Consumer acceptance and stated willingness to pay a premium for plant- and insect-based foods in Greece: evidence from a younger-skewed sample

The transition toward sustainable food systems has increased interest in alternative proteins as potential substitutes for conventional animal-based products. However, consumer acceptance may vary substantially depending on the protein source. This study investigates consumer acceptance and stated willingness to pay a premium for plant- and insect-based foods in Greece, using a sample strongly concentrated among younger adults. Primary data were collected through a structured questionnaire completed by 423 participants. Consumer preferences for plant- and insect-based alternatives were assessed for familiar food products, including minced meat, chocolate bars, and cottage cheese. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Principal Components Analysis (PCA), Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, and multiple linear regression models. Environmental orientation was measured using the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale, while previous experience with alternative proteins, willingness to try unfamiliar foods, income, education, and other relevant characteristics were examined as potential determinants of consumption intention and stated willingness to pay a premium. Participants showed significantly greater acceptance of plant-based alternatives than of insect-based alternatives across the examined food products. Insect-based foods consistently received lower consumption-intention scores, and stated willingness to pay a premium was also significantly lower for insect proteins than for plant proteins. Pro-environmental orientation, as measured by the NEP scale, was positively associated with both consumption intention and stated willingness to pay a premium. Previous experience with alternative proteins and willingness to try unfamiliar foods were positively associated with consumption intention. In contrast, stated willingness to pay a premium was mainly associated with environmental attitudes, willingness to try new foods, income, and education. The findings reveal a pronounced contrast between consumer responses to plant- and insect-based alternatives within this younger-skewed Greek sample. Plant proteins appear to face substantially lower acceptance barriers than insect proteins, even when incorporated into familiar food products. The results also demonstrate that general product acceptance and stated willingness to incur an additional financial cost are related but distinct consumer responses, with partly different determinants. These findings highlight the importance of considering both protein source and the distinction between consumption intention and stated willingness to pay when assessing the market potential of alternative protein products.

Environmental sustainability and the need for new dietary solutions have been at the forefront of consumers’ and researchers’ minds in recent years, mainly due to the increasing pressure on natural resources and growing awareness of the environmental impacts of livestock farming and food production (Skordoulis et al., 2022; Skordoulis et al., 2024a; Skordoulis and Kalantonis, 2025; Matsali et al., 2025). In this context, the development and consumption of foods based on alternative proteins, such as plant-based, insect-derived and other sources, has begun to attract significant interest, both from the scientific community and from consumers. New dietary trends include alternative forms of protein that are more environmentally friendly, while offering new prospects for global food security (Springmann et al., 2018).

The theoretical basis of this research rests on the notion that sustainable consumption is crucial for addressing climate change and the overconsumption of natural resources. In particular, the substitution of animal proteins with alternative sources has been identified as a critical strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and the use of land and water (Poore and Nemecek, 2018).

This study examines consumers’ willingness to consume foods based on alternative proteins in Greece, using a sample strongly concentrated among younger adults. This issue is directly linked to food security and environmental sustainability, as the consumption of traditional animal proteins has negative environmental impacts. The strong representation of younger adults in the present sample makes this group particularly relevant for examining emerging acceptance patterns, although the study does not provide a direct statistical comparison between generations. In Greece, there is a growing interest in healthier and more sustainable dietary choices, exemplified by the rise in consumption of plant-based proteins, such as ‘almond milk’ and soya (Skordoulis et al., 2024a).

However, despite growing awareness of environmental issues and consumers’ desire to support sustainable practices, the intention to purchase foods based on alternative proteins remains low. According to research, consumers are willing to try innovative products, but the high cost often discourages them, indicating a need to reduce production and distribution costs and to provide clear information on the benefits of these products (Wu et al., 2014; Pojić et al., 2018).

Despite the growing literature on alternative proteins, less attention has been paid to how acceptance differs between relatively familiar plant-based alternatives and substantially less familiar insect-based alternatives within specific demographic and cultural contexts. An additional distinction concerns general willingness to consume such products versus willingness to incur an additional financial cost. These outcomes are related but do not necessarily reflect the same consumer considerations. The present study therefore directly compares plant- and insect-based versions of familiar foods in a younger-skewed Greek sample and examines consumption intention and stated willingness to pay a premium as distinct outcomes.

The Greek context is also relevant because food preferences are embedded in a strong Mediterranean culinary tradition, in which plant-derived foods such as legumes, cereals, vegetables, nuts, and olive-based products are familiar components of the habitual diet, whereas entomophagy has no comparable culinary tradition. Consequently, plant-based proteins may be perceived as more compatible with established dietary practices, while insect-based proteins may face additional cultural, familiarity, and disgust-related barriers. Recent evidence from Greek consumers similarly indicates substantial reluctance toward insect consumption and suggests that acceptance may improve when insects are incorporated into familiar products in processed and less visible forms (Gkinali et al., 2024).

