Alleviating energy poverty through added social value: productive electricity use and community governance in Wakapoa, Guyana

1 Introduction

Over the last few decades, many global development projects implemented across remote communities saw mixed results. Trace et al. (2022) argue that access to electricity is a vital prerequisite to addressing many of the developmental issues targeted by the UN SDGs. They examined seven research projects across Ethiopia, India, Nepal, and Sierra Leone that identified significant problems with mini-grid systems, in which tariffs were substantially higher than those of standard grid systems. This affected both affordability and consumption. They also found that peak demand was limited to the UN's Tier-1 level (Appendix A), which impedes household modernization, and that the limited capacity led to insignificant commercial investment that did not impact economic growth.

Trutnevyte et al. (2011) argue that for rural development, the traditional view of the productive use of energy is linked to agricultural, industrial, or commercial applications. These practices have improved livelihood for many and helped in the fight to reduce poverty and inequality. On the other hand, Productive Use of Energy – PRODUSE (2013) argues that electrification did not translate into higher profits in three studies. In one case, Benin saw that the financial burden resulting from investment in the connection and subsequent electricity bills could even reduce firms' profitability, indicating that electrification was not a rational option from a pure business perspective.

Productive Use of Energy – PRODUSE (2013) argues that understanding the several factors affecting the links between electricity supply and poverty reduction through added social value is required to understand this paradox. Therefore, the work of policymakers and funding agencies continues after building an electrification facility, and it needs to go further by providing the necessary exposure to adding social value to electricity, eventually leading to the socio-economic transformation of communities at the margins.

Subsequently, this research will investigate how providing access to electricity can add social value to communities by encouraging residents to use energy resources more efficiently while applying good governance practices that can improve their wellbeing and livelihoods.

1.1 Background

This paper is part of a three-paper series, in which the 1st paper examines the impact of electricity access on development through the lens of HDI, HCI, GDP per capita, and GNI per capita. The 2nd paper addresses electricity access in remote communities by exploring the feasibility of implementing a renewable energy system comprising a concentrated solar power (CSP) plant and a biomass hybrid energy system, given the available resources. The 3rd paper examines the added social value to the community that could be derived from implementing the recommended renewable energy system in paper 2. This nexus of the papers is shown in the energy and poverty alleviation framework in Figure 1 below, where the remote community chosen was the Wakapoa village of Guyana, to satisfy the solar requirements (DNI) of paper 2 as shown in Figure 2 (area of consideration with DNI greater than 4.38 KWh/m²) (Wang, 2019), and by default is the area of focus for paper 3—manuscript submitted.

The Wakapoa indigenous village in Guyana is located on the South American continent. The community has a population of approximately 2,500 residents (Outridge, 2019). It is located on the Essequibo Coast along the Pomeroon River, Region 2, with Google Earth GIS coordinates 7.5240833, −58.777135. Google Earth images depicting the study location of Wakapoa are shown in Figure 3 below.

The community of Wakapoa is considered remote and has no connection to the national grid. This remote community includes many small, scattered villages in geographically challenging areas, with terrain that traverses many rivers and dense forests. Therefore, connecting to the national grid is not feasible, and operating fossil fuel (diesel/gasoline) generators is uneconomical. Many such hinterland communities in Guyana are mired in energy poverty due to a lack of access to a reliable electricity supply, while a few may have limited supply due to personal investment in solar PV systems.

The lack of reliable electricity supply and other essential services in these remote communities has limited economic, social, and educational advancement. Community residents are always looking for a better life, with the main economic activities being farming, logging, and many small shops. Additionally, due to the lack of facilities such as cold storage, many agricultural economic activities are carried out on a small scale to avoid wastage of perishable produce, including vegetables, ground provisions, and poultry.

1.2 Identification of research gaps

Regarding energy poverty (electricity) solutions worldwide, many countries in the Global South have implemented micro-level solutions in which residents are limited to 100 watts. In many cases, electricity systems can only serve small-scale commercial activities for a handful of residents during periods when domestic demand is isolated. Therefore, the significant gaps identified are:

• Many micro-grid electricity solution systems do not support additional economic ventures on a 24/7, all-year-round basis for a large volume of residents.
• Energy project design lacks the option of being scalable, which stifles economic activity expansion as demand grows over time.
• Many community development projects stop at the facility, and residents have limited access to financing to make productive use of the services provided.
• The lack of systematic knowledge transfer to remote communities has stymied entrepreneurial activities, which have adversely impacted development.

1.3 Problem statement

Despite many development projects in remote communities in Global South countries, the spin-off benefits for those at the margins have been limited (Trace et al., 2022). Issues of energy poverty due to lack of access and limited access to electricity services continue to permeate our remote communities, impeding residents' socio-economic progress (Katre and Tozzi, 2018). Therefore, this research sought to design a renewable energy system (RES) development project in the Wakapoa Indigenous Community of Guyana and to investigate the productive use of energy to advance socio-economic progress, thereby enhancing residents' wellbeing and livelihoods in a sustainable ecosystem. Consequently, my study was guided by the following questions:

• (1) What added social value can be realized from the 24/7 all-year electricity supply availability per the Wakapoa community context?
• (2) What governance systems can be considered to enhance the sustainability of the energy ecosystem?

1.4 Scope and limitations

This paper will investigate the productive use of energy (electricity) from an electricity supply system designed with UN-Tier 5 parameters, utilizing the remote indigenous community of Wakapoa (Guyana) as a specific case study. The paper will inform stakeholders of the governance systems and potential added social value that can be derived from opportunities presented by a 24/7 all-year electricity supply system. Additionally, since the data are specific to the Wakapoa community, the findings should not be extrapolated to other jurisdictions globally. However, despite these limitations, the value of this study can serve as a basis for future research, where the survey design, IRB approval, and qualitative depth of the analysis make the article a meaningful and useful contribution to the existing literature.

