Gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture: a scoping review of equity, access, and participation in adaptation programs in sub-Saharan Africa

Climate change poses significant threats to agricultural productivity, food security, and rural livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with women disproportionately affected due to persistent inequalities in access to productive resources, climate information, and adaptation opportunities. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) has been widely promoted as a strategy for enhancing agricultural resilience; however, evidence on its gender responsiveness remains fragmented. This study conducted a scoping review to systematically map and synthesize the literature on gender-responsive CSA interventions, focusing on equity, access, participation, empowerment, and adaptation outcomes in SSA. Guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR), literature published between 2010 and 2026 was identified from major bibliographic databases and grey literature sources. Of 525 records retrieved, 23 studies met the inclusion criteria and were synthesized using descriptive and thematic analyses. From the study, the evidence indicates that gender-responsive CSA interventions improve women’s access to knowledge, extension services, financial resources, and leadership opportunities, contributing to enhanced adaptive capacity and household resilience. However, the review also identified mixed outcomes, with several studies reporting that persistent socio-cultural norms, insecure land tenure, limited institutional support, unequal decision-making power, and weak policy implementation constrained women’s empowerment and reduced the effectiveness of CSA interventions. Important knowledge gaps include limited longitudinal evidence, inadequate intersectional analyses, underrepresentation of West and Central Africa, and insufficient evaluation of institutional accountability. The review concludes that achieving inclusive climate adaptation requires a transition from gender-responsive to gender-transformative CSA approaches that address structural inequalities, strengthen governance systems, and promote equitable access to resources, decision-making, and adaptation benefits across Sub-Saharan Africa.

Climate change poses significant threats to agricultural productivity, food security, and rural livelihoods globally, with Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) recognized as one of the most vulnerable regions due to its high dependence on rain-fed agriculture, widespread poverty, and limited adaptive capacity (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2023; Akinwole et al., 2025, 2024). Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, floods, and increased incidence of pests and diseases continue to undermine agricultural systems across the region, exacerbating existing socioeconomic inequalities and threatening sustainable development (Serdeczny et al., 2017; Kolapo and Ojo, 2026). Given that agriculture contributes substantially to employment, income generation, and food provision in SSA, strengthening the resilience of farming systems has become a central priority for climate adaptation efforts. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) has emerged as a transformative framework for addressing the interconnected challenges of food security and climate change. Introduced by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), CSA seeks to achieve three mutually reinforcing objectives: sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes, enhancing resilience and adaptation to climate change, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions where feasible (FAO, 2013; Kolapo et al., 2025a, 2025b). CSA encompasses a wide range of practices and technologies, including conservation agriculture, agroforestry, climate-resilient crop varieties, integrated soil fertility management, water harvesting, and digital climate advisory services. Numerous studies have demonstrated the potential of these interventions to improve productivity and resilience among smallholder farmers across Africa (Lipper et al., 2014; Rosenstock et al., 2019; Kolapo and Kolapo, 2023; Baruah and Najjar, 2022, FAO, 2017; Kolapo and Sieber, 2025).

Despite the growing promotion of CSA, concerns have emerged regarding the unequal distribution of its benefits among different social groups, particularly between men and women. Gender is increasingly recognized as a critical determinant of vulnerability, adaptive capacity, and access to climate adaptation resources (Jost et al., 2016; Kristjanson et al., 2017; Kolapo and Kolapo, 2023). Women constitute nearly half of the agricultural labor force in Sub-Saharan Africa and play essential roles in food production, processing, marketing, and household nutrition (FAO, 2023; Kolapo et al., 2022). However, they often face systemic barriers that limit their access to productive resources, including land, credit, agricultural inputs, extension services, climate information, education, and decision-making opportunities (Doss, 2018; World Bank, 2024). These structural inequalities reduce women’s ability to adopt climate-smart technologies and participate effectively in adaptation programs. Evidence suggests that gender disparities significantly influence CSA adoption patterns and adaptation outcomes. Male farmers generally enjoy greater access to land and financial resources, enabling them to adopt improved technologies more readily than their female counterparts (Jost et al., 2016). Women, on the other hand, frequently encounter cultural norms, institutional constraints, and time burdens associated with unpaid care work, which limit their participation in training programs and climate-related decision-making processes (Bryan et al., 2013). Consequently, adaptation interventions that fail to address gender-specific constraints risk reinforcing existing inequalities rather than promoting inclusive resilience. In response to these challenges, development agencies, governments, and international organizations have increasingly advocated for gender-responsive approaches to climate adaptation. Gender-responsive Climate-Smart Agriculture seeks to ensure that adaptation initiatives recognize and address the distinct needs, priorities, knowledge systems, and constraints experienced by women and men. Such approaches aim not only to increase women’s participation but also to promote equitable access to resources, strengthen agency, enhance leadership opportunities, and facilitate meaningful inclusion in decision-making processes (FAO, 2017; UN Women, 2023). Emerging evidence indicates that gender-responsive interventions can improve agricultural productivity, household food security, and adaptive capacity while contributing to broader goals of social justice and women’s empowerment (Gondwe et al., 2022).

Although interest in gender and CSA has grown considerably over the past decade, the existing body of literature remains fragmented across disciplines, geographical contexts, and thematic areas. Most studies have focused on technology adoption, productivity outcomes, or resilience impacts, while comparatively less attention has been devoted to examining issues of equity, access, participation, and empowerment within adaptation programs (Rurii and Nzengya, 2026). Furthermore, there is limited synthesis of evidence regarding how CSA interventions address structural gender inequalities and whether they generate transformative outcomes for women in different socioeconomic and institutional contexts across SSA. The increasing emphasis on gender equality within international frameworks such as the Paris Agreement, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Gender Action Plan, and national climate adaptation strategies underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of gender-responsive adaptation practices. A systematic mapping of existing evidence is therefore essential for identifying successful approaches, highlighting persistent barriers, and informing future policy and program design. Against this backdrop, this scoping review seeks to examine the extent, nature, and characteristics of existing research on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, the review answered the following research questions: What evidence exists on gender-responsive CSA interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa? How do these interventions influence equity, access, participation, and women’s empowerment in climate adaptation programs? What institutional, policy, and socio-cultural factors facilitate or constrain gender-responsive CSA implementation? And what knowledge gaps and future research priorities emerge from the existing evidence base?. Synthesizing current knowledge and identifying research gaps, the study aims to contribute to the development of more inclusive, equitable, and effective climate adaptation strategies that enhance resilience among vulnerable farming communities across the region. This study will make significant contributions to climate adaptation, gender equity, and sustainable agricultural development in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). By systematically synthesizing existing evidence on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA), the review will provide a comprehensive understanding of how issues of equity, access, and participation shape adaptation outcomes among men and women farmers across the region. The study will also support governments, development partners, non-governmental organizations, and agricultural practitioners in designing and implementing gender-responsive adaptation programs that enhance resilience, productivity, and food security. By highlighting successful practices and institutional approaches that promote women’s participation and empowerment, the review will contribute to the advancement of gender-transformative climate adaptation strategies. Furthermore, the study will identify critical research gaps and future priorities for scholars and policymakers, thereby strengthening the evidence base for climate-resilient agricultural development in SSA. Ultimately, the review will contribute to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), while promoting inclusive and equitable agricultural transformation in the region.

