Applying Maslow's hierarchy to the sociology of water: a study of water, sanitation, and hygiene in the Indian context

India's water dynamics are characterized by intricate challenges arising from rapid population growth, institutional deficiencies, and environmental degradation. These factors lead to significant disparities in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH), further entrenching social inequalities and obstructing sustainable development. The study emphasizes that securing fundamental water needs is critical for enabling broader community empowerment, governance innovation, and technological interventions, which are essential components for achieving a resilient and sustainable WASH system. To address WASH challenges holistically, this study adopts Maslow's Theory of Human Motivation and a theoretical conceptual policy review, recognizing access to safe water as a primary physiological need essential for societal advancement. These theoretical perspectives help unravel how unmet basic needs impede higher-level social, economic, and environmental progress. Maslow's model offers a compelling way to analyze and enhance Indian government programmes related to water and sanitation by linking people's motivations with water governance. The study creates a comprehensive and people-centred policy framework. This research identifies comprehensive pathways that stakeholders can leverage to address India's evolving water and sanitation concerns while promoting sustainable development. This study discusses how Maslow's model provides a powerful lens to interpret why multifaceted solutions like community engagement and institutional reform are essential for building resilience and ensuring equitable water access and addressing water disparities in the country.

Water is not only an important natural resource, but it is also a basic building block for public health, human rights, and long-term growth. In modern India, ensuring fair and adequate access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) is a pressing issue closely linked to the broader social and environmental context. The country's water situation is changing because of a combination of rapid population growth, urbanization, institutional fragmentation, and worsening environmental damage. These overlapping problems have made it even harder for people in marginalized communities to get access to WASH, which has made cycles of poverty and social exclusion even worse.

Water governance in India has a history of being divided into sectors and of a patchwork of policies that cannot keep up with the needs of a growing and diverse population (Mahalingam, 2026). Inefficient institutions, along with unsustainable water use and pollution of freshwater sources, have placed significant stress on both surface and groundwater systems. Even with targeted efforts and national programs such as the Jal Jeevan Mission and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, there remain significant challenges in providing safe and accessible water services, especially in rural areas (Srivastava, 2025). Climate variability, regional inequities, and the lack of strong community-level involvement in water management exacerbate these gaps (Kanyagui et al., 2026).

This study is positioned within this essential framework and aims to tackle a fundamental inquiry: How can a human-centred, needs-oriented approach enhance the inclusivity and resilience of water and sanitation strategies in India? The research identifies a conceptual deficiency in contemporary water governance discourse, specifically the absence of integration between sociological insights and policy frameworks. In response, it suggests a new way to use Maslow's Theory of Human Motivation in WASH policy and planning. The research examines how unfulfilled basic physiological needs, specifically access to safe water, impede social mobility, institutional innovation, and environmental stewardship. Consequently, it addresses the major research gap in the integration of sociological theory with WASH scholarship in the Indian context by analyzing water not only as an infrastructural or public health concern but as a multifaceted social necessity linked to inequality, human development, and community dynamics through a sociological perspective.

To address this novel approach to water and sanitation governance, the study reconceptualizes WASH access as not solely a service delivery challenge but as a fundamental developmental necessity grounded in human motivation and social justice. This study seeks to identify the structural and behavioral impediments to WASH equity through the framework of Maslow's hierarchy, while also proposing comprehensive policy strategies that harmonize technological advancements with community empowerment and governance reform. This theoretical foundation facilitates a more intricate comprehension of how fulfilling fundamental needs stimulates broader advancement in economic, social, and environmental spheres.

Based on the sociological insights, this study follows this structure: (2) Methodology framework—Maslow's Human Motivation Framework; (3) Results and Discussion—Water Dynamics and Disparities in India, India and Sustainable Water Management, a critical analysis of India's water Programs Through Maslow's Lens, a way forward on Sustainable solutions.