2 Literature review

Over the last few decades, many projects have been implemented in remote communities globally to advance human development. The definition of a few key terms that cut across the human development construct includes:

• Livelihood is defined by Singh et al. (2025) as the means and resources through which individuals or households secure the necessities of life, such as food, water, shelter, and income. Also, it encompasses various activities, assets, and strategies that people employ to sustain themselves economically and socially.
• Wellbeing is seen as a multifaceted construct, with varying definitions across disciplines. The WHO (2021) defines wellbeing as a positive state experienced by individuals and societies. Similar to health, it is a resource for daily life and is determined by social, economic, and environmental conditions.
• Productive Use of Energy (PUE) refers to activities that generate income, increase productivity, enhance diversity, and create economic value through electricity consumption. More broadly, it includes all socioeconomic uses of electricity that enhance socioeconomic opportunity, jobs/livelihoods, and quality of life for households, businesses, and communities (e.g., electricity for education, healthcare, and other welfare services) (NREL, 2024).

Trace et al. (2022) argue that access to electricity is a prerequisite to addressing many of the developmental issues targeted by the UN SDGs. They examined seven research projects across Ethiopia, India, Nepal, and Sierra Leone. They identified significant problems with mini-grid systems, where tariffs were substantially higher than those of standard grid systems, affecting both affordability and consumption. They also found that the peak demand was limited to the UN's Tier-1 level (Appendix A), which impedes household modernization, and the limited capacity led to insignificant commercial investment that did not impact economic growth.

Alstone et al. (2015) state that the emergence of off-grid electricity systems has brought much-needed access to electricity to rural communities globally in recent decades. This has led to rapid household improvements in access to lighting, TV, refrigeration, fans, and ICT systems, but not necessarily to improved livelihoods for residents.

However, Trutnevyte et al. (2011) argue that there is almost unanimous agreement that energy plays a pivotal role in national development. Generally, there is a high degree of correlation between energy use, economic growth, and level of development. However, for rural development, the traditional view of the productive use of energy is linked to agricultural, industrial, or commercial applications. For example, motors are utilized to grind grain, operate power tools, irrigate farmland, and facilitate many commercial activities, including ICT-based small businesses. These practices have improved livelihood for many and helped in the fight to reduce poverty and inequality.

Similarly, Productive Use of Energy – PRODUSE (2013) argues that policymakers and development practitioners believe access to modern energy is critical to poverty alleviation and growth strategies. Encouraging results were observed in a 2004 study in Thailand, where various public investments in agricultural R&D, irrigation, rural education, road infrastructure, and electricity infrastructure significantly contributed to poverty reduction. Also, a study in India (1993) on rural electrification affected agricultural investment (irrigation pumps), which boosts agrarian output.

Productive Use of Energy – PRODUSE (2013) argues that electrification did not translate into higher profits in some territories. In one case, Benin found that the financial burden of the investment in the connection and subsequent electricity bills could even reduce operational profitability, where electrification was not a rational business option. Similarly, a study in India (1999) concluded that government spending should focus on rural roads, agricultural research, and extension, as these types of investments have a greater impact on poverty reduction than rural electrification projects.

To understand this paradox, Productive Use of Energy – PRODUSE (2013) argues that a deeper understanding of the links between electricity supply and poverty reduction through income generation is required, as the relationship involves several factors. Firstly, a business benefiting from electricity services needs to increase its profitability. To maximize the value added by electrification access, policymakers must ensure that residents gain exposure to increasing social value through entrepreneurship, business administration, quality, marketing, customer service, etc.

Miller et al. (2015) argue that when designing new energy systems, the added social value of energy projects is critical, and their socio-economic benefits must outweigh their costs to ensure the projects are worthwhile. Additionally, the socio-technical design of energy projects must deliver energy services that enhance social value. As a result, new energy projects must provide energy services and create high social value for communities, companies, and governments to justify increased energy investments. Therefore, this review will look at the literature on the themes below:

• (1) Adding Social Value
• (2) Sustainable RES Operations
• (3) Governance of RES

2.1 Adding social value

Social value is added to a community or individuals as they utilize readily available resources, bringing economic growth that improves their overall wellbeing and livelihood. It is expressed as the net positive result when the benefits of specific or collective endeavors outweigh the sum- total of the expended costs, risks taken, and burdens imposed (Miller, 2021). This is summarized in Figure 4 below, where social value is generated as the scale tips toward the benefits generated.

For example, social value can be generated by biomass energy systems, where removing small-diameter or dead trees from dense forests supports forest management. Additionally, utilizing waste from felled trees, such as branches and treetops, for biomass energy production improves forest health and reduces wildfire risks. Furthermore, job opportunities arise from the market value of wood waste, enabling residents to improve their livelihoods and support the local economy. Social value is generated as the benefits outweigh the sum of costs, risks, and burdens.

In their World Bank Report, Bhatia and Angelou (2015) argued that energy access is critical to socio-economic and human development. Additionally, the energy supply must have several characteristics to see significant contributions to households, local facilities, and productive enterprises. The energy access must be adequate in quantity, available when needed, of good quality, reliable, convenient, affordable, legal, healthy, and safe. The report stresses that energy access of this nature changes lives by reducing human effort, enhancing human comfort, enabling ICT systems, providing access to quality education, improving healthcare facilities, and expanding employment opportunities through the advent of productive enterprises. This is summarized in Figure 5 below.

Miller et al. (2015) investigated the social value of energy in the design of projects to reduce energy poverty. They highlighted the Human Development Index and per Capita Electricity consumption for many nations. After analyzing the information, the results show that some countries achieve much higher levels of human wellbeing than others at similar levels of energy consumption or similar levels of wellbeing at far lower levels of energy consumption. This implies that some countries derive more excellent social value from their energy systems.