Research design

This study employs a scoping review research design to systematically map, synthesize, and analyze the existing body of literature on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with particular emphasis on issues of equity, access, and participation in climate adaptation programs. A scoping review is appropriate for this study because it enables the comprehensive examination of a broad and diverse evidence base, identification of key concepts, synthesis of research findings, and detection of knowledge gaps within an emerging field of inquiry (Arksey and O'Malley, 2005; Peters et al., 2020). The review was guided by the methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O'Malley (2005) and further refined by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) guidelines for scoping reviews. This approach involves five key stages: (i) identifying the research questions, (ii) identifying relevant studies, (iii) selecting eligible studies, (iv) charting and extracting data, and (v) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results. The design is particularly suitable because research on gender-responsive CSA spans multiple disciplines, methodologies, geographical contexts, and intervention types, making a scoping review more appropriate than a traditional systematic review. The study adopts a transparent and reproducible search strategy to identify relevant peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, policy documents, reports, and grey literature published between 2010 and 2026. Searches were conducted across major databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, CAB Abstracts, AGRIS, and Google Scholar. Relevant publications from international organizations, including FAO, CGIAR, UN Women, IFAD, and the World Bank, will also be included. Data extracted from the selected studies were analyzed using descriptive statistics and thematic content analysis. Findings were organized around key themes such as gender equity, access to productive resources, participation in adaptation programs, women’s empowerment, institutional inclusion, and climate resilience outcomes. Systematically mapping existing evidence, the scoping review provides a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge, identifies research gaps, and generates recommendations for future research, policy, and practice aimed at promoting inclusive and gender-responsive climate adaptation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Figure 1 summarizes the identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and inclusion stages following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. A total of 525 records were identified from electronic databases and grey literature sources, of which 95 duplicates were removed. Following title and abstract screening of 430 records, 352 records were excluded. Seventy-eight full-text articles were assessed for eligibility, and 55 articles were excluded based on predefined criteria, including lack of focus on climate-smart agriculture, absence of gender-related analysis, studies conducted outside Sub-Saharan Africa, insufficient information on adaptation programs, and duplicate findings. Ultimately, 23 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final synthesis of evidence on equity, access, and participation in climate adaptation programs across Sub-Saharan Africa. Title, abstract, and full-text screening were conducted independently by two reviewers using the predefined eligibility criteria. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion and consensus, and where consensus could not be reached, a third reviewer adjudicated. This process ensured methodological rigor, transparency, and consistency throughout the study selection procedure.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The study adopted predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure the selection of relevant literature on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Studies were included if they: (i) were published between 2010 and 2026; (ii) focused on climate-smart agriculture, climate change adaptation, resilience, or related agricultural adaptation interventions; (iii) examined gender dimensions such as equity, access, participation, empowerment, or inclusion; (iv) were conducted within countries in Sub-Saharan Africa; and (v) were published as peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, policy reports, working papers, or institutional publications. Both qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods studies were considered eligible for inclusion. Studies were excluded if they: (i) focused on regions outside Sub-Saharan Africa; (ii) did not address gender-related issues or provide sex-disaggregated analysis; (iii) examined climate change impacts without discussing adaptation or CSA interventions; (iv) lacked sufficient methodological or empirical information; (v) were duplicate publications; or (vi) were published in languages other than English. Editorials, opinion pieces, commentaries, book reviews, and studies with limited relevance to the review objectives were also excluded. These criteria ensured that the final selection of studies provided robust and relevant evidence for understanding equity, access, and participation in gender-responsive climate adaptation programs across SSA. A methodological quality assessment was undertaken to evaluate the rigor and credibility of the included studies. Using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal checklists appropriate to each study design, two reviewers independently assessed study quality. Disagreements were resolved through consensus, and only studies meeting the predefined methodological standards were retained, and where consensus could not be reached, a third reviewer adjudicated.

Source of data

This study relied exclusively on secondary data sources obtained from published and unpublished literature relevant to gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Data were systematically collected from major academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, CAB Abstracts, AGRIS, and Google Scholar. These databases were selected because they provide comprehensive coverage of agricultural, environmental, climate change, and gender-related research. In addition to peer-reviewed journal articles, grey literature was sourced from reputable international organizations and development agencies actively engaged in climate adaptation and agricultural development. These included reports, policy briefs, working papers, and technical documents from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), CGIAR, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and UN Women. Relevant references cited within eligible studies were also reviewed to identify additional publications that met the inclusion criteria. The collected data comprised information on study characteristics, geographical coverage, CSA interventions, gender dimensions, access to resources, participation in adaptation programs, equity outcomes, and key findings. Utilizing multiple sources of evidence enhanced the comprehensiveness, reliability, and validity of the review by ensuring broad coverage of existing knowledge on gender-responsive climate adaptation practices across Sub-Saharan Africa.

Search strategy

A comprehensive and systematic search strategy was employed to identify relevant literature on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The search was conducted across multiple electronic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, CAB Abstracts, AGRIS, and Google Scholar, to ensure broad coverage of peer-reviewed publications. In addition, grey literature was retrieved from the websites of international organizations and development agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), CGIAR, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and UN Women. Grey literature was retrieved through manual searches of the official websites of FAO, CGIAR, IFAD, UN Women, and the World Bank using combinations of the keywords “climate-smart agriculture,” “gender,” “women farmers,” “climate adaptation,” “equity,” and “Sub-Saharan Africa.” Reference lists of eligible documents were also screened to identify additional relevant publications. The search process utilized a combination of keywords and Boolean operators (AND, OR) to capture relevant studies. Key search terms included: “climate-smart agriculture,” “CSA,” “gender-responsive agriculture,” “gender,” “women farmers,” “equity,” “access,” “participation,” “empowerment,” “climate adaptation,” “climate resilience,” and “Sub-Saharan Africa.” An example of the search string used was: (“climate-smart agriculture” OR CSA) AND (gender OR women OR female farmers) AND (equity OR access OR participation OR empowerment) AND (adaptation OR resilience) AND (“Sub-Saharan Africa”). Reference lists of selected studies were also examined to identify additional relevant publications. The search was limited to studies published in English between 2010 and 2026 to capture contemporary evidence on gender-responsive climate adaptation interventions in SSA. Database-specific search strings were adapted to each platform’s indexing requirements. The final literature search was completed in 2026. Duplicate management and screening were performed manually using Microsoft Excel. To minimize grey literature bias, only documents from reputable international organizations with established quality assurance procedures were included.

