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Original Research
Published 7 October 2026
A hierarchical architecture for brownfield digitization: design, analytical insights, and validation of an ultra-low-cost Wi-Fi/MQTT IIoT framework
Gulshat Amirkhanova · Meiramkul Zhasuzakova · Nazargozha Abdulkhamit · Bauyrzhan Amirkhanov · Onggarbek Alipbeki · Alina Raeva
Frontiers in Communications and Networks
doi 10.3389/frcmn.2026.1822183