The aim of the research is to investigate consumer attitudes towards environmentally sustainable foods based on alternative proteins, with particular attention to a younger-skewed consumer sample. In particular, the study examines the intention to consume common foods, such as minced meat, chocolate bars and cottage cheese, when these are derived from plant-based proteins or insect proteins. At the same time, it investigates consumers’ willingness to pay a premium for such foods, as well as the role of environmental awareness and other consumer factors in shaping their preferences. Within the framework of this study, the following research questions are examined:

To what extent are consumers willing to consume conventional foods when these are derived from alternative proteins, and how does this willingness differ between plant-based proteins and insect proteins?

To what extent are consumers willing to pay extra for foods made from alternative proteins, and how does this willingness differ between plant-based proteins and insect proteins?

To what extent is consumers’ environmental awareness associated with their attitudes towards foods made from alternative proteins?

What factors shape consumers’ intention to consume and their willingness to pay a premium for foods made from alternative proteins?

The contribution of the study therefore lies primarily in the joint consideration of protein source, consumer familiarity, demographic context, and the distinction between consumption intention and stated willingness to pay a premium, rather than in proposing environmental attitudes as a new determinant of sustainable food choice.

Theoretical background

Intention to consume foods containing alternative proteins and factors shaping consumer preferences

The most common forms of alternative proteins include plant-based proteins and proteins derived from insects. Plant-based proteins have established themselves as a popular and sustainable alternative to animal proteins, particularly among consumers who choose vegetarian diets. Sources of plant-based proteins include pulses, grains, nuts and seeds. Some popular plant-based protein products include ‘almond milk’, soya protein, and foods made from peas or soya beans (Shewry, 2007).

One of the key advantages of plant-based proteins is their lower environmental footprint compared to animal proteins. The production of plant-based proteins requires less energy, water and land, while greenhouse gas emissions are also reduced. According to Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2012), the production of 1 kg of beef requires approximately 15,400 litres of water, whereas the production of 1 kg of cereals requires approximately 1,644 litres of water. These figures highlight the significant environmental efficiency of plant-based proteins. Furthermore, consuming plant-based proteins can help reduce the environmental impact of diet, making them particularly appealing to environmentally conscious consumers (Poore and Nemecek, 2018).

At the same time, plant-based proteins offer significant health benefits. They are low in saturated fat and contain no cholesterol, while being rich in dietary fibre and antioxidants. In terms of nutritional value, insects offer high-quality protein, with protein content ranging from 35 to 75% of their weight, depending on the insect species. Furthermore, they are rich in iron, zinc and vitamin B12, nutrients that are essential for human health and which are often lacking in diets based exclusively on plant proteins (Lange and Nakamura, 2021).

In particular, consumers concerned about their health and sustainability show a greater intention to purchase plant-based products marketed as organic, gluten-free or additive-free (Warren et al., 2024).

On the other hand, many consumers express concerns about the processing of plant-based products, believing that excessive consumption of these foods may not be as healthy as advertised (Siddiqui et al., 2022). According to the above survey, 35% of consumers express concerns about the addition of artificial ingredients and the production process of processed plant-based products.

As demand for sustainable food choices grows, further research and consumer education may lead to wider acceptance of both these alternative protein sources (Quintieri et al., 2023). A large proportion of consumers are showing increased interest in plant-based products, mainly due to environmental awareness and health concerns. According to Zaleskiewicz et al. (2024), approximately 65% of consumers were willing to try or had already tried plant-based proteins, as they are considered healthier and more environmentally friendly.

In Greece, research indicates growing interest in sustainable and alternative food choices, although acceptance varies substantially depending on the type and familiarity of the protein source (Skordoulis et al., 2024a; Giotis and Drichoutis, 2021). Importantly, younger consumers should not necessarily be assumed to be uniformly receptive to novel protein sources. Evidence focusing specifically on adult Generation Z consumers has shown limited willingness to replace conventional meat protein with insect protein, indicating that younger age alone does not eliminate familiarity- and culture-related barriers to entomophagy (Kamenidou et al., 2023). Recent evidence similarly reports substantially greater acceptance of plant-based proteins than insect-based and cultured protein alternatives and identifies familiarity, previous experience, meat-consumption patterns, and food neophobia as important factors associated with consumer acceptance (Stubelj et al., 2025).

The consumption of insects as a source of protein, although common in many parts of the world, such as Asia and Africa, is relatively new in Western societies. One of the most significant challenges in introducing insect-derived proteins into the consumer diet is cultural and aesthetic reservations, particularly in European countries, including Greece (Lange and Nakamura, 2021).

