabia. Purposive sampling enables researchers to select participants whose knowledge and experience are closely aligned with the objectives of the research (Campbell et al., 2020). Participants were eligible if they had at least 10 years of professional or academic experience in relevant areas, including urban planning, smart city development, urban policy, sustainability, or related fields, and were professionally involved in urban development or digital transformation activities. The final sample consisted of thirty-two experts from different professional sectors, with relevant experience ranging from 10 to 22 years.

To protect participants' identities, each expert was assigned an anonymous code (E01–E32). The participants were grouped according to their general professional sectors, and the corresponding codes are presented in Table 1. This approach provides information on the professional background of the sample without disclosing identifying information. The same codes are used in the Results and Discussion section when reporting individual responses to the open-ended questions, allowing statements to be associated with the participants' general professional sectors while preserving anonymity.

Table 1. Professional sectors and anonymous codes of participating experts.

Data were collected using an online expert questionnaire consisting predominantly of closed-ended questions designed to obtain structured assessments of the specific smart city dimensions examined in the study. Two open-ended questions were also included to allow participants to provide additional comments and perspectives relevant to the study objectives. The structured format was intentionally adopted to maintain consistency across expert responses and keep the collected data focused on the specific dimensions addressed by the research. The closed-ended questions examined key aspects of smart city development in Saudi Arabia, including the progress of smart city initiatives, technology-centered and human-centered development, governance, citizen participation, stakeholder collaboration, sustainability, resilience, smart city technologies, implementation challenges, and development priorities. The questionnaire also addressed areas related to artificial intelligence, green initiatives, and smart mobility. The open-ended questions served a supplementary role, allowing participants to elaborate on their perspectives, particularly regarding the humanization of smart city development and the overall direction of smart city development in Saudi Arabia.

Questionnaire data were analyzed according to the type of response. Closed-ended responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations, where appropriate. These measures were used to summarize and compare response patterns among the participating experts rather than to make population-level statistical inferences. Responses to the two open-ended questions were used as supplementary evidence to provide additional context and explanation for selected quantitative findings. They were not treated as a separate qualitative dataset requiring formal inductive coding. Selected quotations were reported where they helped illustrate particular expert perspectives. Each quotation was linked to the participant's anonymous code (E01–E32), providing transparency in the reporting of individual expert perspectives while maintaining participant anonymity.

Integration of the qualitative and quantitative components occurred during the interpretation and discussion of the findings. Evidence derived from the desktop research and content analysis was compared with the descriptive results of the expert questionnaire to identify areas of convergence, divergence, and remaining gaps in Saudi smart city development. The open-ended responses provided supplementary expert perspectives where relevant. This integrated interpretation was used to address the research questions concerning development trends, challenges, ongoing initiatives, and their perceived success.

As with any methodological approach, some considerations should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings of this study. The use of purposive sampling and a sample of thirty-two experts should be considered when applying the questionnaire findings beyond the study participants. To provide a broader range of perspectives, experts with substantial knowledge and experience were selected from different professional sectors. In addition, the questionnaire relied on expert assessments that may reflect individual professional experiences and perspectives. To strengthen the interpretation of the findings, closed-ended responses were considered alongside open-ended expert perspectives and evidence obtained from the desktop research. The desktop research was also dependent on the availability and scope of published academic and institutional sources. Therefore, multiple sources were considered, including peer-reviewed studies, government documents, official reports, and information from national and international organizations. The combination of these sources with expert perspectives provided a broader basis for assessing smart city development in Saudi Arabia.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Review of the Status of Smart City Development in Saudi Arabia: Initiatives and Challenges

The findings are interpreted through the smart city governance lens outlined in Section 2, particularly in relation to governance, stakeholder participation, institutional capacity, and the balance between technology-centered and human-centered development. The discussion is organized to address the four research questions across the following subsections. Sections 4.1 and 4.2 address the trends and challenges in Saudi smart city development (RQ1 and RQ2) and examine the initiatives associated with the transformation in governance (RQ3), while Section 4.3 evaluates the extent to which these initiatives have been successful (RQ4). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia began a monumental project to establish smart cities in fulfillment of the nation's Vision 2030 action, which hopes to broaden economic activity, raise effectiveness within the public sector, and boost the quality of life for its citizens. Smart cities, leveraging revolutionary data and technology to optimize living conditions in cities, constitute an important aspect of this transition. Nevertheless, regardless of tremendous improvements, a few obstacles remain. This section explores an outline of the major projects in Saudi Arabia, its key initiatives, and challenges linked with smart city development within the Kingdom.

