Status of beekeeping in Pakistan: apicultural significance, industry challenges, and opportunities for integrated genetic and disease research programs

1 Introduction

Honey bees are globally recognized as keystone species that support agricultural systems and the integrity of natural ecosystems (Potts et al., 2016). They provide significant economic and nutritional value by producing vital hive products. Pollination services are essential for improving the yield, quality, and stability of approximately 75% of the world’s major food crops (Klein et al., 2007). The economy of Pakistan is fundamentally agriculture-based, with the sector contributing approximately 19% of GDP and employing approximately 45% of the labor force (Kamal et al., 2022). Pollination-dependent crops, including mango, citrus, apple, cotton, and sunflower, form the backbone of both domestic food security and export revenue. Given this high dependence on agriculture, it becomes a national priority to make the sector sustainable and efficient. Agricultural productivity is mainly influenced by animal pollination, which is predominantly provided by insects, particularly honey bees. They are vital for pollinating important crops, including fruits such as mango, citrus, apple, and peach; vegetables such as cucurbits, okra, and brassicas; oilseeds such as sunflower and canola; and forage crops such as alfalfa and clover. These crops all benefit significantly from bee pollination and form the backbone of nutrition and rural incomes (Bashir et al., 2019). Studies in the region show that the production of apples and other crops can be considerably increased through effective bee pollination (Khan and Khan, 2004; Partap et al., 2017).

In addition to their immense pollination services, honey bees produce direct economic products of substantial value, including honey, pollen, royal jelly, propolis, and wax. The literature published through 2023 indicates that annual honey production in Pakistan is estimated at 12,000–15,000 metric tons (Usman et al., 2022; Khan and Ghramh, 2023); however, a recent report (NEWS, 2026) estimates annual production at 25,000–30,000 metric tons and reports significant potential for growth (FAOSTAT, 2022). Pakistan’s honey exports generate direct financial returns that range approximately between US$15 million per annum (NEWS, 2026) and US$23 million (Usman et al., 2022). This wide variation in the reported figures highlights the overall lack of a comprehensive agricultural data system in Pakistan. There is no organized and compulsory registration system for beekeepers, and official figures are based on voluntary reporting and extrapolation from small samples collected in a few regions. This data opacity has direct policy consequences; in the absence of reliable production baselines, export targets, subsidy allocations, and research investments lack empirical grounding because they are not supported by reliable data and research.

In addition to honey, other hive products are also used in different industries, including beeswax, which is used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and polishes; propolis, a resinous antimicrobial compound, is sought after in health supplements; and royal jelly is a high-value niche product in apitherapy and cosmetics (Boukraâ, 2023). Pakistan’s cosmetics industry may benefit from bee products such as beeswax, a main derived ingredient that serves as a natural emulsifier, thickener, and moisturizer in creams, lip balms, lotions, soaps, and other products. The economic contribution of Pakistan’s apicultural sector is not limited to honey production and exports. It is estimated that the production of beeswax is approximately 400 metric tons annually (MNFS&R, 2021), but much of it is sold in a crude state mainly to cosmetic and pharmaceutical companies at a rate of PKR 800–1,500 per kg. Value addition within Pakistan remains minimal; the majority of wax is exported raw or processed into low-margin foundation sheets. The domestic cosmetics industry, valued at approximately USD 2 billion, imports refined beeswax despite domestic availability, representing a missed industrial integration opportunity (Khan, 2015). Royal jelly and propolis production are negligible at a commercial scale. No internationally certified organic honey production facility currently operates in Pakistan. The absence of standardized honey quality testing laboratories for melissopalynological and residue analyses further constrains export competitiveness, particularly for premium European and North American markets (Pervez and Manzoor, 2023).