Consumer attitudes towards insect-based proteins vary significantly, depending on cultural, psychological and social factors. Generally speaking, consumers in the West remain hesitant, mainly due to a lack of familiarity with entomophagy. Research has shown that the aversion caused by the idea of eating insects is linked to the perception that insects are associated with decay and unsanitary conditions, something which is not the case in many other parts of the world (Alhujaili et al., 2023).

Furthermore, the way in which insects are presented can influence consumers’ willingness to try them. Research shows that consumers are more willing to eat insects when they are offered in processed form, such as in biscuits or other ready-to-eat foods, rather than as whole insects (Berger and Wyss, 2020).

On the other hand, despite cultural backgrounds that may cause aversion, a segment of consumers, particularly those interested in sustainability, show greater willingness to try insects due to their environmental benefits, as insect farming requires fewer resources and produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions compared to traditional livestock farming (Sogari et al., 2022).

Based on the above, investigating the intention to consume foods made from alternative proteins is of particular interest when it comes to common foods in the daily diet, which can be produced from either plant-based proteins or insect proteins. Recent review evidence places these findings within the broader literature on the protein transition. Onwezen et al. (2021) show that consumer acceptance differs substantially across alternative protein sources, with plant-based alternatives generally receiving greater acceptance than more novel sources such as insects, while familiarity, attitudes, health and taste motives, food neophobia, disgust, and social norms consistently emerge as important drivers. A subsequent meta-review further highlights the importance of motivational and opportunity-related factors, while indicating that social and cultural influences and the translation of consumer research into policy interventions remain comparatively underdeveloped (Onwezen and Dagevos, 2024). More recently, Onwezen et al. (2025) emphasise consumer resistance as an important dimension of the protein transition, showing that resistance is closely associated with established dietary habits and particular consumer groups. Taken together, this literature suggests that acceptance should be examined not only as a general response to alternative proteins, but also in relation to protein type, consumer characteristics, familiarity, and the specific cultural context in which food choices are made. Age composition is also relevant when contextualising alternative-protein acceptance. In a survey of 1,825 adults aged 65 years or older across five European countries, Grasso et al. (2019) found plant-based protein to be the most accepted sustainable alternative, with 58% considering it acceptable or very acceptable, whereas only 9% expressed comparable acceptance of insect-based protein. The strong contrast between the two protein sources therefore appears not to be confined to younger consumers.

Willingness to pay extra for foods made from alternative proteins

Firstly, regarding the willingness to pay for plant-based proteins, consumers generally appear more willing to pay higher prices for products associated with health and sustainability, although there are differences depending on the geographical region and the product. In particular, consumers concerned about their health and sustainability show a greater intention to purchase plant-based products marketed as organic (Warren et al., 2024).

In countries such as the United Kingdom, the introduction of promotions on plant-based products has increased consumers’ willingness to buy. Research shows that consumers are more willing to try plant-based alternatives when these are combined with discounts or special offers (Śmiglak-Krajewska et al., 2020).

Consumers’ willingness to pay for insect-based protein products has been investigated on several occasions, with the results revealing conflicting findings, which are influenced by social, psychological and environmental factors.

Evidence from Greece indicates substantial resistance to paying a premium for directly consumed insect-based products. Giotis and Drichoutis (2021) found that most consumers required a discount to purchase an insect-based energy bar or cookie. Among respondents who expressed a positive willingness to pay, the average premiums were 15.8 and 17.0%, respectively (Giotis and Drichoutis, 2021). Recent discrete-choice evidence further indicates that willingness to pay for alternative-protein products is shaped by both product attributes and consumer concerns. Carbon-footprint and health-related labels may increase willingness to pay, while taste, health, and environmental considerations contribute differently to preferences across conventional and alternative protein products (Su et al., 2025).

Finally, according to Alhujaili et al. (2023), consumers are not willing to pay a significantly higher price for insects, particularly during periods of economic uncertainty. Purchase intention is also influenced by the perception that these products are luxury items due to their scarcity in the market as a result of limited production.

For plant-based alternatives, European evidence also indicates that willingness to pay a price premium is limited to a subset of consumers. Szenderák et al. (2022) report that approximately 18–26% of European consumers in the reviewed studies were willing to pay a higher price for plant-based meat substitutes when these were assumed to provide taste and texture comparable to conventional meat. Differences in product type and elicitation method nevertheless limit direct numerical comparisons across studies. An analysis of the literature suggests that consumers’ willingness to pay for insect-based proteins is positive when these products are associated with environmental benefits and are offered in processed form. However, prices must remain competitive to achieve greater acceptance, particularly in markets where meat dominates culturally and in terms of diet.

Environmental attitudes and acceptance of foods made from alternative proteins

Environmental attitudes and ecological worldviews may contribute to consumers’ responses to sustainable food alternatives. In the present study, these attitudes are assessed using the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) framework (Dunlap et al., 2000).