On another front, Miller et al. (2014) investigate socio-energy system design approaches and policies, in which energy systems are interconnected with broader social, economic, and political systems. Therefore, policy shifts need to be managed. Their analysis of the United States energy policy reveals that socio-energy systems, energy policy goals, energy transition, and energy justice are prioritized. That is, contemporary energy transitions are reshaping not only the technologies and economics of energy but also physical and social geographies, social meanings, and the political organization of energy production, distribution, and consumption. Therefore, the suggestion is that by rethinking energy policy in more socially informed ways, the world can reduce conflict over a critical aspect of poverty in the coming years.

Additionally, Miller et al. (2013) investigated the social dimensions of energy transitions. The research analyses secondary data from two US Energy Department reports from the US National Academy of Engineering and the US Department of Energy Report (2009 and 2012). These reports provide a comprehensive analysis of US energy policy over the past decade. Their results show that making energy transitions will be one of humanity's grand challenges for the 21st century. Whatever form they take, energy transitions will be complex socio-technological transformations that require significant changes for many communities. They suggest that energy transition challenges are also opportunities that can enhance social and environmental rewards.

Stern (2014) investigated individual and household interactions with energy systems. Their results show how the role of individuals and households in energy systems is affected by public policy, social interactions, community, technological context, and their place in social and economic systems. Additionally, in each case, single disciplines rarely provide the depth of knowledge needed to understand or influence individual and household interactions with energy systems. The author suggests that, for future research, integrating knowledge and insights from multiple disciplines is necessary to better understand the human-energy relationship.

Trutnevyte et al. (2011) investigated energy initiatives in small communities by linking visions with energy scenarios. Their results show that visions of the future energy system, judged mainly by intuitive thought, play an essential role in taking energy-related action. Additional social value benefits emerge when the future energy system addresses intuitive and analytical perspectives. This approach could lead to capacity building and the formation of stable informed preferences, which are necessary to support the energy transition in the coming decades.

2.2 Sustainable energy and added social value operations

Renewable energy systems (RES) are growing globally, with rural electrification among the most active. Therefore, energy solutions that utilize RES must be sustainable and have a positive long-term impact on communities' livelihoods. Sustainable development dimensions include technical, economic, institutional, environmental, and social dimensions that affect communities' wellbeing and livelihoods. To assess the effectiveness of sustainable development, various measures are implemented, with indicators and their components shown in Figure 6 below.

González et al. (2016) investigated the acceptance and sustainability of renewable energy projects (REP). Their proposed framework shows that the acceptance of REP is based on the community's social, human, natural, physical, and financial capital. The authors emphasize that the acceptance and sustainability of REP must consider the effect on the livelihoods of communities.

Dreveskrachit (2013) investigated the issues surrounding sustainable economic development in American Indian communities by implementing solar energy projects. Their results show that renewable energy projects are adding energy security. Renewable energy systems provide green jobs, which will transform tribal and other rural economies and provide the basis for economic progress, which is seen as energy independence. They suggest that it is essential for tribes to pursue solar projects by becoming active and vigorously insisting that these projects come to fruition.

Warneryd and Karltorp (2020) investigated the role of solar photovoltaics on large buildings in Sweden. Their findings demonstrate that owning a solar PV plant adds values such as sustainability, fair cost, and induced innovativeness. These values contribute to developing a social network and human empowerment.

Dombi et al. (2014) investigated the sustainability of renewable power and heat generation technologies. Their results show that the important characteristics of RES are land demand and social impacts, such as an increase in employment and local income generation, which are critical. The authors suggest sustainable RES where CSP, hydropower, and geothermal power plants are favorable technologies for power generation. In contrast, geothermal district heating, pellet-based non-grid heating, and solar thermal heating can offer significant advantages in the case of heat supply.

Liu (2014) investigated the development of a general sustainability indicator (GSI) for renewable energy systems. The sustainability evaluation in RES is highly complex when looking at all the performances via economics, environmental, and social impact. His results show that the GSI developed can evaluate all the sustainability criteria of RES and provide numerical assessment results for different objective systems, which policymakers can utilize as a guide in future projects.

Pratama et al. (2017) investigated a multi-objective optimization of a multiregional electricity system by incorporating RES in a sustainability approach. The sustainability assessment model consists of 11 indicators, of which three had sustainability elements—economic, social, and environmental. Their proposed framework shows that the best sustainable energy system prioritizes environmental protection while accepting economic disadvantages relative to the social and environmental benefits.

2.3 Governance systems

RES projects require robust governance/management systems to ensure an effective and sustainable solution. Addink (2019) states that good governance comprises the principles of properness, transparency, participation, effectiveness, accountability, and human rights, linked by integrity, where all practices follow the rule of law within a democratic environment. These governance principles are incorporated into policies and practices that can be tailored to organizations across energy, production, finance, and marketing, to name a few. Additionally, robust governance will be critical at all project stages to achieve the desired outcomes.

Marquardt (2017) investigated how complex multi-level governance arrangements affect renewable energy policy implementation in developing countries. The results show that political factors such as unclear responsibilities, conflicting regulations, weak local capacity, a lack of awareness of national intentions, and missing consultation are major obstacles to renewable energy policy implementation. The author emphasizes the importance of commitment from the federal government and subnational jurisdictions for a successful energy transition toward renewables.

Nieusma (2004) argues that transferring Western technologies to the global south and marginalized communities was far from straightforward, where limited resource availability (capital, expertise, spare parts, etc.) and a lack of technical expertise have led to expensive failures. Additionally, many grassroots energy projects failed due to issues with more extensive social problems, such as consumerism, sexism, ecological abuse, lack of user participation, autonomy, and restricted access.

Manzini (2014) argues that grassroots energy projects can follow three design concepts—top-down, bottom-up, and hybrid systems. The top-down design system is where government authorities decide what is good for the grassroots community without consultation. Over the years, many governing bodies with the responsibility for providing power to marginalized communities have developed an understanding of designs at the macro level, guided by the political-economic practices that the market drives. Many of these designs have provided lucrative incentives for designers but failed at the community level since marginalized groups could not afford the energy resources, or the project adversely disrupted villagers' livelihoods (Nieusma, 2004).