Data extraction and analysis

Data extraction was conducted using a standardized data-charting form developed in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) guidelines for scoping reviews. The standardized data-charting form captured the following information from each eligible study: author(s), publication year, country, study objectives, study design, sample characteristics, CSA intervention(s), gender dimensions examined, outcome measures, key findings, limitations, and policy implications. The completed charting form guided consistent data extraction and thematic synthesis across all included studies. Relevant information was systematically extracted from each selected study to ensure consistency and facilitate comparative analysis. The extracted variables included author(s), year of publication, country of study, study objectives, research design, sample characteristics, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) interventions, gender dimensions examined, measures of equity and access, participation outcomes, key findings, and policy implications. Following data extraction, the collected information was subjected to both descriptive and thematic analyses. Descriptive analysis was used to summarize the characteristics of the included studies, including publication trends, geographical distribution, methodological approaches, and types of CSA interventions investigated. Thematic analysis was then employed to identify, categorize, and synthesize recurring patterns and themes across the literature. Key themes included gender equity, access to productive resources, participation in adaptation programs, decision-making power, women’s empowerment, institutional support, and climate resilience outcomes. The findings were presented using narrative synthesis, supplemented with summary tables and figures where appropriate. This approach enabled a comprehensive mapping of the evidence base, identification of knowledge gaps, and generation of insights regarding the effectiveness of gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture interventions in promoting inclusive climate adaptation across Sub-Saharan Africa. Thematic analysis followed a predominantly inductive approach, allowing themes to emerge from the extracted evidence while being guided by the review objectives. A standardized coding framework was developed and applied consistently across all studies. Coding and theme refinement were independently reviewed by two authors, with discrepancies resolved through discussion and consensus.

Quality appraisal results

Methodological quality assessment was conducted using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal checklists appropriate to each study design (Supplementary Table S1). All 23 included studies were independently assessed by two reviewers, with disagreements resolved through discussion and, where necessary, consultation with a third reviewer. Overall, the methodological quality of the evidence was high. Eighteen studies satisfied all or nearly all applicable appraisal criteria, while the remaining five met more than 70% of the relevant JBI criteria and were also classified as high quality. Common strengths included clearly stated research objectives, appropriate study designs, transparent data collection procedures, and findings supported by the evidence presented. Minor methodological limitations were observed in a small number of studies, particularly inadequate discussion of researcher reflexivity in qualitative studies, limited consideration of potential confounding factors in observational studies, and insufficient reporting of methodological limitations. Nevertheless, none of these limitations were considered sufficiently serious to warrant exclusion, and all included studies met the predefined methodological quality threshold for inclusion in the review.

Table 1 provides a comprehensive overview of the 23 studies included in the scoping review, highlighting the diversity of research contexts, methodological approaches, and thematic emphases on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA). The evidence is geographically concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly East and Southern Africa, with relatively limited representation from West and Central Africa, indicating important regional research gaps. Methodologically, the literature is dominated by qualitative reviews, policy analyses, and mixed-methods studies, while quantitative evidence remains comparatively limited. This distribution suggests that current knowledge is largely based on descriptive and contextual analyses rather than causal evaluations. The reviewed studies consistently focus on women’s access to productive resources, technology adoption, climate adaptation, institutional support, and empowerment. Across the literature, unequal access to land, credit, extension services, climate information, and agricultural inputs emerges as the principal constraint to women’s participation in CSA interventions. Several studies further demonstrate that gender-responsive policies, inclusive institutions, farmer organizations, and targeted extension services enhance women’s adaptive capacity, technology adoption, and decision-making power. Nevertheless, the evidence also indicates that positive outcomes are context-dependent and often constrained by persistent socio-cultural norms, insecure land tenure, and weak institutional implementation. Conclusively, the table illustrates the evolution of the literature from documenting gender disparities toward promoting gender-transformative approaches that integrate equity, empowerment, and institutional reforms into climate-smart agricultural development across Sub-Saharan Africa.

Mapping the existing literature on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture interventions in sub-Saharan Africa

The existing literature on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has expanded considerably over the past decade, reflecting growing recognition that climate adaptation strategies must address gender inequalities to achieve sustainable and inclusive agricultural development. The reviewed studies demonstrate that while CSA interventions have been widely promoted as mechanisms for enhancing productivity, resilience, and food security, their effectiveness is often influenced by gender-differentiated access to resources, decision-making power, and participation opportunities. A significant proportion of the literature focuses on understanding how gender shapes vulnerability and adaptation to climate change among smallholder farming households. Early studies by Bryan et al. (2013) and Jost et al. (2016) established that men and women experience climate risks differently due to disparities in access to land, labor, education, financial resources, extension services, and climate information. These studies highlight that gender is not merely a demographic characteristic but a critical determinant of adaptive capacity and resilience. Another dominant theme concerns women’s access to productive resources. Several studies, including Doss (2017), Ragasa et al. (2013), and Meinzen-Dick et al. (2019), demonstrate that women farmers consistently face structural constraints in accessing land, agricultural inputs, credit facilities, markets, and extension services. Such barriers significantly affect their ability to adopt CSA technologies and benefit from adaptation programs. The literature suggests that interventions that fail to address these inequalities may inadvertently reinforce existing gender disparities rather than reduce them.

The adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies represents another major area of research. Studies conducted in Malawi, Kenya, Uganda, and other SSA countries reveal that women’s adoption of CSA practices, including conservation agriculture, agroforestry, drought-tolerant crop varieties, soil and water conservation techniques, and integrated soil fertility management, is generally lower than that of men due to limited access to resources and information. For example, Fisher et al. (2018) and Murray et al. (2016) found that awareness and adoption of conservation agriculture were strongly influenced by access to extension services and household asset ownership. Similarly, Khatri-Chhetri et al. (2017) observed that farmers prioritize CSA technologies differently according to gender-specific needs, responsibilities, and resource availability. A growing body of literature has also examined women’s participation in climate adaptation programs and agricultural decision-making processes. Research by Twyman et al. (2014), Perez et al. (2015), and Acosta et al. (2021) indicates that although women often participate in community-based adaptation initiatives, their involvement is frequently limited to implementation activities rather than strategic decision-making. Cultural norms, unequal power relations, and time burdens associated with household responsibilities continue to constrain women’s participation in leadership positions and institutional governance structures. Consequently, many scholars argue that participation should be evaluated not merely by attendance but by the extent to which women influence decisions and control resources. The literature further reveals increasing attention to gender-responsive and gender-transformative approaches within CSA programming. Gender-responsive interventions seek to recognize and accommodate the distinct needs and constraints of women and men, while gender-transformative approaches aim to challenge and alter discriminatory social norms and power relations. Studies by Huyer et al. (2015), Huyer (2016), and Acosta et al. (2021) emphasize that gender-transformative CSA interventions are more likely to generate sustainable adaptation outcomes because they address underlying institutional and social barriers. These studies advocate for integrating gender analysis into the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of adaptation programs.