The higher the score on the scale, the more ecocentric the individual’s attitude is. Growing awareness of climate change and the environmental impacts of food production has led many consumers to turn to plant-based proteins. Research shows that consumers interested in sustainability prefer products associated with a smaller carbon footprint and lower resource use (Giotis and Drichoutis, 2021).

In Northern European countries, such as the Netherlands and Sweden, consumers are more willing to incorporate alternative protein sources, such as insects and plant-based products, into their diets due to strong environmental concerns. In contrast, in Southern European countries, where the traditional diet is more meat-based, consumers appear less willing to adopt such alternatives (Sogari et al., 2022). On the other hand, in Western Europe, campaigns focusing on the environmental benefits of insects have boosted demand for such products. For example, the ‘Bug Burger’ campaign in Denmark received a positive response from consumers concerned about climate change, as the product is promoted as environmentally friendly and as an alternative to conventional meat (Berger and Wyss, 2020).

A recent study reports that environmentally conscious consumers appear more willing to pay higher prices and adopt new dietary habits, such as consuming plant-based products and insect-derived proteins, recognising the environmental benefits (Michel and Begho, 2023).

A study by Tso et al. (2020), showed that concern about climate change increased acceptance of insect-based proteins, particularly when the environmental impacts of livestock farming were highlighted in awareness campaigns. Furthermore, according to research by Verbeke (2015), consumers who were informed about the environmental and nutritional benefits of insects showed greater acceptance compared to those who did not have access to such information. The study concluded that incorporating insects into processed foods, such as biscuits or snacks, significantly increases willingness to consume them (Kilbourne et al., 2002).

Su et al. (2023), found that consumers with high environmental awareness are more likely to prefer plant-based ‘milk’ drinks, such as ‘soya milk’ or ‘almond milk’, due to their low environmental impact and their contribution to reducing the use of natural resources.

Similarly, a study by van Hoeven et al. (2024) reports that consumers concerned about climate change tend to reduce their meat consumption and switch to plant-based protein sources. Their research concludes that environmental awareness increases consumers’ willingness to purchase alternative proteins due to their benefits for the planet’s health.

Conceptual synthesis and research framework

The literature discussed above suggests that acceptance of alternative proteins is shaped by a combination of environmental, experiential, psychological, and socioeconomic factors. A stronger pro-environmental orientation may increase consumers’ receptiveness to products associated with lower environmental impacts, whereas previous experience with alternative proteins may increase familiarity and reduce uncertainty. Evidence from Nordic consumers similarly suggests that familiarity may facilitate acceptance of novel protein products, while younger consumers may display comparatively more positive attitudes towards emerging protein alternatives (Klöckner et al., 2022). Similarly, willingness to try foods that differ from usual dietary choices reflects openness to novel food experiences and may reduce resistance to unfamiliar protein sources. Perceived healthiness may provide an additional motivation for food choice, while education and income may become particularly relevant when consumers consider paying a price premium.

The contribution of the present study lies not in proposing new determinants of alternative-protein acceptance, but in examining how established determinants operate within a specific demographic and cultural setting. The study focuses on a younger-skewed Greek sample, directly compares plant- and insect-based versions of familiar foods, and distinguishes between two conceptually different outcomes: intention to consume and stated willingness to pay a premium. This design allows the study to examine whether the strong distinction between relatively familiar plant-based alternatives and less familiar insect-based alternatives persists in this context and whether the factors associated with consumption intention are also associated with willingness to incur an additional financial cost.

The study adopted a quantitative, cross-sectional survey design. Primary data were collected through a structured self-administered questionnaire in order to quantify consumer attitudes towards foods based on alternative proteins and to examine associations between pro-environmental orientation, consumer characteristics, consumption intention, and stated willingness to pay a premium.

The New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale was used to assess participants’ pro-environmental orientation and environmental worldview (Dunlap et al., 2000). The NEP framework captures five dimensions of environmental worldview: limits to growth, anti-anthropocentrism, the fragility of nature’s balance, rejection of human exemption from natural constraints, and the possibility of ecological crisis. Higher NEP scores indicate a stronger pro-environmental orientation (Ntanos et al., 2019). Negatively oriented NEP items (items 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14) were reverse-coded before the calculation of the overall NEP score so that higher values consistently indicated a stronger pro-environmental orientation. The remaining questionnaire items were derived from the relevant literature and addressed consumer attitudes and preferences towards foods containing alternative proteins. The questionnaire combined established constructs with study-specific items adapted to the context of plant- and insect-based foods. The remaining questions addressed current consumption of selected conventional foods, intention to consume the same products when produced using plant or insect proteins, stated willingness to pay more for alternative-protein products, previous experience with alternative proteins, willingness to try foods different from usual choices, and the importance attributed to healthiness when selecting foods. It should be noted that willingness to pay was measured as a stated attitudinal disposition to pay more for an alternative-protein product and not through the elicitation of a specific monetary premium. Accordingly, the measure is referred to as “stated willingness to pay a premium” and should not be interpreted as an economic valuation of actual willingness to pay. Attitudinal responses were recorded using five-point Likert-type scales.