By incorporating Maslow's Theory of Human Motivation (Maslow, 1943) and theoretical conceptual policy review into the research, a comprehensive qualitative methodological understanding of water complexities and disparities in India is achieved. This theory posits that basic physiological needs must be satisfied before individuals and societies can pursue higher-order aspirations such as community participation, self-esteem, and innovation. Access to clean and reliable water is conceptualized as a fundamental physiological need at the base of the hierarchy. By using Maslow's theory as an analytical and interpretive framework, this study systematically explores how water disparities in India not only affect survival but also hinder broader social and developmental policy outcomes. The framework can complement existing policy-evaluation approaches by broadening the criteria used to assess WASH programmes. Moreover, the study used the theory to understand how unmet basic needs, like water, disrupt human potential, and motivation at an individual level within a broader social structural context. To address structural causes, we pair Maslow with frameworks from political ecology and environmental justice, which engage with power and inequality. Maslow helped anchor the analysis on the human consequences.

Moreover, for a theoretical conceptual policy review, qualitative data have been collected from Indian government reports (like the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Central Water Commission, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, and Ministry of Women and Child Development), International organizations and reports (UNICEF, World Economic Forum and World Bank), academic journals, and Books to understand the problems that people in the area are facing. The data collection was based on their relevance to the study's focus on water insecurity and social wellbeing and their pertinence to the policy, implementation, or socio-economic aspects of water access and sanitation. The review mainly looks at literature that was published during (2010–2025). It also includes a small number of foundational documents when they are needed to provide conceptual or policy context. This ensures a robust foundation for interpretation and drawing meaningful conclusions in the research.

Maslow's human motivation framework and water resources

According to Maslow's Theory, people possess fundamental needs known as physiological needs, which encompass essentials like water, air, and nourishment. Maslow proposed that human needs could be organized hierarchically, depicted as a five-tiered pyramid where each level supports the next. In this framework, individuals must first meet their basic physiological needs before progressing to more advanced psychological and emotional needs, such as forming meaningful relationships or gaining self-esteem through personal achievements (see Figure 1). Maslow's model asserts that motivation stems from navigating this hierarchy (Maslow, 1943). This theory has been widely applied across diverse fields such as education, marketing, personal development, and organizational management in both public and private sectors.

Maslow's ideas also serve as a useful foundation for framing WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene) initiatives as fulfilling a fundamental human necessity. Interestingly, effective WASH programs often emphasize higher-order needs instead of focusing solely on basic physiological requirements. A review of 148 rural water supply initiatives revealed that 75 targeted self-esteem, corresponding to the fourth tier of Maslow's hierarchy. Moreover, successful approaches typically address multiple layers of needs and consider different motivational drivers, consistent with Maslow's structure (Marshall and Kaminsky, 2016).

Maslow's pertinence lies in the centrality of safe access to water and sanitation for physiological survival, connecting sanitation and health infrastructure to safety needs. However, the theory has limitations when applied to India's WASH context. It has been argued that Maslow's model is largely based on biographical analysis of a small, mostly Western sample, which makes it less useful for other parts of the world, like the Global South. Moreover, the theory does not have strong empirical support as a strict step-by-step process, and modern evidence shows that people often seek belonging, dignity, and self-worth even when their basic needs are not met (McLeod, 2023). This means that communities in India that have trouble with water and sanitation cannot be understood just by looking at a strict ladder. Even when people are poor, they may still work together for social recognition, collective action, governance participation, and environmental justice. However, Maslow's ideas are still very relevant because they provide a clear way to show how unmet basic needs like water, health, and sanitation limit human development in general. They also help policymakers connect physical survival, security, social inclusion, and long-term empowerment in a way that puts people first. It also points out that water is a basic need and sanitation is part of safety infrastructure. This is why the Maslow model is still prevalent for policy and sociological learning, even when it is used in a flexible way instead of as a strict universal law.

This research calls for “holistic approaches” that blend sociological insights with water governance. This aligns closely with Maslow's idea that human needs are interconnected and layered. Achieving sustainable water governance in India requires not only supplying clean water (physiological need) but also empowering communities (esteem and belongingness needs) and fostering participatory governance and innovation (self-actualization needs). Thus, Maslow's model provides a powerful lens to interpret why multifaceted solutions like community engagement and institutional reform are essential for building resilience and ensuring equitable water access and addressing water disparities in the country.