The bottom-up governance design system articulated by Nieusma (2004) is where villagers raise capital, design, and implement their grassroots energy projects on an individual or community level. However, many designs need to be revised due to limited finances and a lack of technical expertise. This has led to trade-offs regarding reduced power plant capacity, limited household load, and even uneconomical rates that the marginalized need help to afford. This scenario has limited the socio-economic development of many marginalized communities since limited power cannot add social value to improve livelihood. However, the trade-off is that those at the margin at least have access to some form of electrical power, despite limited.

Smith and Stirling (2016) argue that grassroots innovation supports sustainable development by utilizing governance principles of participation, democracy, social justice, and environmental resilience. Grassroots innovation does this in four related ways:

• The processes cultivate a more democratic practice of innovation.
• It supports citizen initiatives that contribute to livelihood enhancement measures.
• It empowers socio-technical and socio-economic configurations that existing systems would otherwise suppress.
• It can help nurture general levels of social diversity that are important for participatory and inclusive governance.

Smith and Stirling (2016) further argue that societies prioritizing grassroots innovation have a resilient, democratic governance system that supports and benefits livelihood activity. Considerations for greater participation in innovative grassroots democracy focus on culture, infrastructure, training, investment, and openness. Hence, this leads to a governance system of participation and inclusivity.

Manzini (2014) and Nieusma (2004) argue that the hybrid design utilizes a participatory approach where top-down and bottom-up design systems meet, resulting in an inclusive design system. This system tries to satisfy all stakeholders as much as possible, where all understand agreements, compromises, and trade-offs. To get stakeholders' views, hybrid designers use scenario options to encourage inclusivity in wide-ranging discussions. This design system tends to arrive at fairer, more satisfying, and more effective outcomes. Phadke (2005) gives a case of a hybrid governance system that saved the Uchangi Dam Hydropower Project from massive protests by villagers due to farm displacement. The dispute was eventually settled after a participatory redesign, including the government team, political opposition, NGOs, and the marginalized villagers after some 14 years. Additionally, this experience led to the acceptance of the participatory design concept becoming more acceptable in Maharashtra, India.

Bishoge et al. (2020) investigated the renewable energy (RE) potential for sustainable development in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. Their results show that despite the vast RE resources such as hydropower, solar, wind energy, and geothermal power, the SSA region still needs to overcome severe energy sector challenges. These include inadequate technical, financial, and human resources, weak institutional and regulatory frameworks, and socio-political barriers. The authors recommend strengthening the institutional and regulatory framework, capacity building, harmonizing financial resources, and enhancing security and political environments to attract investors.

Kassi et al. (2020) investigated the moderating role of governance quality on the finance-renewable energy-growth nexus in five major regions worldwide. The five major areas of the world, including 123 countries from 1990 to 2017. Their results show renewable energy consumption and enhanced governance quality are interrelated factors in strengthening economic growth in the Asia Pacific, Middle East and North Africa (MENA), and Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) regions, as opposed to the Americas, Europe, and Central Asia. The authors suggest that policymakers need to improve the level of governance commitment and the efficiency of financial systems to improve RES projects, which promote sustainable development in the different regions, especially those experiencing energy rationing and energy poverty.

Mah and Cheung (2020) investigated the dynamics of energy transitions from a political-economic perspective in South Korea using the socio-technical framework. Their results show three findings. Firstly, the politico-economic contexts have created an embedded environment influencing energy decisions. Secondly, the politico-economic contexts create conducive conditions for niche developments but, conversely, also impose inhibitive conditions that reinforce “lock-in.” Thirdly, the processes occur at multi-scalar levels where community solar niches in Seoul are influenced by politico-economic contexts at the city and national levels. Mah and Cheung (2020) suggest that sufficient policy attention should be given to the political economy of a national energy system to create the conditions conducive to community-led energy transitions.

Liu et al. (2019) investigated renewable energy (RE) investment and the role of a country's legal system in shaping investment decisions. They selected data from 236 renewable energy companies worldwide between 2000 and 2017. Their results show that those in common-law systems are more responsive to growth opportunities in RE investment than their counterparts in civil-law systems. The authors suggest that the global imbalance in RE development is driven by a country's legal system, which shapes regulatory and business ethics within its governance environment.

Hvelplund and Djorup (2017) investigated the governance systems required to transition from fossil fuel-based energy systems to fluctuating renewable energy technologies (RET) sources. Denmark has embarked on the energy transition, with RETs playing a greater role, and plans to utilize 100% RE by 2050. Their proposal emphasized a bottom-up, interactive regulatory framework in which the central government should adopt a more reflexive and communicative role, providing services and national coordination for RES.

Meckling (2019) investigated the global governance of RES growth through the lens of the complex issue of climate change. The study analyzed Germany's renewable energy policy regarding the creation of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the international competition in the European Union (EU)-China solar trade conflict. The results provided insight into the complex interdependence within a policy-driven global energy transition, complementing domestic energy transitions. The suggestion is that policymakers can strategically leverage feedback dynamics to promote market transformations without comprehensive international cooperation.

Sterl et al. (2020) investigated the management system of renewable electricity systems in West Africa. Their results show that smart management systems for present and future hydropower plants in West Africa can support substantial grid integration of solar and wind power while limiting natural gas consumption and avoiding ecologically harmful overexploitation of hydropower. The authors suggest that by 2030, renewable electricity in a regional power pool—solar and wind- will contribute 50% of their energy, while the cost can be at least 10% cheaper than electricity from natural gas. Hence, they need to fully integrate their operations via smart management systems.

Vidican (2015) explores the challenges facing system-building initiatives to develop Morocco's solar energy sector. Their results show that Morocco has successfully attracted large investments in the solar energy sector. The challenge is adapting the positive impact of collaboration and a partnership-based approach.