This section reviews Saudi Arabia's prominent smart city development projects, with a focus on megaprojects, artificial intelligence, smart mobility, and green initiatives. Under megaprojects and artificial intelligence, the Kingdom has launched several large-scale developments that integrate the Internet of Things, data analytics, machine learning, and advanced communication networks. Notable examples include Red Sea Global (RSG), NEOM, King Abdullah Financial District (KAFD), Jeddah Waterfront Project, Qiddiya, Diriyah Company, New Murabba, The RIG, King Salman International Airport Development Company, Saudi World Cup Stadiums, Jeddah Tower, Saudi Investment Relations with China, and the Road Infrastructure Projects in Riyadh. The Red Sea Project illustrates the ongoing integration of smart technology into sustainable tourism and urban infrastructure, featuring housing, exclusive hotels, and eco-friendly facilities (Red Sea Global, 2024; Chalastani et al., 2020). NEOM, a central component of Vision 2030, is a $500 billion futuristic megacity designed as a model for next-generation urban living, leveraging robotics, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things to create a hyper-connected, sustainable environment. Its “The Line” project is designed to eliminate conventional motor vehicles and roadways and instead proposes AI-driven systems, renewable energy, and smart transport to support accessibility and sustainability (NEOM, 2024; Al-Sayed et al., 2022). Jeddah's initiatives, especially the Jeddah Tower and the Waterfront Project, emphasize sustainability, smart grids, and IoT connectivity for efficient urban management (Al-Kodmany, 2024). Qiddiya and Diriyah Company represent major ongoing developments in entertainment, cultural, and tourism-driven development, while New Murabba and The RIG focus on integrating residential, retail, and tourism through innovative urban planning (Mazzetto and Alduraibi, 2024; Klingmann, 2023; Alawadi et al., 2024; Saudi Vision 2030, 2024a). Major infrastructure projects under development, including King Salman International Airport and planned World Cup stadiums, are expected to support the Kingdom's broader urban development ambitions (Saudi Gulf Projects, 2024; Ravenscroft, 2024; Holland, 2024). Saudi Investment Relations with China, which points out that 100 billion dollars in trading and 750 Chinese enterprises are boosting growth in the economy of the Kingdom (Xinhua, 2024). Ongoing transport upgrades in Riyadh and KAFD are intended to support economic growth and smart mobility (Saudi Gazette, 2024).

Under smart mobility, Saudi Arabia has created several major projects and program initiatives as it promotes the general standard of life for citizens, minimizes the detrimental effect that transport has on the ecosystem, and enhances the efficacy with which transportation flows out through the Riyadh Metro Project and the Road Infrastructure Projects in Riyadh, specifically the main and ring roads in Saudi Arabia's capital. Riyadh, the capital of the Kingdom, has undergone considerable urban development and intends to convert itself into a smart city (Deeb et al., 2024). The Riyadh Metro Project, for instance, which is a modern public transportation system with six metro lines to transform the capital's urban mobility to be more sustainable and efficient, is a crucial part of this plan of action, delivering an interconnected public transportation network that minimizes traffic congestion and facilitates sustainable urban mobility (Almajed et al., 2021). The metropolitan area strives to strengthen mobility, foster sustainable development, and provide enhanced services to its citizens by using innovative technology and smart architecture. Another of its projects is the Road Infrastructure Projects in Riyadh (Saudi Gazette, 2024), which aims to improve the main and ring roads in the capital for more efficient connectivity, sustainable transportation services, and improved traffic flow in the Middle East and expected cost amounting to 3.46 billion dollars.