Women’s empowerment constitutes another prominent theme in the reviewed literature. Research by Gondwe et al. (2022), Quisumbing et al. (2015), and Huyer and Partey (2025) suggests that CSA interventions can contribute to women’s economic empowerment when they improve access to productive assets, strengthen decision-making capacity, and enhance control over agricultural income. However, evidence also indicates that increased participation in agricultural activities does not automatically translate into greater empowerment unless accompanied by improvements in resource ownership and institutional representation. Institutional and policy dimensions are also widely discussed. Several studies highlight the importance of gender-sensitive policies, extension systems, and research frameworks in promoting inclusive adaptation. Publications from CGIAR, CCAFS, FAO, and related organizations emphasize the need for gender-disaggregated data, participatory research approaches, and targeted support mechanisms for women farmers. These studies argue that institutional reforms are necessary to address persistent barriers that limit women’s participation in CSA initiatives. Geographically, the literature is concentrated in East and Southern Africa, particularly Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. Comparatively fewer studies have examined gender-responsive CSA interventions in West and Central Africa, revealing important regional knowledge gaps. Methodologically, most studies employ qualitative, mixed-methods, or cross-sectional survey approaches, with relatively limited longitudinal evidence assessing long-term impacts of gender-responsive adaptation programs. Conclusively, the existing literature demonstrates growing recognition of the importance of integrating gender considerations into climate-smart agriculture. The evidence consistently shows that equitable access to resources, meaningful participation, and women’s empowerment are essential for achieving effective climate adaptation outcomes. Nevertheless, important gaps remain regarding the long-term effectiveness of gender-transformative interventions, institutional accountability mechanisms, and context-specific pathways for scaling inclusive CSA practices across Sub-Saharan Africa.

Figure 2 synthesizes the major themes emerging from the 23 studies included in the scoping review on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The literature is organized into six interconnected thematic domains: gendered vulnerability to climate change, access to productive resources, participation in adaptation programs, CSA technology adoption, women’s empowerment, and institutional and policy support. The synthesis demonstrates that gender inequalities in land ownership, credit access, extension services, climate information, and decision-making continue to shape the adoption and effectiveness of CSA interventions. The reviewed studies further reveal that meaningful participation, empowerment, and gender-transformative approaches are critical for enhancing adaptive capacity and resilience among women farmers. Collectively, these thematic areas contribute to key outcomes such as increased CSA adoption, improved food security, enhanced climate resilience, greater gender equity, and sustainable agricultural transformation. The figure also highlights important knowledge gaps in the existing literature, including limited evidence from West and Central Africa, insufficient longitudinal evaluations, weak assessment of institutional accountability, and inadequate understanding of pathways for scaling inclusive CSA interventions. The framework provides a comprehensive overview of the current evidence base and identifies priority areas for future research, policy development, and implementation of gender-responsive climate adaptation strategies in SSA.

Extent and nature of women’s participation in climate-smart agriculture and climate adaptation programs across sub-Saharan Africa

The reviewed literature shows that women participate widely in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) and climate adaptation programs across Sub-Saharan Africa, but their participation is often unequal in terms of access, influence, and benefits. Studies consistently indicate that women are active contributors to agricultural production, household food security, and local adaptation efforts, yet structural constraints continue to limit their full engagement in CSA initiatives (Jost et al., 2016; Perez et al., 2015). One major pattern is that women’s participation is frequently concentrated in implementation activities rather than strategic decision-making. Community-based adaptation programs, farmer groups, and extension activities often include women, but they remain underrepresented in leadership positions and governance structures (Twyman et al., 2014; Acosta et al., 2021). The literature emphasizes that participation should be assessed not only by attendance rates but also by women’s ability to influence decisions, control resources, and shape adaptation priorities (Acosta et al., 2021). Access to productive resources strongly influences the extent of participation. Women commonly face constraints in land ownership, credit access, agricultural inputs, extension services, and climate information, which reduces their capacity to adopt CSA technologies and engage effectively in adaptation programs (Doss, 2018; Ragasa et al., 2013; Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019). These barriers are especially important because many CSA practices, such as conservation agriculture, agroforestry, improved seed use, and water management, require access to land, labor, knowledge, and financial resources (Fisher et al., 2018; Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2017).

The reviewed studies also show that women’s participation is shaped by social norms and household responsibilities. Time burdens associated with unpaid care work, cultural restrictions on mobility, and unequal power relations often limit women’s ability to attend training sessions, join farmer organizations, or participate in market-oriented adaptation activities (Huyer et al., 2015; Jost et al., 2016). As a result, women may be present in programs but have less opportunity to benefit from them compared with men. Several studies highlight the importance of gender-responsive and gender-transformative approaches for improving participation. Gender-responsive CSA interventions seek to recognize women’s specific constraints and provide targeted support through extension services, climate information, financial inclusion, and capacity building (FAO, 2017; Huyer, 2016). Gender-transformative approaches go further by addressing discriminatory norms and power relations that limit women’s agency (Acosta et al., 2021; Huyer et al., 2015). Evidence suggests that programs incorporating these approaches are more likely to enhance women’s participation, leadership, and empowerment. Women’s participation is also linked to resilience outcomes. Perez et al. (2015) found that household and community resilience to climate change is influenced by gendered access to resources and social networks. Similarly, Bryan et al. (2013) showed that adaptation strategies adopted by Kenyan households vary according to gender-related resource constraints. These findings indicate that improving women’s participation in CSA programs can strengthen Conclusively community resilience. Across the literature, participation is highest where interventions combine technical support with institutional inclusion. Programs that engage women’s groups, provide gender-sensitive extension services, and ensure women’s representation in decision-making tend to report better adaptation outcomes and stronger empowerment effects (Gondwe et al., 2022; Huyer and Partey, 2025). However, the evidence base remains geographically uneven, with most studies concentrated in East and Southern Africa and comparatively fewer studies from West and Central Africa. Conclusively, the literature suggests that women are not passive beneficiaries of climate adaptation programs; they are active participants and key agents of change. Nevertheless, their participation remains constrained by unequal access to resources, limited decision-making power, and institutional barriers. The evidence therefore supports the need for gender-responsive and gender-transformative CSA interventions that move beyond numerical inclusion to ensure meaningful participation, resource control, and leadership opportunities for women across Sub-Saharan Africa.