The survey population consisted of residents of Greece who were potential consumers of food products derived from alternative proteins. The questionnaire was administered online through Microsoft Forms between June and August 2023, and participation was voluntary. Consequently, the resulting sample should be regarded as a non-probability, self-selected online sample rather than a probability-based random sample. A total of 423 completed questionnaires were included in the final dataset.

Data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 26, with the level of statistical significance set at 5%. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise demographic characteristics and questionnaire responses. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was employed as an exploratory data-reduction procedure, with retention based on eigenvalues greater than 1. Component extraction was performed using principal components, followed by varimax rotation. For interpretation of the rotated component solution, absolute component loadings of 0.50 or higher were considered salient and are reported in the Appendix. Sampling adequacy and suitability for PCA were assessed using the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) statistic and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. Because the same respondents evaluated both plant-based and insect-based versions of the products, paired comparisons were performed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Two multiple linear regression models were subsequently estimated to examine factors associated with (i) intention to consume foods containing alternative proteins and (ii) stated willingness to pay a premium for such foods. Last, the reported values did not indicate substantial multicollinearity or residual autocorrelation.

Participation in the online survey was voluntary. Participants were informed about the purpose of the research and the use of their responses for scientific purposes before completing the questionnaire. Responses were treated confidentially and analysed in aggregated form.

Demographic data of the sample

Table 1 provides a summary of the results regarding the demographic characteristics of the survey participants.

The age distribution indicates that the study sample is strongly concentrated among younger adults. In particular, 78.5% of respondents were between 18 and 35 years of age, including 40.2% aged 18–25 and 38.3% aged 26–35. This composition is consistent with the study’s particular interest in younger consumer cohorts. However, because the age categories used in the questionnaire do not correspond exactly to conventional generational boundaries, the findings are interpreted primarily in relation to younger adult consumers rather than as a strict comparison between generations.

The younger age profile of the sample differs substantially from the demographic structure of both Greece and the European Union. In 2023, the median age was 46.5 years in Greece and 44.5 years in the EU, whereas 78.5% of respondents in the present study were aged 18–35 years (Eurostat, 2024). This difference reinforces the interpretation of the findings as evidence from a younger-skewed consumer sample rather than as population-level estimates for Greece.

The demographic composition of the sample should therefore be considered when interpreting the findings. In addition to its younger age profile, the sample is predominantly composed of urban residents and participants in the lower annual-income categories. Consequently, the results should not be interpreted as nationally representative estimates of the Greek adult population.

Principal component analysis

PCA was used as an exploratory data-reduction procedure to summarise the questionnaire items into the retained analytical components. Seven components were retained, comprising two outcome-related constructs and the five dimensions of environmental attitudes represented by the NEP framework:

Intention to consume foods containing alternative proteins

Willingness to pay for the consumption of foods containing alternative proteins

Environmental attitudes: reality at the limits of development

Environmental attitudes: anti-anthropocentrism

Environmental attitudes: nature’s fragile balance

Environmental attitudes: not exempting humans from nature’s constraints

Environmental attitudes: likelihood of ecological disaster

Of the seven retained components, five relate to participants’ environmental attitudes, while the remaining two represent intention to consume alternative-protein foods and stated willingness to pay a premium. The five NEP-related components correspond to the dimensions of the NEP framework described by Dunlap et al. (2000).

The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value was 0.725 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant (χ 2 = 821.258, p < 0.001), indicating that the correlation structure was suitable for exploratory PCA. Detailed PCA results are reported in the Appendix. Table A.1 presents the rotated component loadings and communalities for the retained items, while Table A.2 reports the eigenvalues and the percentage and cumulative percentage of variance explained by each retained component. The seven retained components jointly explained 58.525% of the total variance (Table 2).

The PCA was used primarily as an exploratory data-reduction procedure to support the subsequent analyses. Accordingly, the retained components are used as summary measures of the corresponding questionnaire constructs and should not be interpreted as a confirmatory psychometric validation of the measurement model.

Consumption of conventional foods and intention to consume foods made from alternative proteins

First, this section analyses the consumption of conventional foods.

From the responses recorded in the diagram above, it appears that, of the products selected for examination, the most frequently consumed, in order, are minced meat, chocolate bars and, finally, cottage cheese (Figure 1).