Under green initiatives or urban greening, Saudi Arabia has created several major projects and program initiatives as it provides an essential element of smart city development, greatly fostering the establishment of healthy, environmentally conscious, and habitable settings through the NEOM, Red Sea Global (RSG), Green Parks in Riyadh, and Saudi Green Building initiative. Under the green initiatives, NEOM is planned to rely entirely on renewable energy as part of its sustainability objectives (NEOM, 2024). On the other hand, Red Sea Global (RSG) is committed to preserving 75% of its natural environment to achieve sustainable tourism (Red Sea Global, 2024). Another major project of the Kingdom in achieving green initiatives is its green parks located all over Riyadh, specifically Al-Urubah Park, King Salman Park, King Abdullah International Gardens, and King Abdulaziz Park, to name a few, all of which have the objective of promoting sustainable urban development, transforming Riyadh's landscape, minimizing the heat island effect, and promoting biodiversity (RCRC, 2024). Lastly, the Saudi Green Building initiative (Saudi Vision 2030, 2024b) involves the Kingdom's major green building projects, amounting to around 2,000 registered green projects, all of which aid in promoting environmental awareness and sustainable construction.

It is important to distinguish between demonstrated outcomes and anticipated impacts, as several of the initiatives discussed in this section remain under development. Accordingly, completed or operational initiatives are discussed in terms of observed progress where evidence is available, whereas ongoing and planned projects are interpreted in terms of their stated objectives and expected contributions rather than as evidence of outcomes already achieved. This distinction is particularly important for large-scale megaprojects, as their contribution to long-term urban sustainability and resilience depends not only on their scale and technological ambition, but also on governance capacity, institutional coordination, adaptive planning, and the effective management of environmental and resource constraints (Almulhim and Cobbinah, 2026).

While these large-scale projects demonstrate the scale and ambition of Saudi Arabia's smart city transformation, they should not necessarily be considered representative of smart city development across the Kingdom as a whole. Their levels of investment, institutional support, and technological concentration may differ from the conditions faced by existing cities and municipalities. Therefore, relying primarily on flagship megaprojects as indicators of progress may provide an incomplete picture of how evenly smart city capabilities and implementation capacity are developing across the wider Saudi urban system.

Despite Saudi Arabia's strong commitment to smart city development, several significant challenges persist. Foremost among these issues are concerns regarding cybersecurity and data privacy, which have been heightened by the increasing dependence on digital technologies (Alhalafi and Veeraraghavan, 2023). Protecting citizen data and defending critical infrastructure from cyberattacks are crucial, especially as the proliferation of networked devices increases potential risks. Another major obstacle is public acceptance and the need for behavioral change; residents must adapt to technological innovations and new lifestyle patterns, which requires comprehensive public education and shifts in behavior, such as embracing digital transactions and autonomous vehicles (Mutambik et al., 2023). Regulatory and institutional barriers also slow program adoption, as developing integrated national strategies that balance regional needs remains complex. Additionally, incorporating advanced technologies into existing urban infrastructures, particularly in large cities like Riyadh and Jeddah, presents technical and financial challenges (Al Jaafreh and Allouzi, 2023). Integration between traditional systems and new smart technologies often encounters obstacles. Moreover, while smart cities promise sustainability, real-world implementation may be hindered by high energy demands and ecological impacts, especially in arid regions (Andejany et al., 2023). Finally, the substantial costs associated with building and maintaining smart city infrastructure raise questions about long-term financial viability and the burden on taxpayers (Mutambik, 2024).

4.2 Experts' perspectives on smart city development

The findings of the expert questionnaire are discussed in this section to further examine trends and challenges in Saudi smart city development. The participants are professionals with expertise in smart and sustainable city development in Saudi Arabia. The questionnaire was designed to obtain structured expert assessments of the key dimensions examined in this study. The closed-ended questionnaire items were assessed using a Likert scale. The first rating-scale item shows that 43.75% of the participating experts agreed that Saudi smart city projects are on the right track and progressing (Figure 1). Expert E03 stated, “We are in the beginning of the right track.” This result is in congruence with that of (Aina 2017), who expatiated on the evolving smart cities in Saudi Arabia and mentioned the notable progress. Half of the participating experts (50%) agreed that Saudi smart city development is technology-centered. Drawing from the literature and the programs and aims set by the smart cities, it is not surprising that the experts feel the implementation of the initiatives is techno-centric (El Samaty, 2023; Almulhim and Aina, 2025). Expert E15 stated, “Smart city development in Saudi Arabia is primarily technology-centered, not human-centered. It focuses more on the technological inputs, rather than the outputs that impacts people, cities' socio-economic objectives, and environment.”