Sovacool (2011) identified strong governance as a critical success strategy for energy projects. The governance principles that can be adopted from Denmark's energy projects include a tax policy that provides residents with tax credits for investing in renewable energy solutions, subsidies for renewable energy investment initiatives, and avenues for long-term financing for renewable energy projects.

3 Research methodology

Jabareen (2009) a plane of linked concepts. This conceptual framework explores various phenomena related to energy poverty, RES solutions, and poverty alleviation through the addition of social value and governance in a sustainable manner. The research methodology design utilized the energy and poverty alleviation framework outlined in Figure 7 below.

The framework in Figure 7 above provides a snapshot of the multidisciplinary approach to addressing energy poverty stemming from a lack of access to electricity. The proposed energy supply option entails designing RES to operate at the UN Tier-5 levels (Appendix A), where community residents can use electricity services productively to add social value that can potentially improve their livelihoods and wellbeing. Key to implementing a sustainable energy ecosystem will be inclusive governance systems that play a pivotal role across all aspects of the project's sustainability.

3.1 Research design

The methodology was guided by the research questions in Section 1.2 above. Quantitative research methods were used in this study (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). This research investigates the productive use of energy at the UN-Tier 5 level that the Wakapoa community can employ to add social value, as well as the good governance practices that can potentially drive economic progress and improve their wellbeing and livelihoods. The independent variable is the UN Tier-5 energy supply system as defined by the parameters of Appendix A. The dependent variable captures the added social value, which is defined as the extent to which the benefits of economic/social activities exceed their corresponding costs, burdens, and risks (Miller, 2021). The intervening variable is good governance practices, which can be captured by inclusive systems employed in the management of production, finances, education/training, etc., that encourage sustainability (Addink, 2019).

The research process was completed in three phases: data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The quantitative data collection exercises complied with all requirements from ASU's Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Guyana's Ministry of Amerindian Affairs as per Appendix B approvals.

3.2 Phase 1—survey instrument preparation and data collection

The survey instrument was designed to capture the Wakapoa community's thoughts and views on various subjects, as required to satisfy the objectives of papers 2 and 3. The survey questions were designed by the authors with assistance from literature, including (Energy Sector Management Assistance (ESMAP), 2021; The World Bank and WHO, 2021) and the harmonized survey questions for monitoring household energy use and SDG indicators 7.1.1 and 7.1.2 (2019). The draft survey questions were discussed with a few community residents to validate their context and relevance and to avoid sensitive subjects/language.

Additionally, Miller (2021) stated that survey questions can be guided by the research questions utilizing the “QOD” approach, which links the “research Questions being addressed” to the “Objects” that will advise the “Data required.” For example:

• Paper 2 (Survey Q6, 7, 11, 12 & 14)

• • What are the current and potential electrical power requirements of the specific community? → Focus Groups and Surveys → Data
• • What economic activity needs to be supported currently by power? → Surveys → Data

• Paper 3 (Survey Q6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 & 15)

• • What social value can the energy system add to the community that enhances livelihood and wellbeing? → Literature Review, Focus Group, and Survey → Data
• • What inclusive governance systems are required to ensure a sustainable energy system? → Literature Review, Focus Group, and Survey → Data

The survey was conducted at a mass meeting in December 2022, during which a consent form was distributed, read, discussed, and signed. The 50 survey participants were randomly selected from the gathering to represent various groups across the community, such as representatives from the service sector (nurses and teachers), the business sector (loggers, farmers, construction workers, shop operators, and transportation providers), the village council/leadership, and regular residents (gender and age mix). Following this, the survey instrument was distributed, each question was read and explained, and respondents were allowed to fill in their answers. All queries were discussed openly to avoid misinterpretation or bias by the surveyor. For example, questions 10 and 14, relating to the community's fund and contribution, were explained so participants understand the context. Question 10 concerns a community fund operated by residents to help them access financing for income-generating initiatives, while question 14 seeks to understand how the community can support the energy project by making a tangible contribution if it moves into the implementation phase.

The survey sample size of 50 randomly selected Wakapoa community participants was supported by Bernard et al. (2017), who argue that achieving 95% and 99% confidence levels only required 29 and less than 30 surveys, respectively, at the 0.5 average level of cultural competence, as shown in Table 1 above. Note that all survey participants were village residents familiar with the community's norms and cultural practices. The survey instrument and a summary of the data collected are shown in Appendix C.

Table 1. Sample Size at 95% and 99% Confidence Levels (Source: Bernard et al., 2017).

Source: Weller and Romney (1988). ^**Bold numbers represent the recommended minimum sample size for the 0.95 and 0.99 confidence levels at various average level of cultural competence of survey respondents.

3.3 Phase 2—data coding and collation

Creswell and Creswell (2018), Bernard et al. (2017), and Guetterman (2015) indicate a systematic approach to data coding and collation. The survey instrument, coding utilized, and data collation are all shown in Appendix C. For example, the survey questions with the Likert-scale responses from a to f were coded 1 to 6, respectively. Further, for questions in the form of tables, the coding followed a binary system, where yes = 1 and no = 0. That is, survey respondents indicating that they will utilize the energy to make furniture was coded as furniture making = 1. Similarly, no indication on bakery was coded as bakery = 0.

3.4 Phase 3—data analysis and interpretation

Bernard et al. (2017); Guetterman (2015); Macgilchrist and Hout (2011), and Wood et al. (2015) discussed the system of utilizing statistical software to evaluate the survey data acquired. The SPSS software was the primary tool used to analyze the survey data, along with Microsoft Excel to display specific data graphically. The SPSS data analysis gave a comprehensive breakdown of the 50 surveyed participants' demographics, capturing their gender, age, period of residence in the village, household size, and current economic activities as shown in Appendix D and summarized below:

• - 72% of the survey participants have lived in the village all their lives, while the others have lived there for 5 to 30 years.
• - The respondents' gender was 58% females and 42 % males.
• - The participants' ages ranged from 18 to greater than 60, where there was almost an even spread except for the ages of 31 to 40 years, which stood out at 28%.
• - The household size categories 3 to 4 and 5 to 6 persons captured 70 % of participants, while the remaining categories were not far apart.