In order to examine consumer attitudes towards foods derived from plant proteins as well as insect proteins in greater detail, as suggested by other studies (Lombardi et al., 2019), the survey participants were asked to what extent they would be willing to consume the above foods if they were derived from alternative proteins—plant-based and insect-based.

The results are shown in the diagram below, where the ‘Negative’ value refers to the sum of the ‘Not at all’ and ‘To a low degree’ responses, the ‘Neutral’ value refers to the response ‘Neither to a high nor to a low degree’, and the ‘Positive’ value refers to the sum of the responses ‘To a high degree’ and ‘To a very high degree’ on the 5-point Likert scale used (Figure 2).

The figures in the above chart reveal a negative attitude among survey participants towards consuming the conventional foods under consideration, both where these are derived from plant proteins and where they are derived from insect proteins. The sole exception is chocolate (bar), where participants are willing to consume it provided it is derived from plant proteins.

In order to examine the attitudes of the survey participants in greater detail, a non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test was conducted, which was used to compare whether there was a statistically significant difference between the intention to consume the foods under consideration if they were derived from plant proteins and the intention to consume the foods under consideration if they were derived from insect proteins (Table 3).

In addition to statistical significance, the corresponding effect-size estimates were large (r = 0.579–0.648), indicating that the observed differences between plant- and insect-based alternatives were substantial rather than merely statistically significant.

Furthermore, based on the Z-value of the test, it appears that in all cases the intention to consume food derived from insect proteins is more negative, to a statistically significant degree, compared to the intention to consume food derived from plant proteins.

Willingness to pay extra for foods made from alternative proteins

In this section, we will examine the survey participants’ willingness to pay more for foods made from alternative proteins.

From the data in the table below, it appears that survey participants are not willing to pay more to consume foods derived from insect proteins, with the exception of 5.1% of the sample who express a positive attitude. However, regarding the consumption of foods derived from plant proteins, 31.6% of the sample expressed a positive intention to pay extra, in contrast to the 28.6% who expressed a negative intention (Table 4).

Using the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test, we compared whether the willingness to pay extra for foods containing insect protein differed to a statistically significant degree from the willingness to pay extra for foods containing plant protein (Table 5).

The magnitude of the difference was also substantial (r = 0.620), supporting a markedly stronger stated willingness to pay more for plant-based than for insect-based products.

Pro-environmental orientation in the study sample

Previous studies have identified associations between environmental attitudes and consumer food choices (Skordoulis et al., 2024a). Environmental attitudes were measured using the NEP scale (Figure 3).

The mean NEP score was 3.35 on the five-point response scale. This value suggests a moderate tendency towards pro-environmental or ecocentric attitudes within the surveyed sample. Because universally accepted cut-off values for categorically classifying individual respondents as “ecocentric” are not established across all applications of the NEP scale, the score is interpreted descriptively rather than as a categorical classification of respondents (Rideout et al., 2005; Van Petegem and Blieck, 2006; Ogunbode, 2013; Ntanos et al., 2019).

Investigation of factors associated with consumer preferences regarding environmentally sustainable foods based on alternative proteins

In order to further investigate the relationships between the survey variables and to examine which factors are associated with the intention to consume as well as the willingness to pay for foods based on alternative proteins, two multiple linear regression models were used.

In these models, the following components, as identified by PCA, were used as dependent variables:

Dependent variable of the first model: Intention to consume foods containing alternative proteins (Y1)

Dependent variable of the second model: Stated willingness to pay a premium for foods containing alternative proteins (Y2)

The two dependent variables were derived from the PCA solution using SPSS-generated component scores. Y1 was based on the six items measuring willingness to consume minced meat, chocolate, and cottage cheese produced with either plant-based or insect-based proteins. Y2 was based on the two items measuring stated willingness to pay more for foods containing plant-based or insect-based proteins. No additional weighting was applied beyond that incorporated in the PCA component-score procedure. Because these component scores combine responses to both plant- and insect-based alternatives, the regression coefficients should be interpreted as factors associated with overall acceptance of alternative-protein foods. They do not establish that the same predictors operate with the same direction or magnitude for plant- and insect-based products considered separately.

The following variables will be used as independent variables in both models:

Past consumption of foods derived from alternative proteins (X1)

Willingness to try foods different from the usual ones (X2)

Choosing a product based on whether it is healthy (X3)

Environmental attitudes – NEP scale score (X4)

Level of education (X5)

Annual income (X6)

The first multiple linear regression model examined the factors associated with intention to consume foods derived from alternative proteins (Y1; Table 6).

Higher previous consumption of alternative proteins, greater willingness to try unfamiliar foods, and higher environmental attitudes were associated with higher consumption-intention scores. Among the statistically significant predictors, willingness to try unfamiliar foods showed the largest standardised coefficient (β = 0.210). Healthiness as a food-choice criterion, education level, and annual income were not statistically significant predictors in this model.