This finding points to an important tension in Saudi smart city development: rapid technological advancement does not necessarily ensure equally strong human-centered outcomes. From a smart city governance perspective, the result suggests that technological investment needs to be accompanied by stronger mechanisms for citizen participation, responsiveness to local needs, and attention to the social and environmental outcomes of smart city initiatives.

The next item shows that 46.88% of the participating experts agreed that Saudi smart city development ensures stakeholder collaboration. This notion is congruent with (Alamoudi et al. 2023, 2024) studies. The studies by (Alotaibi et al. 2024) and (Aina 2017), highlighted the collaboration and adequate support for smart city development within Saudi universities. The finding suggests that stakeholder collaboration is recognized as an important feature of Saudi smart city development, although agreement among the participating experts is not sufficiently uniform to indicate that collaborative governance is fully established. This distinction is important because effective smart city governance depends not only on the presence of multiple stakeholders, but also on their meaningful involvement in planning and decision-making. Most of the participating experts either strongly agreed (50%) or agreed (37.5%) that smart city development is leading to sustainable cities in Saudi Arabia. The notion is congruent with that of several studies (Aina, 2017; Alamoudi et al., 2021, 2024; Aldegheishem, 2024). In the next question item, most of the participating experts agreed (59.38%) that climate change concerns are addressed in Saudi smart city development. The growing global and climate issues are undoubtedly the reason behind the introduction of smart city development; thus, the programs and objectives set forth for smart city development in the country have, in part, if not all, been targeted to address climate change (Almatar, 2023; Fekete, 2024; Alsheddi, 2020; Abubakar and Dano, 2020). These responses indicate relatively positive perceptions of the environmental dimension of Saudi smart city development. However, perceived attention to sustainability and climate change should be distinguished from demonstrated environmental outcomes, suggesting the need to evaluate whether these policy commitments translate into measurable long-term urban sustainability. Moreover, 46.88% of the participating experts agreed that infrastructure resilience is addressed in Saudi smart city development. Studies from (Alanazi 2023) and (Almulhim and Cobbinah 2024) further support this result. For the next questionnaire item, 46.88% of the participating experts agreed and 10.94% strongly agreed that Saudi planners have adequate knowledge of global issues and consider them in smart city initiatives (Figure 1). The results agree with Al Jaafreh and Allouzi's (2023) studies, expressing how knowledge of climate-smart technologies contribute to reducing the ecological footprint and enhancing resilience against climate change, which is a part of the objectives of smart city development.

The next questionnaire item examined the participating experts' perspectives on the areas emphasized in Saudi smart city projects, as shown in Figure 2. Among the areas assessed, e-governance received the highest proportion of responses (34.38%), followed by sustainability (31.25%) and information and communication technology (28.12%), while smart mobility and smart infrastructure each received 3.12%. These findings are consistent with previous studies highlighting the role of e-governance in Saudi smart city development (Hashim, 2024; Aina, 2017; Aldegheishem, 2024) and the importance of sustainability in smart city development (Alshuwaikhat et al., 2022b; Ajlan and Al Abed, 2023). Similarly, (Alswedani et al. 2022) and (Alamoudi et al. 2022) emphasized smart governance and e-governance, while (Asmyatullin et al. 2020) and (le Duc 2022) highlighted the role of the smart economy. The prominence of e-governance and sustainability suggests that the participating experts view smart city development as extending beyond technological infrastructure alone. From a governance perspective, this pattern indicates increasing attention to institutional coordination and sustainability objectives. However, the relatively lower emphasis placed on smart mobility and smart infrastructure suggests that the different dimensions of smart city development may not be advancing at the same pace.