In India, a country of over 1 billion people, water holds a unique and intricate position in society, culture, and the environment. Water is deeply intertwined with culture, religion, and daily life. Rivers like the Ganges, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra hold spiritual significance and are considered sacred by millions of people. Water plays a crucial role in agricultural practices, which form the backbone of the economy, providing livelihoods to a significant portion of the population.

Despite possessing abundant water resources (see Figure 2), India faces multifaceted challenges related to water scarcity and the asymmetrical allocation of this vital resource. The prevalence of freshwater exhibits marked disparities across geographical regions, wherein certain locales grapple with acute deficits in water supply, juxtaposed against other regions characterized by a surfeit of water reservoirs. The compounding influence of climate change and erratic precipitation patterns serves to exacerbate this predicament, thereby rendering India among the nation's most severely afflicted nations by water stress on a global scale. Notably, the nation, housing approximately 18 per cent of the world's populace, contends with the paradox of possessing a mere 4 per cent share of the world's total water reserves (Reliefweb, 2023). The report “Composite Water Management Index” 2018 also “depicts that India is experiencing its worst water crisis with nearly 600 million people facing a huge water crisis” (NITI Aayog, 2019). Furthermore, the report highlights “India's low ranking, at 120th out of 122 countries, on the water quality index, with 70 per cent of the water being contaminated” (NITI Aayog, 2019).

As the per capita availability of water concerns, “the international norms define a country as ‘water stressed' when its water availability is below 1700 cubic meters per capita per year, and as ‘water scarce' when it falls below 1000 cubic meters per capita per year” (India Wris, 2021). In India “the per capita water availability in 2010 was 1588 cubic meters, compared to 5200 cubic meters in 1951. The availability of surface water in 1991 and 2001 was 2309 cubic meters and 1902 cubic meters, respectively. Several projections indicate that the per capita surface water availability is expected to decline to 1191 cubic meters by 2050” (India Wris, 2021). At the time of independence, “India had 15.6 billion cubic meters (BCM) of live storage capacity” (Ministry of Water Resources, 2012). Presently, the Central Water Commission (CWC) is monitoring “140 reservoirs having a live storage capacity of 175.957 BCM, which is about 68.25 per cent of the live storage capacity of 257.812 BCM estimated to have been created in the country” (Central Water Commission, 2021).

Moreover, one of the most significant challenges is the disparities in access to clean and safe drinking water. Rural areas, in particular, face significant challenges in accessing safe water, leading to waterborne diseases and a disproportionate burden on marginalized communities, including women and children (National Statistical Office, 2018). The heightened vulnerability to the dissemination of diarrheal and waterborne ailments is further exacerbated by the absence of habitual hand-washing practices and the microbial contamination of domestic and communal water sources. For instance, only 48 per cent of the households in the rural areas had both a bathroom and a latrine within household premises. This prevailing custom results in the substantial daily discharge of fecal matter into the environment, thereby subjecting the youth of India to the direct perils of fecal exposure. Moreover, among rural households using a latrine, only 4.5 per cent reported that water was unavailable either within or in the immediate vicinity of the facility (National Statistical Office, 2018). This predicament has also played a major role in causing a significant number of deaths among children under the age of five in India due to waterborne diseases like diarrheal diseases (UNICEF, n.d.). Inadequate Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) conditions remain closely associated with poor child mortality rate outcomes. At the national level, approximately one in every 38 infants died before reaching the age of one, irrespective of rural-urban residence. This burden is particularly evident during the neonatal period, with an estimated 26 deaths per 1000 live births (Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, 2025). In rural areas, a mere 21 per cent have access to sanitation services (Dkhar and Ali, 2018).

Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) represent the delivery of basic, essential services, which relate to water. Ensuring adequate WASH services is a growing sector of concern for researchers, policymakers, and the public. Water, sanitation, and hygiene are interdependent and are usually presented together. For example, clean and safe water is needed to practice good hygiene. Ensuring good WASH practices is linked with diverse aspects of human wellbeing, including health, education, economy, society, and culture.