The development of these value-added products represents an opportunity to enhance the profitability of apiculture. Beekeeping is a small-scale, low-capital enterprise with high potential that is well suited to the unique rural landscape of Pakistan. It provides primary or supplementary earnings to thousands of families, including smallholder farmers and landless laborers (Liaqat et al., 2025). It has been particularly important for rural women and youth, providing opportunities for economic empowerment. Migratory beekeeping in the country also creates seasonal jobs and supports ancillary industries associated with the manufacture of hives, honey processing, and marketing. However, given its extreme significance, apiculture in Pakistan is largely informal and low-technology, with a high level of untapped potential (Mahmood et al., 2023). The industry is shaped by an intricate interplay among ecological diversity, changing management strategies, introduced species, and increasing pressures from parasites, pathogens, and habitat loss (Usman et al., 2022). Although commercial activity was expanded by the introduction of Apis mellifera and modern hives in the late 20^th century, it also led to reliance on non-native species, neglect of the native Apis cerana, and the emergence of novel disease challenges. The sector’s status suffers from fragmented data and a lack of a solid scientific literature base. None of the previous syntheses have combined the geographical, biological, production, pest management, and research dimensions into a detailed review. This review article aims to fill that void, providing a comprehensive examination structured around several core themes, including the scale and typology of beekeeping, ecological and geographical determinants, species biology and beekeeping history, production metrics in a regional context, pest and disease management practices and their perceived efficacy, and an overview of national research outputs. This review will serve as a valuable benchmark and a significant point of reference for academics, policymakers, and stakeholders in the country and clearly pinpoint the knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to secure a sustainable apicultural future for Pakistan. In addition to summarizing the available literature, this review attempts to assess the present state of apicultural research in Pakistan and identify important gaps in knowledge that hinder both scientific and practical advances. Unresolved questions concerning honey bee genetic diversity, disease dynamics, environmental stressors, and management systems are emphasized. This review aims to integrate the available evidence and identify gaps to guide research priorities, shape policy, and contribute to the sustainable development of the Pakistani beekeeping industry.

Honey bees are valuable agricultural resources that support food security, rural livelihoods, the conservation of biodiversity, and the development of a high-value bioeconomy. Successful development of the sector depends on coordinated investment in research infrastructure, workforce development, bee-friendly agricultural policies, adaptation to climate change, and value-added bee product industries. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the status of apiculture in Pakistan, examines existing evidence, identifies gaps, and proposes outstanding research questions to inform evidence-based policies and ensure a sustainable future for pollinator-dependent agriculture.

2 Methodology

A literature review was conducted in major academic databases, including Web of Science, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and PubMed, to collect relevant literature and synthesize the available scientific evidence on beekeeping in Pakistan. Literature retrieval was conducted using combinations of keywords including “beekeeping Pakistan”, “Apis mellifera Pakistan”, “Apis cerana Pakistan”, “honey bee diseases Pakistan”, “bee forage flora Pakistan”, “pollination services”, “honey production Pakistan”, and “genetic diversity honey bees”. Additionally, government reports, institutional documents, and other authoritative sources related to honey bee biology, apiculture, pollination, diseases, genetics, and beekeeping practices were considered. The retrieved publications and reports were screened based on their scientific quality, relevance to Pakistani apiculture, and contribution to this review. Peer-reviewed journal articles were prioritized whenever available, while government reports and publications from recognized organizations (e.g., FAO, MNFS&R, PARC, PBS) were used where scientific literature was limited, such as for production statistics, policy information, and institutional descriptions. News reports and online sources were used only when no official statistics or published scientific evidence were available. This review did not follow a formal systematic review protocol and did not include a meta-analysis. Instead, evidence from different sources was critically synthesized to provide an integrated overview of Pakistan’s beekeeping sector, identify major research gaps, evaluate existing knowledge, and highlight future research priorities.

In addition to the literature search, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 56 experienced beekeepers across various regions of Pakistan to obtain contextual information and field-based data. They were asked about regional bee flora, flowering calendars, migratory beekeeping practices, common diseases, treatments typically employed and their efficacy, honey quality, and average hive productivity. All beekeepers were selected based on their beekeeping experience and had worked for more than 10 years in the sector. This approach helped assess the plausibility of the published literature given the wide variation and substantial discrepancies in the published data. The gathered information was compared with existing literature to produce a comprehensive and accurate summary of the apicultural situation, issues, and research gaps in Pakistan.

3 Findings

3.1 Beekeeping in Pakistan: diversity, scale, and systems

The apiculture industry of Pakistan is supported by two key domesticated species (Apis cerana and Apis mellifera), which have different ecological niches and economic functions. A. cerana is native to Pakistan and has higher disease resistance, a higher tendency to swarm and abscond, and a shorter lower foraging range than the imported A. mellifera (Ruttner, 1988; Shakeel et al., 2020). Accurately estimating the number of honey bee colonies in Pakistan is challenging due to the migratory nature of commercial beekeeping, the informal nature of the sector, and the lack of consistent official government surveys and reporting. Developing a centralized national one-window digital platform accessible to all relevant stakeholders for data entry, potentially a “Pakistan Honeybee Portal” or a mobile application, may help reduce data inconsistencies. Estimates from the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS) and the Ministry of National Food Security & Research suggest a range of 0.7 to 1.2 million A. mellifera colonies nationwide (MNFS&R, 2021; Mahmood et al., 2023; Munir et al., 2024), while a recent report claims that this number has reached 1.5 million (NEWS, 2026). The majority of colonies (above 60%) are concentrated in the province of Punjab, followed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Sindh, and Balochistan (Saeed, 2022; Usman et al., 2022; Khan and Ghramh, 2023). High-altitude areas of KPK, Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), and Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJK) host smaller but significant numbers of native bees (Waghchoure-Camphor and Martin, 2008; Khan and Ghramh, 2023).