Contribution of gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture interventions to women’s empowerment, decision-making power, and control over productive resources and agricultural income in sub-Saharan Africa

Our findings demonstrate that gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA) interventions play a significant role in enhancing women’s empowerment, strengthening their decision-making power, and improving their access to and control over productive resources and agricultural income across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). While conventional agricultural adaptation programs have often overlooked structural gender inequalities, gender-responsive CSA approaches increasingly recognize women as critical agents of climate adaptation and agricultural transformation rather than passive beneficiaries of development interventions. One of the most widely reported contributions of gender-responsive CSA interventions is the enhancement of women’s access to productive resources. Studies by Huyer et al. (2015), Gondwe et al. (2022), and Acosta et al. (2021) indicate that targeted interventions such as gender-sensitive extension services, climate information dissemination, farmer field schools, and capacity-building programs have improved women’s access to agricultural knowledge, improved technologies, and climate adaptation practices. Access to drought-tolerant crop varieties, conservation agriculture technologies, agroforestry systems, and improved soil and water management practices has enabled women farmers to increase agricultural productivity and strengthen household resilience to climate-related shocks. The literature further reveals that gender-responsive CSA interventions contribute to women’s economic empowerment by expanding access to financial resources and income-generating opportunities. Several studies emphasize that women’s participation in CSA projects often facilitates access to savings groups, microcredit schemes, agricultural cooperatives, and market linkages that were previously unavailable or difficult to access (Quisumbing et al., 2015; Huyer and Partey, 2025). Through increased participation in climate-resilient value chains and agricultural enterprises, women are able to diversify income sources, reduce vulnerability to climate-induced income losses, and improve household welfare. In many cases, enhanced access to productive assets and financial services has translated into greater economic independence and reduced dependence on male household members.

Decision-making power within households and communities is another important dimension of empowerment highlighted in the reviewed studies. Evidence from Uganda, Kenya, Malawi, and Ethiopia suggests that women involved in gender-responsive CSA initiatives often report greater participation in household decisions regarding crop selection, adoption of agricultural technologies, resource allocation, and income utilization (Ampaire et al., 2020; Gondwe et al., 2022). Participation in training programs and farmer organizations enhances women’s knowledge, confidence, and bargaining power, enabling them to engage more effectively in agricultural decision-making processes. This shift is particularly important because traditional gender norms in many SSA communities often assign decision-making authority primarily to men, limiting women’s influence over productive resources and adaptation strategies. At the community level, gender-responsive CSA interventions have also contributed to increased female representation in farmer groups, producer organizations, community adaptation committees, and local governance structures. Studies by Twyman et al. (2014) and Acosta et al. (2021) indicate that programs promoting inclusive participation create opportunities for women to assume leadership roles and influence adaptation planning. Such involvement not only strengthens women’s agency but also ensures that adaptation interventions better reflect the priorities and needs of female farmers. However, the literature acknowledges that progress remains uneven, as women continue to face barriers to occupying strategic leadership positions despite improvements in participation rates.

Control over productive resources represents another critical area where gender-responsive CSA interventions have generated positive outcomes. Several studies report improvements in women’s access to agricultural land, livestock, improved seed varieties, irrigation technologies, and climate information services (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019; Huyer, 2016). Although ownership and control of land remain constrained by customary tenure systems and socio-cultural norms in many contexts, CSA interventions that integrate gender-sensitive policies and institutional reforms have shown potential to strengthen women’s resource rights. Increased control over productive assets enhances women’s capacity to make independent farming decisions and invest in climate adaptation measures. The reviewed literature also highlights improvements in women’s control over agricultural income. Gender-responsive interventions frequently encourage joint household decision-making, women’s participation in marketing activities, and greater financial literacy. As a result, women often gain increased influence over the allocation and use of income generated from climate-smart agricultural activities (Quisumbing et al., 2015). Enhanced control over income has been associated with improved household nutrition, education expenditure, healthcare access, and food security outcomes, reflecting the broader developmental benefits of women’s economic empowerment.

Despite these positive contributions, the literature emphasizes that empowerment outcomes are neither automatic nor uniform. Several studies caution that increased participation in CSA activities does not necessarily translate into meaningful empowerment if underlying gender inequalities remain unaddressed (Acosta et al., 2021; Huyer et al., 2015). In some cases, women may experience increased workloads without corresponding gains in resource control or decision-making authority. Consequently, scholars advocate for gender-transformative approaches that address discriminatory social norms, unequal power relations, and institutional barriers that constrain women’s agency. Conclusively, the evidence suggests that gender-responsive CSA interventions make substantial contributions to women’s empowerment by enhancing access to productive resources, strengthening decision-making power, increasing control over agricultural income, and expanding leadership opportunities. These outcomes not only improve women’s adaptive capacity and resilience to climate change but also contribute to broader goals of gender equality, food security, poverty reduction, and sustainable agricultural development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nevertheless, achieving long-term transformative change requires continued efforts to address structural inequalities and ensure that women can fully participate in and benefit from climate adaptation initiatives.

Role of institutions, policies, and governance frameworks in promoting gender equity and inclusion within climate-smart agriculture initiatives in sub-Saharan Africa

The reviewed literature consistently demonstrates that institutions, policies, and governance frameworks play a fundamental role in shaping the extent to which climate-smart agriculture (CSA) initiatives promote gender equity and social inclusion across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). While CSA interventions have considerable potential to improve agricultural productivity, climate resilience, and food security, their effectiveness in addressing gender inequalities largely depends on the institutional environments within which they are designed and implemented. The evidence suggests that supportive policies, inclusive governance structures, and gender-responsive institutions are critical for ensuring that women benefit equitably from climate adaptation programs. One of the most significant contributions of institutions is their role in facilitating access to productive resources. Numerous studies indicate that formal and informal institutions influence women’s access to land, credit, extension services, agricultural inputs, and climate information (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019; Huyer, 2016). In many SSA countries, customary land tenure systems and patriarchal inheritance practices continue to restrict women’s land ownership and control over productive assets. Since land is a prerequisite for the adoption of many CSA technologies, institutional arrangements that limit women’s land rights often constrain their participation in adaptation programs. The literature therefore emphasizes the importance of policy reforms that strengthen women’s tenure security and guarantee equal access to productive resources.

Agricultural extension institutions constitute another critical component of gender-responsive CSA governance. Studies by Ragasa et al. (2013), Huyer et al. (2015), Muperi and Sisimayi (2025), and Ampaire et al. (2020) reveal that women frequently receive fewer extension services than men due to institutional biases, limited outreach strategies, and inadequate consideration of gender-specific constraints. Gender-responsive extension systems that employ female extension agents, tailor training schedules to women’s availability, and provide targeted climate information have been shown to improve women’s participation and adoption of climate-smart technologies. Consequently, institutional reforms that mainstream gender considerations within extension services are essential for enhancing women’s adaptive capacity. The literature also highlights the role of national agricultural and climate policies in promoting gender equity. Several studies note that the integration of gender considerations into National Adaptation Plans (NAPs), Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), agricultural development strategies, and climate resilience programs can create enabling environments for inclusive adaptation (Huyer and Partey, 2025; FAO, 2017). Gender-responsive policy frameworks encourage governments and development agencies to allocate resources toward women’s capacity building, financial inclusion, technology dissemination, and leadership development. Such policies help address historical inequalities that have limited women’s participation in agricultural innovation and climate adaptation.