The statistical analysis also evaluated valuable data on additional economic activities that can add social value to the community residents, along with other critical financing and governance issues, which will be discussed in Section 4 below.

4 Results and discussion

The survey data gives an insight into various aspects of the thoughts and views of the Wakapoa community on how they plan to utilize electricity, add social value, and sustainably govern their ecosystem. Multiple aspects of the survey data are discussed below, while the findings should not be generalized beyond the Wakapoa community.

4.1 Future energy usage

The survey respondents' summaries in Tables 2 and 3 below provide insights into the Wakapoa Indigenous community's plans for utilizing electricity services on a 24/7 basis.

Table 2. Survey descriptive statistics summary of future electricity usage.

Table 3. Survey summary of future electricity usage by category.

From the data, the most significant energy-utilization activity was business, which focuses on income-generating activities, averaging 13.12 h per household per day, with the potential to positively boost residents' wellbeing and livelihoods. Entertainment ranks second at 5.56 h per household per day, catering to individual/family relaxation through television, music, and internet surfing, which can potentially relieve stress and positively impact their health. Additionally, although the average educational activity time per household per day was the lowest at 4.12 h, its impact on the next generation has the potential to be transformational.

It should also be noted that the future energy use means (for education, entertainment, and business), as shown in Table 2, cannot be added to derive the total mean because many survey participants' real use overlaps and exceeds 24 h. Therefore, the statistical means are checked for each individual category and reported in a single table, which is useful in designing the electricity system.

Additionally, utilizing electricity for education for 12 and 23 h as per Table 3, may seem like an anomaly. However, it should be noted that education in Guyana is free at all levels, and many citizens are taking advantage of the opportunity to elevate their status. Education opportunities are available for school-age children (5–17 years) in the day, trade/craft/technical training (16-adult) day/evening in the classroom and online, and tertiary level (16-adult) via the local university and scholarships in the day/evening via face-to-face classes and/or online. Therefore, various members of a household can undertake studies in an online setting at various times of day (locally and globally). Hence, 4 and 2 survey participants indicated 12 and 23 h, respectively, is probable in larger households with 5 to 10 family members (as per Appendix D—Demographics Analysis).

The survey respondents' summaries in Tables 3 and 4 provide notable insight into the value that Wakapoa adult residents place on education, with 88% of the population using energy services for less than 5 h. Similarly, 80% of the adult population is inclined to spend less than 5 h on entertainment, while 76% is willing to spend 12 to 24 h on income-generation activities. Additionally, 72% of the community is willing to use electricity services for more than 18 h, while 42% are willing to use them for 24 h. This insight indicates that the Wakapoa community is motivated and potentially willing to utilize the electricity services productively.

Table 4. Survey summary of future electricity use total.

4.2 Current and future economic activities

The summary of survey respondents in Table 5 provides insight into the Wakapoa community's main economic activities. The data show farming at 48%, shops at 14%, mining at 10%, and logging at 6% are the most significant, while the other activities ranged from 2% to 8%, with no regular work at 8%.

Table 5. Survey summary of current economic activities.

Consequently, with the availability of electricity on a 24/7, year-round basis, Figures 8, 9 were derived from the Wakapoa community survey data, providing insight into their plans to productively utilize these resources, which can potentially positively impact their wellbeing and livelihoods. It is important to note that many survey participants utilized the “others” option for question 11 to indicate additional income-generating activities not presented.

It is important to note that while social value is being added to current economic activities by increasing scale and adding technology, many new avenues of generating income are being considered. From the data, non-traditional economic activities of fruit juice processing (12%) and garment/clothes making (11%) are ranked highest. Other noteworthy non-traditional income-generating activities being contemplated are furniture making (8%), local bakery (7%), hair styling (7%), large general shops (6%), ICT businesses (6%), with many others such as agro-processing, marketing of community produce, and ice making that can potentially have a significant impact on many productive activities.

Additionally, many traditional income-generating activities can leverage electricity services to significantly boost their productivity and operational scale, which can positively impact profitability. Traditional business activities considered for expansion include small shops (10%), farm irrigation (7%), carpentry/masonry using power tools (6%), poultry farming (3%), and sawmilling operations (1%). Therefore, continuous electricity availability has the potential to positively impact the Wakapoa traditional business community.

4.3 Employment opportunity

Other notable social value benefits include employment opportunities for the Wakapoa community residents. In addition to direct employment in electricity operations, many opportunities may arise from the activities indicated in Figures 8, 9 above, including agro-processing plants, furniture-making, sawmill operations, restaurants, and guesthouses. An insight into the estimated employment opportunities is summarized in Table 6 below, showing a total of 309 positions, where 12 can be directly attributed to the electricity operations, while another 297 positions (conservative estimate) can potentially be generated from the many spin-off business activities that can add social value to the Wakapoa community.

Table 6. Potential employment estimates for the Wakapoa residents and others.

Additionally, many part-time positions may be open to community residents for maintenance tasks such as cleaning the CSP collectors a few times per year, while many can also earn income by serving as waste-wood suppliers for the biomass energy system. Moreover, many other employment opportunities can arise from services being provided in the community, such as welding, machining spare parts, construction, and transportation. These employment opportunities can potentially help improve the livelihood and wellbeing of community residents.

4.4 Costs, risks, and burdens

Despite the many potential benefits and spin-off business opportunities arising from the 24/7, year-round electricity system, there are also many considerations that residents need to understand before investing in new businesses or expanding existing ones. These considerations can generally be classified as costs, burdens, and risks, summarized in Table 7 below, which are part of the added social value equation put forward by Miller and colleagues, namely that social value is generated when benefits exceed the sum of costs, burdens, and risks (Miller et al., 2022; Miller, 2021; Miller et al., 2018; Biswas et al., 2020). Additionally, this is supported by the financial principles of an income statement (Ittelson, 2022; Woolf, 2021; and Jonick, 2017) and break-even analysis (Reid and Sanders, 2023), by considering all revenue streams and operational costs—material, labor, overheads, direct/indirect, fixed/variable, etc. The social value calculator in Figure 10 below classifies some of these operational costs as burdens and risks.