The overall regression model was statistically significant, F (6, 416) = 33.946, p < 0.001. The model accounted for 32.9% of the variance in intention to consume alternative-protein foods (R 2 = 0.329; adjusted R 2 = 0.319). The reported VIF values were low, providing no indication of substantial multicollinearity, while the Durbin–Watson statistic was 1.961.

The second multiple linear regression model examined factors associated with stated willingness to pay a premium for foods containing alternative proteins (Y2; Table 7).

Higher willingness to try unfamiliar foods, greater environmental attitudes, higher education, and higher annual income were associated with higher stated willingness-to-pay scores. Previous consumption of alternative proteins and healthiness as a food-choice criterion were not statistically significant predictors.

The overall regression model was statistically significant, F (6, 416) = 41.254, p < 0.001. The model accounted for 37.3% of the variance in stated willingness to pay a premium for alternative-protein foods (R 2 = 0.373; adjusted R 2 = 0.364). The reported VIF values were low, providing no indication of substantial multicollinearity, while the Durbin–Watson statistic was 1.961.

Discussion and implications

The results of this study revealed varying consumer attitudes towards foods made from alternative proteins, depending on the type of protein from which they are derived. In particular, plant-based proteins are more widely accepted than insect proteins, which continue to be viewed with greater scepticism by participants. This contrast may also be interpreted within the Greek culinary context. Plant-derived ingredients are deeply embedded in Mediterranean dietary practices and are therefore comparatively familiar to Greek consumers, whereas insects do not form part of established Greek food traditions. The resulting cultural unfamiliarity may reinforce neophobia and disgust toward insect-based foods. This interpretation is consistent with recent evidence from Greece showing that disgust and rejection remain major barriers to entomophagy, while processed products in which the insect is less visible appear more acceptable than products presenting insects in a recognisable form (Gkinali et al., 2024). This finding is particularly significant and should be taken into account in future strategies to promote new dietary options. Importantly, the same broad ranking has been observed in samples with very different age structures. Among European adults aged 65 years or older, Grasso et al. (2019) reported substantially greater acceptance of plant-based protein (58%) than insect-based protein (9%). Although differences in products, measures, and national settings prevent direct quantitative comparison, the consistency of this ranking suggests that the comparatively low acceptance of insect-based proteins cannot be attributed to younger or older age alone.

Environmental attitudes were positively associated with intention to consume alternative proteins. A willingness to try different foods and previous experience with alternative proteins were also positively associated with consumption intention, whereas education and income were associated primarily with stated willingness to pay a premium rather than with consumption intention.

The younger-skewed composition of the present sample nevertheless remains important for interpreting the practical implications of the findings. Almost four out of five respondents were between 18 and 35 years of age. The present analysis does not demonstrate that younger adults differ systematically from older consumers, since generational differences were not tested directly; rather, it provides a detailed picture of acceptance within a sample dominated by younger consumers. For this group, the findings suggest that sustainability-related communication alone may not be sufficient to stimulate adoption. Previous experience and willingness to try unfamiliar foods were associated with consumption intention, indicating that opportunities for product familiarisation and trial may complement environmental communication. At the same time, the role of income and education in stated willingness to pay a premium suggests that pricing and perceived value remain relevant even among consumers who may be receptive to sustainability-related arguments.

From a marketing perspective, plant-based versions of familiar foods may therefore represent a comparatively low-barrier route for engaging younger consumers, whereas insect-based alternatives are likely to require more gradual familiarisation and opportunities for trial. From a policy perspective, information campaigns aimed at younger consumers may be more effective when environmental information is combined with practical exposure to alternative products rather than relying exclusively on general sustainability messages. These implications should nevertheless be interpreted as segment-specific indications rather than as evidence of causal differences between generations.

Although younger generations are frequently associated with greater environmental concern, the mean NEP score observed in the present sample indicates a moderate rather than uniformly strong pro-environmental orientation. Whether a food is healthy did not emerge as a statistically significant component for either consumption intention or payment intention.

Following on from the above, the intention to consume refers to the general willingness to consume alternative proteins, without necessarily taking cost into account. In contrast, the intention to pay is directly linked to the consumer’s financial capacity. Moreover, products containing alternative proteins are more expensive due to their innovative nature and high production costs (Wu et al., 2014; Pojić et al., 2018; Skordoulis et al., 2024a).