Governance structures at the community level are equally important in determining adaptation outcomes. The reviewed studies show that local institutions, including farmer organizations, producer cooperatives, water user associations, and community adaptation committees, serve as important platforms through which women can access resources, information, and decision-making opportunities (Twyman et al., 2014; Acosta et al., 2021). Inclusive governance mechanisms that ensure women’s representation in leadership positions contribute to more equitable adaptation planning and implementation. Where women actively participate in local governance structures, adaptation interventions are more likely to reflect their priorities, knowledge systems, and livelihood needs. Several studies further emphasize the importance of participatory and gender-transformative governance approaches. Acosta et al. (2021) argue that effective governance extends beyond numerical representation and requires addressing power imbalances that limit women’s influence within institutions. Gender-transformative approaches seek to challenge discriminatory social norms, redistribute decision-making authority, and promote equitable access to opportunities and benefits. Such approaches have been associated with improved empowerment outcomes, greater institutional accountability, and more sustainable adaptation results. International organizations and development agencies also play a critical governance role in promoting gender-responsive CSA. Institutions such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), CGIAR, CCAFS, UN Women, IFAD, and the World Bank have developed frameworks, guidelines, and capacity-building programs that support gender integration within climate adaptation initiatives (FAO, 2017; UN Women, 2023). These organizations contribute to evidence generation, policy advocacy, institutional strengthening, and the development of gender-sensitive monitoring and evaluation systems. Their efforts have increased awareness of gender inequalities and encouraged governments to adopt more inclusive adaptation strategies.

Despite these positive developments, the literature identifies several governance challenges that continue to hinder gender equity in CSA initiatives. Weak institutional coordination, inadequate funding for gender-focused programs, insufficient gender-disaggregated data, and limited monitoring of gender outcomes remain common constraints across many SSA countries (Huyer et al., 2015; Gondwe et al., 2022). Furthermore, policy commitments to gender inclusion are often not matched by effective implementation mechanisms at local levels. As a result, women may remain excluded from decision-making processes despite the existence of gender-sensitive policies. The review also highlights the need for stronger accountability mechanisms within governance frameworks. Several studies note that institutional performance in promoting gender equity is rarely assessed systematically, making it difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of adaptation programs in reducing gender disparities. Strengthening monitoring systems, promoting gender-responsive budgeting, and establishing clear indicators for inclusion can enhance institutional accountability and improve adaptation outcomes.

Adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies and practices among men and women farmers in sub-Saharan Africa: key findings and determinants of differential adoption patterns

The reviewed literature consistently demonstrates that the adoption of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) technologies and practices among smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is highly gendered. While both men and women actively engage in climate adaptation and agricultural production, significant disparities exist in the uptake, intensity of use, and benefits derived from CSA interventions. Across the reviewed studies, commonly promoted CSA practices include conservation agriculture, agroforestry, drought-tolerant crop varieties, integrated soil fertility management, improved livestock management, water harvesting, climate information services, and digital advisory technologies (Bryan et al., 2013; Rurii and Nzengya, 2026). A recurring finding is that men generally exhibit higher adoption rates of capital-intensive CSA technologies, whereas women are more likely to adopt low-cost and labor-based adaptation practices. Studies from Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, and other SSA countries reveal that male farmers often have greater access to land, credit, farm inputs, and extension services, enabling them to invest in technologies such as irrigation systems, improved seed varieties, mechanization, and agroforestry systems (Jost et al., 2016; Fisher et al., 2018). Women, by contrast, frequently adopt practices that require fewer financial resources, including crop diversification, mulching, intercropping, seed preservation, and soil conservation techniques (Bryan et al., 2013).

Access to productive resources emerges as the most important determinant of differential adoption patterns. Numerous studies identify land ownership and tenure security as critical factors influencing CSA uptake. Women often have weaker land rights due to customary inheritance systems and patriarchal land tenure arrangements, limiting their willingness and ability to invest in long-term climate-smart practices such as agroforestry, soil restoration, and water conservation infrastructure (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019; Huyer, 2016). Because many CSA technologies generate returns over extended periods, insecure land tenure can significantly reduce adoption incentives among women farmers. Financial constraints also play a major role in shaping adoption behavior. The literature consistently reports that women have lower access to formal credit, savings mechanisms, insurance products, and agricultural finance than men (Quisumbing et al., 2015; Murray et al., 2016). Limited financial resources restrict women’s ability to purchase improved seeds, fertilizers, irrigation equipment, and other inputs necessary for implementing CSA technologies. Consequently, adoption decisions are often influenced by household income levels, asset ownership, and access to financial institutions. Agricultural extension and climate information services are another major determinant of adoption. Several studies reveal that men are more likely than women to receive extension support, participate in training programs, and access weather and climate information services (Ragasa et al., 2013; Fisher et al., 2018). Women frequently face barriers such as limited mobility, lower literacy levels, household responsibilities, and institutional biases within extension systems. Where extension services are gender-sensitive and tailored to women’s needs, adoption rates among female farmers tend to improve significantly (Huyer et al., 2015; FAO, 2017, Kolapo and Kolapo, 2023; Akinwole et al., 2025).

Labor availability and workload considerations further influence technology adoption. Many CSA practices require substantial labor investments during establishment and maintenance phases. Murray et al. (2016) found that women smallholders in Malawi often face labor productivity constraints due to time poverty associated with childcare, household management, and unpaid care work. As a result, women may be less likely to adopt labor-intensive practices even when they recognize their potential benefits. This finding highlights the importance of considering labor demands when promoting climate-smart technologies among female farmers. Social and cultural norms also contribute significantly to gender differences in adoption patterns. Studies by Jost et al. (2016), Twyman et al. (2014), and Acosta et al. (2021) demonstrate that gender roles influence access to information, participation in farmer organizations, control over productive resources, and decision-making authority. In many rural communities, men retain primary responsibility for strategic farming decisions, while women have limited influence over technology investments and resource allocation. Such norms often constrain women’s ability to adopt and benefit from CSA innovations independently. Education and human capital are additional determinants of adoption. Farmers with higher levels of education and training are generally more likely to understand, evaluate, and adopt climate-smart technologies. Several studies indicate that women often have lower educational attainment and fewer opportunities for agricultural training than men, creating information gaps that affect adoption decisions (Huyer, 2016).

Institutional support and participation in farmer organizations further shape adoption outcomes. Membership in cooperatives, producer associations, savings groups, and community-based organizations enhances access to information, financial services, and peer learning opportunities. Women who participate in such institutions generally exhibit higher rates of CSA adoption than those who are socially isolated (Ampaire et al., 2020; Quisumbing et al., 2015). Farmer-to-farmer extension approaches have also proven effective in increasing awareness and adoption among women farmers (Fisher et al., 2018). The literature further reveals that adoption is influenced by perceptions of risk, expected benefits, and compatibility with livelihood objectives. Men and women often prioritize different adaptation strategies due to differences in resource availability, responsibilities, and livelihood goals. Women tend to favor technologies that enhance household food security and reduce vulnerability, while men may prioritize technologies associated with productivity and market returns (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2017; Beuchelt and Badstue, 2013). Conclusively, the evidence demonstrates that gender disparities in CSA adoption are driven by a complex interaction of economic, institutional, social, and cultural factors. While women actively engage in climate adaptation, their adoption of climate-smart technologies remains constrained by unequal access to resources, information, finance, land, and decision-making power. The reviewed studies consistently conclude that gender-responsive interventions, including inclusive extension systems, improved land rights, financial inclusion programs, targeted capacity building, and institutional reforms, are essential for narrowing adoption gaps and ensuring that both men and women benefit equitably from climate-smart agriculture initiatives across Sub-Saharan Africa.