Table 7. Projected investment considerations for the Wakapoa community residents classified under costs, burdens and risks.

However, while some considerations may be generic across entrepreneurial activities, they will vary by business activity, scale of operation, target market, and jurisdiction. Therefore, each business activity captured in Figure 8 should be analyzed separately to understand their specific costs, burdens, and risks.

4.5 Adding social value of energy

As indicated in Section 4.1, utilizing readily available energy resources productively has the potential to add social value for community residents by seizing opportunities that support wellbeing and enhance livelihoods. Therefore, the social value of energy is added when the benefits of the activity—commercial, social, and educational, outweigh the sum/total of the expended costs, risks, and burdens (Miller, 2021), as summarized in Figure 11 below.

Considering Sections 4.1 (future energy use), 4.2 (future economic activities), 4.3 (potential employment opportunity), and 4.4 (considerations of costs, burdens, and risks) above, it can be said that with the availability of 24/7 all-year electricity supply, an estimated added social value can be generated. Additionally, community initiatives involving healthcare facilities, potable water supply systems, street lighting, etc., along with investments in ICT access, education, and household equipment, are estimated to generate added social value for all residents as the benefits exceed the investment costs, burdens, and risks in the long term.

However, a more cautious approach is required for the economic investment activities shown in the pie chart (Figure 8), such as poultry farming, agro-processing operations, etc. Despite the estimated benefits of return on investment and employment opportunities, the scale of operations will determine economic feasibility while addressing risks and burdens. Utilizing estimated production capacity, a detailed analysis provides projected economic estimates of the added social value, as shown in Appendix E and summarized in Figures 12, 13 below. The results indicate a projected economic estimate for the added social value per individual economic activity (e.g., US$1,962/mth for juice making operation) and the overall economic activities (e.g., US$729,678/yr for 31 juice making operations).

Figures 12 and 13 highlight the projected economic estimates for activities in terms of high profitability for ventures such as restaurants and guesthouses, sawmill operations, afro-processing, furniture making, poultry farming, and general shops, whereas an overall benefit to the community's group/sector of furniture making, general shops, and restaurant/guesthouse stands out. Correspondingly, Appendix E presents the net projected economic estimate of the added social value for all suggested entrepreneurial activities, which can potentially be US$9,346,947 annually. These preliminary estimates have the potential to transform residents' livelihoods and wellbeing, warranting future research to validate production capacity and market demand, and to help construct specific business models for investments from the community fund. The production capacity can inform a community marketing strategy/plan by sector/product group and open opportunities for larger contractual supply agreements. This approach can add social value to community residents and eliminate internal competition that decreases profits.

Additionally, advisory services will be critical for both traditional and non-traditional business ventures to aid the community/residents' understanding of important considerations and avoid catastrophic investments. To this end, training needs related to entrepreneurial ventures, quality, engineering, among others, will be necessary as covered in Section 4.7 below. Additionally, financial feasibility considerations such as business model development and analysis, payback period, net present value, and operational scale that will affect break-even volumes/revenue are important for community investors (residents) to understand the viability of their economic activity.

Therefore, an advisory system can be implemented that includes an added social value calculator, as shown in Figure 10 below, which was developed using Miller and colleagues' concept, as outlined in Sections 4.4 and 4.5 above. The various production capacities were preliminary estimates from survey participants, who reported not being limited by land, farming inputs, or production capacity, but by reliable markets, electricity access, cold storage facilities, and financing. Additionally, the survey participants estimated what they can do currently and over the next 5–10 years. Therefore, all added social value generated is a preliminary estimate and may require further research to validate production and marketing capacity.

Consequently, the added social value calculator tool can be used by entrepreneurs universally as a planning tool to understand the volume/scale of operations required to turn a profit/break-even, given the income, costs, burdens, and risks associated with their jurisdiction. Note that more streams of revenue, costs, burdens, and/or risks can be added as per jurisdiction regulations/requirements. Additionally, the added social value calculator's final numbers can serve as a guide for community investors, but further guidance from a financial consultant is recommended before undertaking larger operational ventures.

4.6 Community financial aid system

An important consideration for Wakapoa community residents to make productive use of the electricity services and forge economic progress will be the availability of financial aid to invest readily in income-generating equipment. The survey data shown in Table 8 below indicate that 76% of Wakapoa community residents need access to financing to make productive use of electricity services.

Table 8. Survey summary for the availability of funding to the Wakapoa community residents for investment purposes.

Additionally, the survey data in Table 9 above indicate that 94% of community residents are willing to manage and contribute to a community financial aid fund (CFAF), with residents as the primary beneficiaries. The purpose of the CFAF is to provide ready financing to enable community residents to invest in income-generating equipment, material, or associated items that will enhance their productive use of the electricity services.

Table 9. Survey summary for the Wakapoa residents willing to manage and contribute to a community financial aid fund.

Therefore, introducing a CFAF that community residents can manage will provide small loans (say, US$250 to US$2000) for investment in income-generating activities only. The repayment system can be over three (3) years at a low interest rate to avoid placing an additional burden on community residents, with stipulations that access to future loans is available once outstanding debts are fully paid. An appropriate application form can be designed to capture key details for determining venture feasibility, repayment capacity, and other necessary information.

The initial seed capital for the CFAF can be built into the project cost, say, an average of US$ 1,000 per household for 400 households, giving a total of US$400,000. This will assist community residents in having the relevant equipment to commence operations when electricity is available and to consume the power generated, since the energy system requires 40%−50% load when commercial generation commences. This is a win-win scenario.