Regarding the water situation in urban areas in India, several cities are struggling to secure enough clean and safe drinking water. The World Bank states that in 2024, 37 per cent of India's population lives in cities, a significant increase from 18 per cent in 1960 (World Bank, 2025). According to the Economic Survey 2023–24, which references research and data from NITI Aayog (Ministry of Statistics Programme Implementation, 2024), over 40 per cent of India's population will reside in urban areas by 2030. By 2050, this figure is expected to rise to 50 per cent, raising serious concerns about water shortages in cities. Currently, about 163 million Indians lack access to safe drinking water, and around 210 million do not have sufficient toilet facilities (Dkhar and Ali, 2018). For instance, Chennai, one of the largest cities in southern India, exemplifies urban water stress. With merely 108 liters of water per person per day, it has the lowest water availability per capita of any major city in India. Chennai primarily sources its water from surface water reservoirs, which meet about two-thirds of its needs, with the remainder drawn from groundwater (Punjabi and Johnson, 2019). However, the city's water crisis is worsening due to rapid growth, with groundwater aquifers overexploited and private tankers, along with the government utility, Metro Water, extracting excessive groundwater (Punjabi and Johnson, 2019). The water crisis in Chennai is shaped not only by scarcity, but also by uneven infrastructure development in the city (Rosado et al., 2024). Households in well-serviced neighborhoods are more likely to have piped connections, private storage, borewells, and the financial capacity to purchase supplementary water. However, residents of peripheral, low-income, and informal settlements often depend on intermittent municipal supply, shared water points, or tanker deliveries. These differences show that access is strongly influenced by residential location, infrastructure connectivity, and household income (Karpouzoglou et al., 2023). Chennai's water crisis must be understood in terms of reliability, affordability, and quality, rather than aggregate availability alone. The challenges faced by Chennai highlight the importance of strong, decentralized, and independent local governance to effectively manage water crises.

In addition, sanitation-related psychosocial stress among people in urban slums of Odisha indicates that insufficient access to water and sanitation creates considerable social and emotional strain in their daily lives (Hulland et al., 2015). A study from Bhubaneswar City, Odisha, showcased that “there are 436 slums in the city, with just 116 slums authorised by the state government and being under the jurisdiction of the Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation. Slum neighbourhoods continue to have poor water and sanitation amenities. More than 80 per cent of the population practices open defecation for a variety of reasons, including poor economic conditions and a lack of space to build a toilet within the home. In slum regions, just 18 per cent of the population utilises in-house toilets, whereas 2 per cent use community toilets” (Lenka and Chanchal, 2025).

These results underscore the significance of Maslow's safety and belonging dimensions by demonstrating that water insecurity impacts not only physical survival but also emotional health and social interactions. In addition, a study from nine rural tribal villages in Banswara district, Rajasthan, demonstrates that water and sanitation issues are interwoven within a broader village system, rather than being mere isolated technical failures (Ministry of Jal Shakti, 2020). These cases demonstrate that community-level water insecurity in rural India is influenced by interconnected household, social, and institutional factors, thereby reinforcing the Maslow framework of the study.

At its core, water is a colorless and odorless substance and the basis for all fluids present in living organisms. It is therefore paramount for sustaining life. Water is unique in its properties, for example, its ability to dissolve a wide variety of chemicals. For this reason, water is an essential component of sanitation and hygiene. Moreover, the challenges posed by water scarcity, pollution, and disparities in access are complex and multifaceted. A holistic perspective on water issues in India underscores the profound interconnections between water, society, and the environment. However, with concerted efforts at the policy, technological, and community levels, India has the potential to address these challenges and move toward equitable and sustainable water management.

Measuring WASH in the Indian context

The governance of water resources in India falls primarily under the jurisdiction of states (Modak and Ghosh, 2021). The Central Government of India plays a supportive role by providing technical expertise and financial assistance to bolster state-level efforts. The conservation of water resources is a critical priority for the Government of India. There are key initiatives undertaken by the Indian government to protect and conserve the nation's water resources, including the following measures (see Table 1).