The participating experts were also asked to identify the smart technologies they considered most implemented or likely to play a prominent role in Saudi Arabia, as shown in Figure 3. Among the technologies assessed, 5G received the highest proportion of responses (22.03%), followed by the Internet of Things (20.34%) and artificial intelligence (11.02%). Geospatial technology accounted for 10.17% of responses, while big data and open data each accounted for 9.32%. The remaining technologies received comparatively smaller proportions of responses. The concentration of responses around 5G and the Internet of Things reflects the continuing importance of enabling digital infrastructure in the participating experts' assessment of Saudi smart city development. At the same time, the lower proportions assigned to several other emerging technologies suggest uneven technological prioritization rather than uniform adoption across the smart city ecosystem. This reinforces the need for governance mechanisms that coordinate technology deployment with broader urban objectives rather than treating individual technologies as isolated indicators of smart city progress.

Despite the contributions of smart city development to Saudi Arabia, several challenges remain. The participating experts were asked to identify the main challenges affecting smart city development in Saudi Arabia, as shown in Figure 4. Among the challenges assessed, lack of infrastructure received the highest proportion of responses (18.10%), followed by lack of public participation (14.66%), lack of experts (12.07%), and lack of awareness (12.07%). These findings are consistent with previous studies that have identified similar challenges in smart city development (Abuali et al., 2024; Doheim et al., 2019; Aina, 2017; Alfazzi, 2024). Expert E26 highlighted a major setback, stating, “lack of subject matters experts hired in the right positions, continuously results in inadequate decisions making and a lot of misconceptions understanding the real meaning behind Smart and Sustainable cities to achieve the cities resiliency in order to perfectly address city humanization.” These challenges suggest that the barriers to Saudi smart city development are not exclusively technological. The prominence of infrastructure, public participation, expertise, and awareness points to interconnected institutional and human-centered constraints. From a smart city governance perspective, this indicates that continued technological investment needs to be accompanied by stronger institutional capacity, specialized expertise, public engagement, and awareness to support effective implementation.

To further assess the participating experts' practical engagement with smart city development, the questionnaire asked whether they had been involved in smart city development activities. Among the participating experts, 40.62% reported direct involvement, while 21.88% indicated involvement to some extent and 12.50% reported limited participation (Figure 5). These responses provide additional context regarding the participants' practical exposure to the subject examined in this study. The following questionnaire item examined the participating experts' perspectives on the governance approach adopted in Saudi smart city development (Figure 6). Among the participants, 46.88% identified the approach as predominantly top-down, while 40.62% considered it a combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches. The relatively close proportions of these two responses suggest that the governance model is not perceived uniformly by the participating experts. While strong governmental direction remains a prominent feature, the substantial recognition of a combined top-down and bottom-up approach may indicate an evolving governance environment in which centralized strategic direction increasingly coexists with stakeholder participation. Nevertheless, the earlier findings concerning limited public participation suggest that this transition toward more participatory governance remains incomplete.

4.3 Success of the initiatives

Building on the analysis presented in the preceding section, it is evident that Saudi Arabia is making significant advancements in smart city development through its ongoing projects. These initiatives, which include high-profile projects such as NEOM, the Red Sea Project, and the Riyadh Smart City Vision, highlight the Kingdom's commitment to fostering innovation, sustainability, and technological integration within urban environments. The progress observed is not only reflected in the scale and ambition of these projects but also in their ability to attract international attention and set new benchmarks for smart city development in the region. Prior to the launch of the second phase of smart city implementation, Saudi cities were absent from global smart city rankings, such as the IMD Smart City Index. This absence underscored the nascent stage of smart urban transformation within the country. However, with the commencement of the second phase, substantial efforts have been made to accelerate the adoption of smart technologies, enhance urban infrastructure, and promote sustainable practices. Data and AI solutions are implemented in the ongoing third phase. As a result, a couple of Saudi cities have now been included in the IMD Smart City Index, signifying a major milestone in the Kingdom's journey toward urban modernization. The inclusion of Saudi cities in this ranking demonstrates an increased recognition of their achievements on the international stage. Recently, the Eastern Municipality got the gold Stevie Award for using advanced technologies in the government sector recognizing its AI project involving smart cameras (Saudi Press Agency, 2025). In addition, a World Bank report recognized Saudi Arabia as one of the top ten countries with private investments in AI (World Bank Group, 2026).