Additionally, the CFAF can be maintained through the loan repayment system, a monthly contribution of $25 per loan recipient, and a percentage of the electricity tariff collected. The latter can be determined after a detailed financial analysis to assess whether electricity generation costs are covered. This CFAF will continue to aid residents in future business expansion projects as markets grow and other opportunities arise.

At appropriate intervals, the CFAF can also fund community projects that aid development but do not fall under the region or other governing bodies, such as school children's water transportation, specific educational scholarships, ICT hubs, community cold storage, etc., that can benefit all residents.

4.7 Training

Technical competence is vital for any system or organization to function effectively over the long term. Therefore, it will be necessary to make training available across various disciplines, utilizing multiple formats to target community residents. The training sessions with national or international schools/universities can be online via ICT systems. Alternatively, face-to-face training can be done by attending current national institutions such as the University of Guyana, Lenora, and/or Georgetown Technical Institute. Additionally, many training activities can be conducted in the community on weekends, evenings, or even in short periods as short courses or workshops for residents.

A summary of the community residents' survey responses regarding training disciplines and their availability is shown in Table 10 above. The survey data reinforces the concept that a large percentage of the community population is contemplating entrepreneurial activities as 34%, with 34% of residents interested in small business training. Moreover, another 34% of the population is interested in all training, while 14% are interested in manufacturing practices training, 12% in technical training as operators and energy operations (electrical/mechanical engineers), and 6% in administration. This skills mix gives a good handle on the technical competence required for energy operations, CFAF, CMC, entrepreneurial ventures, and community development programs that can benefit all residents. The final takeaway is that training becomes vital as the research seeks to build a sustainable energy ecosystem, where knowledge transfer is essential to ensuring that the Wakapoa community residents have the technical and practical competence to operate and manage all operations.

Table 10. Survey summary for the Wakapoa community residents' training programs.

4.8 Governance systems

For any operation to be sustainable over the long term, governance/management is critical. Therefore, governance system options on the survey instrument were selected based on guidance from the literature (such as the Rural Energy Development Program (REDP) model from Nepal, recognized by the UNDP and exported globally) and consideration of current local norms.

From Table 11 below, the survey respondents showed a strong preference toward a bottom-up governance system by community residents, at 62%, comprising an equal number of males and females from the village, organized as a community management committee (CMC). The other significant governance system is that of the village Chief/Toshao and community counselors, at 24%, who are currently village overseers and would be elected biannually.

Table 11. Survey summary for operations governance system preferred by the Wakapoa survey respondents.

Interestingly, the hybrid options that included community residence in addition to one village counselor representative and/or one government agency representative, as well as the choice of external entities (such as regional or political representatives), proved insignificant, with key stakeholders potentially absent from the decision-making process. The recommendation is that the CMC operate similarly to the board of directors of large organizations, so that all decisions benefit the long-term viability of the energy ecosystem and community residents. The CMC's main functions can include management oversight of the electricity system, the CFAF system, and community projects arising from the CFAF. This is vital to ensure managers' accountability, regular audits, weaknesses/threats navigated, opportunities exploited, and community concerns/recommendations are addressed.

On another note, the CMC and the electricity operations leadership can manage the energy ecosystem, except for the forests. The management of the forest resources falls under the authority of the Guyana Forestry Commission. This government agency has forest monitoring stations nationwide that manage all logging activities to promote its forest resources sustainability program. Permits must be granted to log legally, stipulating how far apart trees are to be harvested, the age of trees to be harvested, etc. Therefore, the CMC will not duplicate these efforts.

5 Conclusion

The investigation of this paper was guided by the research questions, where the Wakapoa community of Guyana was the central study area. Therefore, it can be fairly articulated that these findings should not be extrapolated to other jurisdictions globally. However, other jurisdictions looking to evaluate their community's productive energy use can utilize the outlined methodology of this research as a starting point to gather their data, perform analysis, and make recommendations accordingly.

The investigation revealed that the Wakapoa community has the potential to productively utilize energy/electricity resources at the UN-Tier 5 level. The findings indicated that the Wakapoa community was inclined to undertake economic activities that have the potential to provide substantial livelihood opportunities, subject to feasibility validation, governance capacity, financing availability, and market access. Based on preliminary estimates, the analysis highlighted entrepreneurial activities such as sawmill operations, agro-processing, furniture making, poultry farming, and general shops, among others, with significant potential for favorable outcomes. However, these require further research on the scale of operations, production capacity, and marketing demand to validate the preliminary economic estimates and added social value.

Critical to building a profitable energy ecosystem surrounded by meaningful entrepreneurial initiatives will be training that builds operational, technical, and targeted skills for both traditional and non-traditional ventures. These skills will aid the community/residents' understanding of key considerations that can avoid catastrophic investments. The added social value calculator developed can guide residents in assessing the financial viability of their entrepreneurial ventures, with the venture being feasible when the net added social value is positive. However, for large investments, the guidance of a financial consultant is recommended.

Additionally, the governance system to enhance the sustainability of the energy ecosystem was identified, with data indicating that the community preferred a bottom-up system comprising an equal number of males and females from the village, organized as a “community management committee” (CMC). This CMC governance group can be tasked with management/oversight of the electricity system and the community financial aid fund (CFAF) while addressing community residents' concerns and recommendations. For large capital projects, the final governance system is typically determined by stakeholders, and an inclusive system will likely include representation from the community.

Inherently, there is a possibility that additional social value can be generated through access to education for all residents, enabled by ICT systems, improved healthcare services, and general household improvements, thereby enhancing the community's overall wellbeing.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsuep.2026.1822478/full#supplementary-material

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Footnotes

Edited by: Eric O'Shaughnessy, Berkeley Lab (DOE), United States

Reviewed by: Axellina Muara Setyanti, Universitas Brawijaya Program Pascasarjana, Indonesia

Ann-Perry Witmer, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States