The Figure 3 presents a conceptual synthesis of the evidence on gendered adoption patterns of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) technologies and practices across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It illustrates the major CSA technologies promoted in the region, including conservation agriculture, agroforestry, drought-tolerant crop varieties, integrated soil fertility management, improved livestock management, water harvesting, irrigation technologies, and climate information services. The framework highlights distinct adoption patterns between male and female farmers, showing that men generally exhibit higher adoption rates of capital-intensive and resource-demanding technologies, while women are more likely to adopt low-cost, labor-based, and risk-reducing practices such as crop diversification, intercropping, mulching, soil conservation, and local seed management (Bryan et al., 2013; Ragasa et al., 2013; Twyman et al., 2014; Huyer et al., 2015; Jost et al., 2016; Huyer, 2016; Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2017; Fisher et al., 2018; Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019; Acosta et al., 2021; Ampaire et al., 2020; Gondwe et al., 2022; Rurii and Nzengya, 2026).

Gender-specific barriers and opportunities influencing access to productive resources within climate-smart agriculture interventions in sub-Saharan Africa

The reviewed literature consistently identifies access to productive resources as one of the most important determinants of participation in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) and climate adaptation programs across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Although women contribute significantly to agricultural production and household food security, they continue to face substantial barriers in accessing land, credit, extension services, agricultural inputs, and climate information. These constraints often limit their ability to adopt climate-smart technologies, benefit from adaptation programs, and strengthen resilience to climate change. At the same time, the literature highlights several emerging opportunities that can improve women’s access to productive resources and promote more inclusive climate adaptation outcomes.

Access to land

Land remains the most critical productive resource influencing the adoption of CSA technologies. Across the reviewed studies, women generally have less secure land rights than men due to customary inheritance systems, patriarchal property regimes, and discriminatory land governance structures (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019; Huyer, 2016). In many SSA countries, men retain primary ownership and control over agricultural land, while women often access land through husbands or male relatives. This insecure tenure discourages long-term investments in climate-smart practices such as agroforestry, conservation agriculture, soil restoration, and irrigation infrastructure. Women’s limited decision-making authority over land use further constrains their ability to implement adaptation strategies. However, the literature identifies land reform policies, joint land titling programs, and gender-sensitive land governance initiatives as promising opportunities for enhancing women’s tenure security and participation in CSA interventions.

Access to credit and financial services

Financial exclusion represents another major barrier affecting women’s participation in climate-smart agriculture. Several studies report that women have significantly lower access to formal credit, agricultural loans, savings schemes, insurance products, and other financial services than men (Quisumbing et al., 2015; Murray et al., 2016). Limited asset ownership, lack of collateral, lower income levels, and discriminatory lending practices often prevent women from securing the financial resources needed to invest in improved seeds, irrigation systems, fertilizers, livestock technologies, and other CSA innovations. As a result, women frequently rely on low-cost adaptation practices that require minimal financial investment. Nevertheless, the reviewed literature highlights the growing role of microfinance institutions, savings and credit cooperatives, village savings groups, and gender-responsive financial inclusion programs in improving women’s access to agricultural finance and climate adaptation investments.

Access to extension services

Access to agricultural extension services is consistently identified as a key factor influencing CSA adoption. Studies by Ragasa et al. (2013), Huyer et al. (2015), and Ampaire et al. (2020) demonstrate that women often receive fewer extension visits, training opportunities, and advisory services than men. Institutional biases, low representation of female extension agents, mobility constraints, literacy barriers, and household responsibilities contribute to unequal access to agricultural knowledge and innovation. Consequently, women may lack the technical information required to adopt climate-smart technologies effectively. However, evidence suggests that gender-sensitive extension approaches, including the recruitment of female extension officers, community-based training, farmer field schools, and flexible training schedules, significantly improve women’s participation and access to climate-smart agricultural knowledge.

Access to agricultural inputs and technologies

The literature also reveals substantial gender disparities in access to agricultural inputs such as improved seed varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation technologies, mechanization equipment, and livestock technologies. Women often encounter financial, institutional, and market barriers that limit their ability to acquire these inputs (Doss, 2018; Fisher et al., 2018). Because many CSA technologies require complementary investments in inputs and equipment, unequal access can result in lower adoption rates among women. Nevertheless, several studies indicate that targeted subsidy programs, women-focused input distribution schemes, cooperative membership, and climate-smart technology demonstrations can improve access and increase adoption among female farmers.

Access to climate information and advisory services

Climate information is increasingly recognized as a vital resource for effective adaptation. However, women often face significant barriers in accessing weather forecasts, seasonal climate advisories, early warning systems, and digital agricultural services (Jost et al., 2016; Huyer et al., 2015). Limited ownership of communication devices, lower literacy levels, restricted mobility, and inadequate consideration of women’s information needs often reduce their access to climate information. Consequently, women may have fewer opportunities to make informed decisions regarding planting dates, crop selection, risk management, and adaptation planning. Recent advances in mobile-based advisory services, community radio programs, women-centered information platforms, and participatory climate services provide important opportunities for improving women’s access to timely and actionable climate information.

Institutional and socio-cultural barriers

Beyond resource-specific constraints, the literature highlights broader institutional and socio-cultural barriers that shape access to productive resources. Traditional gender norms often restrict women’s mobility, participation in farmer organizations, decision-making authority, and control over household assets (Acosta et al., 2021; Twyman et al., 2014). Time poverty resulting from unpaid care work and domestic responsibilities further limits women’s ability to participate in training programs, extension activities, and market-oriented adaptation initiatives. These structural inequalities frequently reinforce resource access disparities and reduce the effectiveness of CSA interventions.

Emerging opportunities for inclusive CSA

Despite these challenges, the reviewed studies identify several opportunities for promoting equitable access to productive resources. Gender-responsive policies, inclusive land governance reforms, women-focused financial services, digital agriculture platforms, climate information systems, farmer cooperatives, and gender-sensitive extension programs have demonstrated positive impacts on women’s access to resources and adaptation capacities. Furthermore, gender-transformative CSA approaches that address underlying power relations and discriminatory norms show considerable promise in creating more inclusive and sustainable adaptation outcomes. Conclusively, the evidence suggests that differential access to land, finance, extension services, agricultural inputs, and climate information remains a major driver of gender disparities in climate-smart agriculture adoption and adaptation outcomes across SSA. Addressing these barriers through targeted institutional reforms and gender-responsive interventions is essential for ensuring that women can fully participate in and benefit from climate-smart agriculture initiatives.