Moreover, the ranking of Saudi cities continues to show marked improvement with each successive year. This upward trend is indicative of the Kingdom's strategic investments in areas such as e-governance, information and communication technology, smart mobility, and green initiatives. Not only is the number of Saudi cities represented in the smart city index increasing, but their positions within the ranking are also climbing steadily, reflecting ongoing enhancements in service delivery, citizen engagement, and urban sustainability. Figure 7 illustrates this progression, emphasizing both the qualitative and quantitative growth of Saudi cities in global smart city evaluations. These advancements are driven by a combination of strong governmental commitment, effective public-private partnerships, and a focus on integrating cutting-edge technologies into city planning and management. The Saudi government's Vision 2030 has played a pivotal role in setting clear objectives for smart city development, facilitating the allocation of resources, and fostering collaboration among various stakeholders. As Saudi cities continue to rise in international rankings, they serve as models for other cities in the region and beyond, showcasing the transformative potential of strategic, technology-driven urban development.

Figure 7 provides a longitudinal indication of Saudi Arabia's increasing presence in the IMD Smart City Index rather than a comprehensive measure of smart city performance. The trend shows that Saudi representation in the index has expanded over time, while the highest-ranked Saudi city has also improved its relative position. This development indicates an improving position of Saudi cities within the dimensions captured by the index. However, the ranking should be interpreted as contextual evidence rather than as a complete assessment of smart city success, since the broader analysis in this study also considers governance, sustainability, technological development, citizen participation, and implementation challenges.

To place Saudi Arabia's smart city development in a broader international context, selected global smart city examples are discussed as contextual reference points rather than as a formal cross-city benchmarking exercise. A systematic comparison of Saudi Arabia's smart city development, especially in Riyadh, Jeddah, and Medina, with global leaders like Singapore, Amsterdam, Seoul, Copenhagen, New York City, and Dubai provides a nuanced understanding of the Kingdom's evolving approach (Joo, 2023; Joss et al., 2019). While most smart cities worldwide progress incrementally by layering new technologies onto existing infrastructures, Saudi Arabia adopts a transformative strategy by building entirely new urban districts from the ground up, as seen in projects like NEOM, The Line, and Jeddah Central (Joo, 2023). This greenfield approach positions the Kingdom not only as an adopter of best practices but as an innovator, particularly relevant for emerging economies facing rapid urbanization and environmental challenges.

These international comparisons highlight Saudi Arabia's responses to unique local needs, such as pilgrim-centered AI systems and climate-adaptive infrastructure, demonstrating that smart city solutions must be tailored to cultural and ecological contexts. While global exemplars like Amsterdam focus on circular economies and Seoul on participatory governance (Joo, 2023; Kuecker and Hartley, 2020; Joss et al., 2019), Saudi cities are creating new models that integrate national vision, technological advancement, and religious-cultural priorities. Key lessons from these comparisons include the importance of addressing data transparency, inclusive governance, and community engagement, areas where more mature smart cities offer valuable insights. At the same time, Saudi Arabia's ambitious scale and integrated planning are sources of inspiration for cities constrained by legacy systems. Ultimately, this comparative analysis underscores that smart cities are not one-size-fits-all; Saudi Arabia's approach enriches the global smart city dialogue and demonstrates that strategic, culturally relevant innovation can drive both national transformation and broader urban progress.

5 Conclusion

Overall, the current research achieved its goal of rejigging smart city development specific to Saudi Arabia by focusing on Saudi initiatives to understand smart cities in the region. In general, the study aimed to examine the rejigging of smart city development through megaprojects, artificial intelligence, smart mobility, and green initiatives by identifying trends in Saudi sustainable smart city development, exploring its challenges, investigating key national initiatives, and assessing their success, limitations, or lack thereof. Exploring specific smart city projects in Saudi Arabia in the real-world setting, along with perspectives obtained through the expert questionnaire, has provided an in-depth understanding of smart cities and their development within the context of Saudi Arabia and its initiatives.