The Indian government has implemented significant policies and programmes to address water scarcity and access challenges. For instance, the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) is conceived to ensure the provision of safe and sufficient potable water, delivered via individual household tap connections, to all rural households in India by the year 2024 (Jal Jeevan Mission, n.d.). This initiative also includes mandatory actions aimed at ensuring the long-term viability of water reservoirs, encompassing methodologies such as replenishment and recycling through the management of greywater, the preservation of water resources, and the collection of rainwater. The JJM prioritizes a community-centred methodology to water resource administration, emphasized by the incorporation of thorough Information, Education, and Communication strategies as a fundamental component of the mission's structure. It aspires to engender a grassroots movement, termed “Jan Andolan,” aimed at elevating water-related concerns to a collective societal priority.

Besides JJM, the Namami Gange Programme, established as an Integrated Conservation Mission and bestowed with the esteemed designation of a “Flagship Programme” by the Union Government in June 2014, signifies a momentous initiative (Ministry of Jal Shakti, n.d.). This endeavor is strategically architected to address two core objectives. Firstly, it is oriented toward the efficacious mitigation of pollution levels within the National River Ganga, and secondly, it is dedicated to the preservation and revitalization of this pivotal watercourse. This underscores the government's unwavering commitment, not only to ecological conservation but also to the sustenance of a cultural and economic artery of profound significance. Furthermore, flood management and control initiatives in India are predominantly formulated and executed at the discretion of individual state governments and Union Territories. These entities utilize their fiscal resources and delineate project priorities under their distinct circumstances and requisites. The Central Government assumes a supportive role within this framework by extending financial aid to states and Union Territories, particularly for projects located in regions grappling with pressing flood-related challenges. This support is channeled through the Flood Management Programme (FMP), a scheme that has evolved, adapting to the evolving needs of states and Union Territories, while adhering to the overarching directives and policies of the Government of India, thereby exemplifying a dynamic approach to nationwide flood management.

Further, in the context of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, “the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) introduced a significant central sector scheme known as River Management Activities and Works related to Border” Ibid. This program represents a strategic undertaking aimed at tackling water-related challenges in border regions. It underscores the intricate dimensions of water governance, transcending mere geographical demarcations and encompassing critical aspects of national security, resource optimization, and environmental custodianship.

Lastly, the initiative like “Development of a Database and Implementation of a Web-Enabled Water Resources Information System in the Nation,” commonly recognized as India-WRIS WebGIS, represents a noteworthy collaborative effort Ibid. It unites the CWC and the MoWR, in conjunction with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) under the Department of Space, Government of India. This collaborative enterprise is governed by a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) executed on December 3, 2008, between these two government entities. Initially slated for a duration of 4 years, spanning from January 2009 to December 2012, this project has been granted an extension until December 2015, underscoring its unwavering commitment to harnessing space technology for the comprehensive management of water resource information on a national scale Ibid.

In addition, in the sanitation and hygiene context, India has made great strides in improving sanitation issues, especially in rural areas (Press Information Bureau (PIB), 2025). For instance, the Swachh Bharat (Clean India) campaign built about 120 million toilets by September 2025. This improved sanitation for about 450 million people. Earlier assessments showed how important these changes were: a quick survey from 2013/14 found that 22 per cent of schools did not have good toilets for girls, 58 per cent of preschools did not have any toilets at all, and 56 per cent did not have any water on site (Ministry of Women Child Development, 2015). The second phase of the Swachh Bharat Mission has been going on since 2019, with WHO and UNICEF providing technical and programmatic support through WASH initiatives in 16 states and 192 districts (UNICEF, n.d.).

Even with these big wins on the WASH status (see Figure 3), there are still some concerns that could affect the long-term success of the Swachh Bharat Mission. India's water and sanitation sector is still having problems with delays in implementation, bad maintenance systems, and not enough focus on vulnerable groups, such as women. Moreover, behavioral barriers, such as individual attitudes toward hygiene and hesitance to utilize toilets, persist extensively (Varshney et al., 2025). Therefore, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a useful way to look at the several water and sanitation dynamics in India because it links human motivation to water governance. This can help make policies that are more comprehensive and focused on people's real-life experiences.

