Amir Said, Mah Noor Khan, Mohamed Alburaki, Shahid Karim, Abdul Majid Khan
Beekeeping plays a vital role in food security, agricultural productivity, and ecosystem stability, contributing to honey production and crop pollination services. The sector in Pakistan represents an important but underutilized component of agricultural sustainability and the rural economy. Pakistan supports diverse apicultural landscapes shaped by different ecological regions, climatic variations, and floral resources, which influence colony distribution and management protocols. This review critically evaluates the current state of knowledge, traces its historical development, and assesses the contemporary status of beekeeping in the country, with particular emphasis on honey bee species diversity, the scale and distribution of beekeeping operations, and the socioeconomic contributions of the apicultural sector. In addition, it identifies major knowledge gaps and outstanding resea\rch questions related to honey bee biodiversity, population genetics, disease dynamics, climate resilience, pollination services, and sustainable management practices. By highlighting areas where information remains limited, this review aims to guide future research priorities and support evidence-based strategies for the sustainable development and conservation of the beekeeping industry. The transition from traditional management of native species to an introduced European species has significantly changed honey production metrics and migratory beekeeping dynamics. The review further discusses major pests and pathogens affecting beehives and assesses current management practices used by local beekeepers. Bridging these research gaps requires coordinated research programs that combine genetic analysis, disease surveillance, and close collaboration with beekeepers to improve pollinator health and enhance the long-term viability of apiculture in Pakistan.
Devan Rawn, Kiley J. Epperson, James C. Fulton, Cameron J. Jack
Amitraz is used by beekeepers to control Varroa destructor infestations within their colonies worldwide. Evidence for resistant mites continues to be reported and could be a major factor in widespread colony losses. Over 2 years, we investigated a diagnostic bioassay that tested our mites for susceptibility to amitraz. After diagnosing mites with the bioassay, we genotyped the mites searching for the Y215H mutation of the β2-octopamine receptor. We found that the diagnostic bioassay accurately predicted the resistant genotype 94.6% of the time, and it accurately predicted the susceptible genotype in 66.8% of mites. Additionally, we performed a standard treatment with the product Apivar ® (active ingredient amitraz 3.33%) on the source colonies of these mites. Colonies receiving the Apivar ® treatment (n = 32) were categorized by the expected efficacy of amitraz on their mites, and a group of colonies was designated as untreated controls (n = 12). Both high and low expected efficacy groups had significantly reduced mite infestations by the end of the treatment period (reduced by 98.2%) compared with control colonies, which did not have a significant change in mite numbers over the same period (reduced by 23.0%). The diagnostic bioassay was a strong predictor of the resistant genotype of V. destructor, but it was not an accurate predictor of field-level amitraz efficacy.
Deysi Ruiz-Llontop, Ysai Paucar, William Bardales, José Américo Saucedo-Uriarte
Bees are fundamental to the health of both natural ecosystems and agricultural systems, providing essential pollination services that support biodiversity and agriculture. In Peru, they play an important role in pollinating major agricultural crops such as coffee, blueberries, avocados, citrus fruits, and cacao, among others; at the same time, they help preserve biodiversity. However, bee populations in the country face significant threats, including habitat loss driven by deforestation and agricultural expansion, the spread of parasitic pests like Varroa destructor, pesticide exposure, and the effects of climate change. These stressors have profound implications for bee health, foraging efficiency, and reproductive success. This review synthesizes recent research on the state of bee populations and apiculture in Peru, drawing on a comprehensive dataset of 89 studies published between 1914 and 2024. It examines the key challenges facing Peruvian A. mellifera bee, including the impact of environmental stressors, the sustainability of beekeeping practices, and the regional distribution of research efforts. Additionally, the review explores the importance of grassland ecosystems as critical habitats for pollinators and their role in supporting agricultural productivity. The review identified significant knowledge gaps in Peru, including limited geographic coverage, insufficient understanding of pollination ecology and ecosystem services, and a lack of studies quantifying the economic value of pollination for agriculture. By identifying research gaps and proposing future directions, this article seeks to advocate for the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices in Peru to safeguard A. mellifera.
Honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations face increasing threats from pathogens, parasites, and synergistic interactions among pathogens and stressors that contribute to colony losses. Traditional hive health monitoring relies on visual inspections, mite counts, and targeted diagnostics, which are labor-intensive, expertise-dependent, and often detect infections only at advanced stages. Next-generation sequencing (NGS), specifically 16S rRNA gene and ITS amplicon sequencing, offers a powerful culture-independent approach for simultaneous detection of bacterial and fungal microbes in beehive samples (larvae, honey, bee tissue). This technology is particularly relevant for exotic pet medicine, where veterinarians may be consulted by beekeepers to investigate brood diseases in managed honey bee colonies. This paper reviews the application of 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing in apiculture and presents clinical case studies demonstrating its diagnostic utility. Longitudinal monitoring of brood nest samples revealed dynamic changes in Melissococcus plutonius abundance. In other cases, 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing excluded suspected European foulbrood (EFB) and documented co-infections involving agents such as Enterococcus faecalis and Paenibacillus dendritiformis (the latter representing the first reported detection in honey bee colonies in the U.S.). These findings highlight the ability of 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to detect bacterial pathogens, reveal microbial community shifts, and differentiate primary from secondary microbes when combined with clinical context. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing can support early intervention and avoidance of unnecessary antibiotics amid rising resistance concerns. By equipping exotic pet veterinarians with these tools, this approach enhances diagnostic accuracy for bee-related consultations, supports antimicrobial stewardship, and contributes to the welfare of pollinators as part of broader exotic animal practice. Despite challenges including cost, bioinformatics requirements, sample processing, and interpretation of complex datasets, 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing integration into routine apicultural practice shows promise for improved colony resilience and reduced losses.