There are examples of tremendous improvement in the design and development of smart cities across the Kingdom, specifically in major projects, including Riyadh's smart city project, NEOM, and the Red Sea Project, to name a few. Despite this, there remains an array of challenges that need to be resolved to ensure the success of all these efforts to create smart cities. These challenges, as explored within this research, are summarized to involve incorporating technology, cybersecurity, and data privacy, issues related to sustainability, regulatory and institutional barriers, public acceptance and behavioral change, and financial viability. Nonetheless, by exhibiting an unwavering dedication to innovation, government commitment, and making significant investments, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is in an ideal place to confront these challenges and establish genuinely innovative cities. The Kingdom has an opportunity to emerge as a global leader in the establishment of smart cities if it continues its concentration on public-private partnerships, administrative adaptability, and citizen involvement.

The findings reinforce the importance of smart city governance in understanding Saudi Arabia's urban transformation, particularly the interaction between governmental direction, institutional capacity, stakeholder participation, and technology-centered and human-centered development. The findings also highlight practical priorities for policymakers, particularly the need for stronger stakeholder and citizen participation, effective public-private collaboration, institutional adaptability, and careful integration of emerging technologies. The methodological considerations identified in this study, particularly the purposive expert sample and reliance on secondary sources, should be considered when interpreting the findings. Future research could extend this work by examining individual Saudi cities and initiatives longitudinally and by incorporating larger and more diverse stakeholder groups, particularly citizens, to assess how governance and smart city priorities evolve over time.

5.1 Lessons and recommendations

The expansion of smart cities across the Kingdom, particularly through major projects such as Riyadh's Smart City Vision, NEOM, the Red Sea Project, and Jeddah Smart City, offers useful insights for other cities pursuing similar initiatives. Although many of these initiatives remain at relatively early stages of development, they illustrate both the opportunities and challenges associated with large-scale smart city transformation. Building on the conclusions of this study regarding the progress, challenges, and limitations of Saudi smart city initiatives, several key lessons can be identified, including the importance of effective governance, public–private collaboration, technology integration, citizen involvement, cybersecurity, sustainability, and long-term financial planning. The Saudi government has established a comprehensive transformation agenda through Vision 2030, in which smart city development forms an important component. Strong top-down governmental commitment has enabled substantial financial and institutional resources to be directed toward these initiatives. This experience highlights the importance of sustained government commitment and strong leadership, as smart city projects may otherwise lack strategic direction and the resources necessary for effective implementation (Alketbi, 2018).

It has additionally been learned that it takes effort to integrate novel smart technologies within the infrastructure that already stands. The proper integration of several systems, like artificial intelligence, smart grids, the Internet of things, and autonomous transportation, and the confidence that these innovations will operate flawlessly alongside previous versions could prove a complicated and costly effort, even with advanced planning. Thus, cities ought to possess an organized strategy for incorporating technology and strive to ensure the creation of mutually consistent systems (Ismagilova et al., 2019). It has also been found that the inclination of people to embrace technological advances and change their behaviors readily functions as a significant issue that needs improvement since it stands on the path to the further development of smart cities. In such cases, initiatives associated with smart cities should not be delivered simply with the core focus on technological advancement but rather by prioritizing citizen involvement, as highlighted by (Mutambik et al. 2023). Educating individuals and spreading awareness surrounding the positive effects of smart technology, dealing with security and confidentiality issues, and ensuring that smart infrastructure is simple to operate are all facets of this approach. Lastly, it has been learned that the sheer scale and costs associated with implementing smart cities could have an impact on the financial stability of national or local governments. Although Saudi Arabia relies on private-sector alliances and state-owned assets to pay for these initiatives, uncertainties persist regarding their viability over the long run, along with daily expenses. Thus, as a component of the overall plan, cities ought to look into a range of funding options, like bonds, foreign investors, private-public partnerships, and sustainable revenue-generating plans. Moreover, cities should be sufficiently adaptable to cutting-edge technology, gain insight from trial applications, and take a methodical approach. Overall, cities can develop smart, adaptable urban settings that are beneficial for every citizen by meticulously maintaining a balance between innovation, inclusiveness, and sustainability over time.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used Grammarly to check the grammar, punctuation, and clarity. After using this tool, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Footnotes

Edited by: Riaz Ullah Khan, Zhejiang Yuexiu University of Foreign Languages, China

Reviewed by: E. R. Ngurah Indra, Udayana University, Indonesia

Nikos Kapitsinis, University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Dominika Mańkowska, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Poland