Rethinking water programs through Maslow's Lens: a critical analytical evaluation

India's water crisis extends beyond just a shortage of resources. It also reveals deeper social, economic, and systemic issues. Over the years, significant water initiatives like the Jal Jeevan Mission, Atal Bhujal Yojana, Namami Gange, and the water-related components of the Swachh Bharat Mission have been launched to improve access to clean water. Nonetheless, India's water sector still faces numerous challenges, including delays in implementation, inadequate maintenance, and neglect of vulnerable communities. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs offers a compelling way to analyze and enhance these programmes because it links people's motivations with water governance. This creates a comprehensive and people-centred policy framework.

Physiological needs, such as having access to clean water and sanitation, are at the bottom of Maslow's hierarchy. These are fundamental survival needs. Many of India's urban, rural, and tribal communities still lack guaranteed access to clean water. The Jal Jeevan Mission aims to deliver piped water to every household, but it faces issues with water quality and inconsistent supply. Inadequate investments in urban and rural water treatment have led to a decline in water quality. Water access and quality are closely linked, but about 80 per cent of the world's water is of poor quality (David, 2024). A lot of this wastewater is dumped into the environment without being treated. Pollution from industrial and residential waste that is not treated affects both surface and groundwater. To ensure this basic level is met, it is essential to address these gaps with decentralized purification systems, real-time water quality monitoring, and local water audits.

Safety, the second level, relates to health and infrastructure stability. Droughts, floods, and groundwater depletion are increasingly threatening India. In 2011, the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) and the state governments worked together to look at India's changing groundwater resources. Out of 6,607 areas that were looked at, 1,071 were marked as over-exploited in 16 states and 2 Union Territories (UTs). Moreover, 217 units were called critical, and 697 were called semi-critical. About 1 in 6 units are used too much, and almost 30 per cent are thought to be unsafe (David, 2024). Achieving long-term water security requires climate-resistant infrastructure, smart water meters, and planning for future water needs.

The third level, belongingness, requires people to work together and be part of the community when it comes to managing water. India's water plans often do not work well because they are carried out from the top down and do not involve local communities at a larger level. There are not enough people using Village Water and Sanitation Committees and water user associations (WUA) (Aubriot and Prabhakar, 2011). When communities manage and own their water resources, they build true belonging by encouraging stewardship, trust, and the sharing of local knowledge. To improve grassroots governance, programs need to spend on building capacity, especially for women and other groups that are often left out.

The fourth level of esteem is about respect and being recognized by others. Water and sanitation are very important to people's sense of self, especially for women. A lack of access to water makes gender inequality worse, and it hurts women more than men. They have the hardest job because they usually have to get water from faraway places. This duty takes a lot of time and physical effort. Because of this, they are much less able to do useful things like education (Ahmed and Araral, 2019). The imbalance makes gender differences even worse. Policies that promote recognition, like giving women more power as leaders and making sure everyone has fair access, lift communities from being invisible to being seen (Saraswat, 2024).

Self-actualization, or realizing one's full potential through creativity, growth, and giving back, is at the top. Very few water programs use this level of motivation. Youth-led water improvement projects, water entrepreneurship, school-based campaigns, and eco-volunteer programs can all encourage people to get involved and act in ways that are good for the environment (United Nations, n.d; World Economic Forum, 2025; UNICEF, n.d.a). A reimagined approach to water policy should see citizens not just as beneficiaries but as co-creators of water solutions.

India can move from a narrow supply-focused approach to a layered, fair, and robust model by aligning water governance with Maslow's theory. There is a policy checkpoint at each level of need, from survival to self-actualization, that can help India to mitigate its water disparities and complexities and ensure that everyone has access to water justice in the long term.

Toward innovative and sustainable solutions: a way forward

In the pursuit of innovative and sustainable solutions to address contemporary water challenges, a sociological perspective plays a pivotal role in understanding the intricate human dimensions of water management, access, and distribution. There are several ideas for innovative, sustainable solutions to water challenges. First, it necessitates advocating for and implementing policies that recognize access to clean and safe water as a human right. Over time, legal, political, and philosophical discussions have led to the idea that water is a human right. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights from 1948 only talked about water in an indirect way. But in 2002, the UN Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights made it clear that states have a legal duty to protect water as a human right and defined it as a social and cultural good (Economic Social Council, 2003). In July 2010, the UN General Assembly recognized access to clean water and sanitation as a human right. The UN Human Rights Council then confirmed this (Michel, 2023). But putting this into practice is still hard. The idea of the water right is still not clear (Sultana and Loftus, 2012). People are still not sure how much water is needed and whether the right goes beyond basic survival needs. There are still arguments about whether this right fits in with the trends toward privatization and commodification (Mehta, 2014). The Maslow perspective can inform the framing of this issue in terms of social justice and equity, emphasizing the marginalized populations who are disproportionately affected by water scarcity.