Knowledge gaps, emerging research trends, and future research priorities for advancing gender-transformative climate-smart agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa

The reviewed literature demonstrates significant progress in understanding the relationship between gender and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, important knowledge gaps remain regarding the effectiveness, scalability, and transformative potential of gender-responsive and gender-transformative CSA interventions. Addressing these gaps is essential for ensuring that climate adaptation strategies contribute not only to agricultural productivity and resilience but also to gender equality and social inclusion. One of the most prominent knowledge gaps concerns the limited empirical evidence on the long-term impacts of gender-transformative CSA interventions. Most existing studies employ cross-sectional or short-term project evaluations that focus on immediate outcomes such as technology adoption, access to resources, and participation in training programs (Acosta et al., 2021; Huyer et al., 2015). Consequently, there is insufficient understanding of whether these interventions produce sustained changes in women’s empowerment, decision-making authority, resource control, and resilience over time. Longitudinal and panel studies are needed to assess the durability of gender-related outcomes and identify pathways through which transformative change occurs. Another significant gap relates to the geographical concentration of existing research. The literature is heavily dominated by studies conducted in East and Southern Africa, particularly in Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. Comparatively little evidence exists from West and Central Africa, despite the region’s high vulnerability to climate change and the critical role of women in agricultural production (Jost et al., 2016; Gondwe et al., 2022). Future research should therefore expand geographical coverage to provide a more representative understanding of gender and CSA across diverse socio-ecological contexts in SSA.

The reviewed studies also reveal limited attention to intersectionality. Most research treats women as a homogeneous group, overlooking differences based on age, education, marital status, ethnicity, disability, wealth, and geographic location. Emerging scholarship increasingly recognizes that multiple and overlapping forms of inequality shape adaptation capacities and access to resources (Acosta et al., 2021). Future studies should adopt intersectional frameworks to better understand how different groups of women experience climate risks and adaptation opportunities. An important emerging trend is the growing shift from gender-responsive to gender-transformative approaches. While earlier CSA initiatives primarily focused on increasing women’s participation and access to resources, recent studies emphasize addressing the underlying social norms, power relations, and institutional structures that perpetuate gender inequality (Huyer, 2016; Acosta et al., 2021). Researchers are increasingly examining how adaptation interventions can transform household decision-making, redistribute resources, promote shared leadership, and challenge discriminatory practices. This transition represents a significant evolution in the CSA research agenda. Another notable trend is the integration of digital technologies into climate adaptation strategies. Mobile-based climate information services, digital extension platforms, precision agriculture tools, and climate advisory systems are receiving increasing attention as mechanisms for improving women’s access to information and agricultural innovations. However, evidence on gendered access to and benefits from these technologies remains limited. Future research should explore how digital inclusion can support gender-transformative adaptation outcomes while addressing barriers such as digital literacy, affordability, and technology ownership.

The literature also points to growing interest in institutional and policy dimensions of gender-responsive adaptation. Researchers are increasingly investigating the effectiveness of gender-sensitive policies, governance structures, and institutional reforms in promoting inclusive CSA outcomes (FAO, 2017; Huyer and Partey, 2025). Nevertheless, there remains a shortage of studies evaluating policy implementation, institutional accountability, and gender-responsive budgeting. Future research should assess how governance systems influence adaptation outcomes and identify mechanisms for strengthening institutional support for women farmers. Several priority areas emerge for future research. First, there is a need for rigorous impact evaluations that assess both adaptation and gender-equity outcomes. Second, researchers should examine the scalability of successful gender-transformative CSA interventions across different agroecological and socio-cultural contexts. Third, more attention should be devoted to understanding women’s leadership in climate governance, collective action, and adaptation planning. Fourth, future studies should explore the role of youth, digital innovation, and climate finance in advancing gender-equitable adaptation. Finally, stronger integration of gender-disaggregated data and mixed-methods approaches will be essential for generating evidence that informs policy and practice.

This scoping review examined the existing evidence on gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Sub-Saharan Africa, with particular emphasis on issues of equity, access, and participation in climate adaptation programs. The findings demonstrate that while CSA interventions have gained considerable prominence as mechanisms for improving agricultural productivity, climate resilience, and food security, their outcomes remain strongly influenced by persistent gender inequalities. Across the reviewed studies, women were found to be active participants in agricultural production and climate adaptation initiatives; however, their engagement is frequently constrained by unequal access to land, credit, agricultural inputs, extension services, climate information, and decision-making opportunities. The review further revealed that gender-responsive CSA interventions contribute positively to women’s empowerment by enhancing access to productive resources, strengthening decision-making power, increasing control over agricultural income, and improving participation in community and institutional governance structures. Nevertheless, these gains are often limited by deeply entrenched socio-cultural norms, discriminatory land tenure systems, weak institutional support, inadequate gender-responsive policies, and insufficient representation of women in leadership and governance processes. The evidence also shows that adoption of CSA technologies differs significantly between men and women due to disparities in resource ownership, financial capacity, access to information, and labor availability. Importantly, the review highlights that gender-transformative approaches, which address underlying power relations and structural inequalities, are more effective in generating sustainable adaptation outcomes than interventions that focus solely on increasing women’s participation. Despite growing scholarly attention to gender and CSA, important knowledge gaps remain regarding long-term impacts, institutional accountability, scalability of successful interventions, and evidence from underrepresented regions such as West and Central Africa. Conclusively, achieving climate-resilient and inclusive agricultural transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa requires integrating gender equity as a central component of CSA policy, programming, and research. We recommend that governments implement gender-responsive land reforms, promote joint land titling, and strengthen legal protections that enhance women’s ownership and control of productive resources necessary for CSA adoption. Agricultural advisory systems should recruit more female extension agents, develop women-centered training programs, and deliver climate information through accessible and inclusive communication channels. Policymakers and development partners should expand women’s access to credit, savings schemes, insurance products, and climate-financing mechanisms tailored to the needs of female farmers and entrepreneurs. Furthermore, CSA programs should move beyond participation-focused interventions and actively address discriminatory social norms, unequal power relations, and institutional barriers that limit women’s agency and leadership. Climate adaptation programs should establish mechanisms that ensure meaningful participation of women in farmer organizations, cooperatives, community adaptation committees, and policy processes. Implementing these recommendations will contribute to more equitable access to resources, enhanced adaptive capacity, stronger climate resilience, improved food and nutrition security, and sustainable agricultural transformation across Sub-Saharan Africa.

Limitation of the study

This scoping review has some limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the evidence base was dominated by qualitative studies (15 of the 23 included studies), with relatively few quantitative and mixed-methods studies, limiting the ability to draw causal inferences or compare effect sizes across interventions. Second, the review included only English-language publications, potentially excluding relevant studies published in French, Portuguese, or other languages commonly used in Sub-Saharan Africa. Third, the geographical distribution of studies was uneven, with most evidence originating from East and Southern Africa, while West and Central Africa were underrepresented. Finally, variations in study designs, CSA definitions, outcome measures, and reporting standards limited direct comparisons across studies and precluded quantitative synthesis or meta-analysis.