The stated willingness-to-pay findings can also be contextualised against previous valuation studies. In the present sample, 31.6% of respondents expressed a positive stated willingness to pay a premium for plant-based alternatives, compared with only 5.1% for insect-based alternatives. The 31.6% observed for plant-based alternatives is somewhat higher than the approximately 18–26% range reported in previous European studies reviewed by Szenderák et al. (2022). The younger-skewed composition of the present sample may be one contextual factor contributing to this difference; however, differences in product characteristics, study design, and willingness-to-pay elicitation methods preclude attributing the difference to age alone. In Greece, Giotis and Drichoutis (2021) similarly found substantial price resistance toward directly consumed insect-based foods: most respondents required a discount, while those with positive WTP accepted average premiums of approximately 15.8–17.0%. For plant-based meat substitutes, European evidence reviewed by Szenderák et al. (2022) suggests that approximately 18–26% of consumers may be willing to pay a higher price under assumptions of comparable taste and texture. These figures are not directly equivalent to the present results because the current study measures a stated attitudinal disposition rather than an elicited monetary premium. Nevertheless, the evidence consistently points to substantially greater price resistance for insect-based alternatives.

For food-sector companies, the results suggest that product familiarity, pricing, and consumer information deserve particular attention when developing alternative-protein products. Plant-based alternatives currently appear to face substantially lower acceptance barriers than insect-based alternatives in the surveyed sample. Nevertheless, because the present study measures stated attitudes rather than observed purchasing behaviour, these implications should be regarded as indications for further market testing rather than direct predictions of consumer demand.

More broadly, the consumer-level findings may complement firms’ wider sustainability and green-innovation strategies. Previous research has highlighted the strategic relevance of green innovation and ESG performance (Skordoulis et al., 2020; Skordoulis et al., 2022; Skordoulis et al., 2024b; Delegkos et al., 2025; Matsali et al., 2025; Skordoulis and Kalantonis, 2025). In this context, evidence on consumer acceptance and stated willingness to pay can provide a market-side perspective when firms evaluate sustainability-oriented food innovation.

Limitations and directions for future research

Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, participation in the online questionnaire was voluntary and the study relied on a non-probability, self-selected sample. The sample was also predominantly younger and urban and included a high proportion of respondents in the lower income categories. The findings should therefore not be interpreted as nationally representative of the Greek population. Second, the study is based on self-reported attitudes and stated behavioural intentions rather than observed purchasing or consumption behaviour. This is particularly relevant to the willingness-to-pay measure, which captures a general disposition to pay more rather than an elicited monetary premium. Third, the cross-sectional design identifies associations between variables but does not establish causal relationships. Fourth, the PCA was exploratory and does not constitute a complete confirmatory validation of all study-specific measures. A further limitation concerns the extent of the regression diagnostics reported in the present study. Although the analysis included standard checks for multicollinearity and residual autocorrelation, a more comprehensive evaluation of assumptions such as linearity, homoscedasticity, residual distribution, and influential observations was beyond the analytical scope of this study. Future research could extend the analysis by incorporating a fuller set of regression diagnostics and robustness checks.

Future studies could employ probability-based or stratified samples, experimental purchase tasks, explicit monetary willingness-to-pay methods, and longitudinal or experimental designs to examine whether the relationships identified here translate into actual consumer behaviour.

Furthermore, research could focus on developing new strategies for consumer promotion and education, with the aim of reducing reservations about consuming new forms of protein, such as insect-derived proteins or lab-grown meat. Another interesting avenue would be to examine the cultural factors influencing the acceptance of alternative proteins, particularly in countries where new forms of protein, such as insects, are viewed with scepticism.

Finally, an important aspect for future research is the investigation of the economic factors influencing the production and pricing of these products. Reducing production costs through innovative technologies could make foods derived from alternative proteins more affordable for the general public. Furthermore, studying the impact of education and information on increasing willingness to pay for such products could provide valuable insights to producers and governments for formulating policies that will boost their consumption.

This study provides context-specific evidence on consumer acceptance of plant- and insect-based foods within a younger-skewed Greek sample. Plant-based alternatives were consistently more acceptable than insect-based alternatives, both in terms of consumption intention and stated willingness to pay a premium. The same broad ranking has also been reported among substantially older European consumers, suggesting that the strong resistance toward insect-based alternatives cannot be explained by age composition alone. The findings further indicate that consumption intention and stated willingness to pay a premium are associated with partly different consumer characteristics. From a market perspective, the results support differentiated strategies for the two protein sources. Plant-based alternatives appear to present lower acceptance barriers, whereas strategies for insect-based products may benefit from gradual familiarisation, opportunities for product trial, competitive pricing, and the incorporation of insect protein into familiar foods in processed or non-visible forms rather than presenting whole or recognisable insects. Within the European Union, insect-derived foods are subject to the Novel Food regulatory framework, under which authorised products undergo safety assessment and are placed on the Union list under specified conditions of use and labelling. Clear communication regarding product safety, composition, and the regulated status of authorised insect-derived ingredients may also help reduce consumer uncertainty. Given the non-probability and strongly younger-skewed sample, these conclusions should not be generalised to the Greek population.