Second, the design and construction of water infrastructure projects should reflect the social dynamics of affected and marginalized communities (Baviskar, 1995). The National Infrastructure Equity Audit demonstrated that public sanitation facilities are frequently concentrated in areas inhabited by socially dominant and wealthiest groups, thereby limiting effective access for marginalized communities (Social Watch, 2010). For instance, a scientific study highlights that poor households and marginalized social groups had lower access to improved sanitation facilities (Kumar et al., 2024). This entails understanding the social implications of infrastructure development and incorporating affected and marginalized communities' input into project planning. Third, gender disparities in rural areas have worsened as women face increasing burdens in collecting water (Baviskar, 2007a). Recognizing and addressing gender disparities in water access and management can shed light on the significance of gender in shaping water-related responsibilities, decision-making, and access, leading to policies and programs that empower women and marginalized gender groups.

Fourth, the role of the private sector can be on the board with the government to develop a multi-stakeholder approach in integrated water management plans. Regarding the involvement of the private sector in water management, in the 1990s, a change in global development strategies led to more and more public service duties being given to private companies. The management of urban water systems was one of the most affected areas. People who supported this change thought that private businesses could provide important services more quickly and cheaply than governments could. But critics were worried about letting businesses that only care about making money control a resource that is essential for human survival. In developing countries, big cities do not have enough access to safe water, which is seen as a major global problem. The call for private management was especially strong and controversial (Bakker, 2010). Consequently, a multi-stakeholder approach can facilitate sociological understanding of the dynamics of these stakeholders, their interests, and potential conflicts, aiding in the formation of effective partnerships.

Moreover, it is significant to develop sociologically informed conflict resolution mechanisms for water-related disputes. Understanding the underlying socio-cultural factors contributing to conflicts over water resources can inform the design of mediation and negotiation processes (Baviskar, 2007b). Finally, the Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) approach can facilitate communities to conduct their own appraisal and analysis of open defecation, mobilizing people to identify and find solutions to their sanitation and hygiene needs (The Sanitation Learning Hub, n.d.). CLTS encourages people to take action to improve their situation by utilizing local knowledge, technology, and innovation.

Besides these pertinent innovative and sustainable solutions, individual mindsets may also be a major obstacle to cleanliness measures. It will probably be hard to change these mindsets, and more research is needed to find out how to do it effectively for individuals. Mainstreaming water literacy and education can be the best way to frame individual mindsets, enhance public awareness, and consciousness for disseminating information about water conservation, hygiene, and sanitation practices can foster behavioral change and promote a culture of water stewardship at the grassroots level.

The social understanding of water stands at a critical juncture, necessitating comprehensive approaches that integrate traditional knowledge, scientific expertise, and social perspectives to mitigate the multifaceted challenges of WASH in India. Instead of being based on a biographical analysis of a small, mostly Western sample, Maslow's framework helps illuminate why addressing water scarcity and access inequality is not just a technical or hydrological problem but fundamentally a sociological one, as failure to meet basic needs stalls human potential, social stability, and sustainable development. When basic water needs remain unmet, higher-level human needs such as social participation, community cohesion, self-actualization, and innovation cannot be realized. It is significant to implement innovative and community-led sustainable solutions, which can lead to more equitable and effective water governance and contribute to the long-term resilience of communities facing WASH challenges. In this context, future research should focus on community-level and comparative empirical studies that investigate the varying experiences of water insecurity among different social groups and regions in India. Longitudinal and mixed-method approaches could further evaluate the impacts of water interventions on health, dignity, education, and social wellbeing, while forthcoming theoretical endeavors may gain from incorporating Maslow's framework alongside other context-sensitive perspectives.