The introduced Western honey bee species (Apis mellifera L.) dominates the country’s commercially managed colonies. The Italian (A. m. ligustica) and Carniolan (A. m. carnica) subspecies have been introduced primarily for commercial beekeeping due to their higher honey yields, gentleness, and adaptability to movable-frame hives (Khan and Ghramh, 2023; Liaqat et al., 2025). Their numbers are directly tied to honey flows and migration routes. A common annual migration route (Figure 1) for the majority of beekeepers usually starts with mustard in southern Punjab and Sindh (late November–January), moves to citrus and mustard in central Punjab (January–March), then to vasaka (Justicia adhatoda) and garanda (Carissa carandas) in the Pothohar region and KPK (late March–April), and then to acacia (April–May) in different areas of Punjab, KPK, and Azad Kashmir. After harvesting acacia honey, the majority of beekeepers proceed to the late-season wild flora of the northern hills (May–July) and then return to Ziziphus in central areas, including Karak, Kohat, Swabi, Nowshera, Chakwal, Talagang, Mianwali, Pindigheb, and Taunsa Sharif. Some beekeepers also move to the Thal Desert (August–October) before returning to wintering grounds (Qaiser et al., 2013). A. mellifera is managed in modern 10-frame Langstroth movable-frame hives (Figure 2), which are the industry standard. Its design allows for non-destructive inspection, brood rearing, disease management, and honey extraction (Langstroth, 1863). Hobbyists or backyard beekeepers in Pakistan often manage 1–20 colonies, small-scale beekeepers manage 20–50 colonies, and sideliner beekeepers manage 50–200 colonies. There groups practice sedentary beekeeping, while commercial beekeepers (>200 colonies) practice migratory beekeeping and transport hives on trucks over hundreds of kilometers to follow sequential bloom periods. This practice is economically rational and maximizes yields, but it also intensifies the rapid dissemination of pests and pathogens and exposes bees to heterogeneous environmental stressors (Simone-Finstrom et al., 2016; Saeed, 2022). Excessive seasonal migration represents a plausible biosecurity risk that may undermine regional containment efforts.

Apis cerana (the Asian honey bee) is an autochthonous species in Pakistan. The major native subspecies present in Pakistan is Apis cerana indica (Ruttner, 1988). Smaller than A. mellifera, A. cerana has better thermoregulation, forages effectively in diffuse flora, and exhibits a strong instinct to abscond in response to stress, pest attacks, or food shortages. The number of colonies is unknown but appears to be decreasing (Theisen-Jones and Bienefeld, 2016). It is primarily managed in traditional fixed-comb hives (Figure 3), mostly in northern mountainous areas, and its colonies are not usually recorded in official statistics (Khan and Ghramh, 2023). This species is well adapted to the local climate and floral resources and has high resistance to certain pests. Notably, it has a long coevolutionary history with the parasitic mite Varroa destructor (an early host of this parasite) and displays effective grooming and hygienic behavior, which provides relative tolerance, though not complete resistance (Diao et al., 2018). A. cerana generally has a lower honey yield compared with A. mellifera (Figure 4) but represents an important genetic pool for resilience traits (Rath, 1999). Management practices includes keeping colonies in traditional fixed-comb hives made of locally available materials. Many forms of traditional hives exist, including (1) log hives, which are hollowed-out tree trunks sealed at both ends with a small flight entrance (Figure 3); (2) lay hives, which are unglazed earthenware pots; (3) wall hives, which consist of cavities built into the walls of rural homes (Figure 3); and (4) basket hives, which are wicker baskets plastered with mud or dung (Crane, 1999). Management is minimal, often involving destructive harvesting that kills or severely stresses the colony (Theisen-Jones and Bienefeld, 2016). This form of beekeeping is low-yielding but has low input costs and preserves locally adapted genetic stock.

3.2 Institutional framework of Pakistan’s beekeeping sector

The apiculture sector in Pakistan is anchored at the federal level by the Ministry of National Food Security and Research (www.mnfsr.gov.pk), which develops and implements national strategies for pollinator management and export standards. Under this federal ministry, the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (www.parc.gov.pk) functions as the primary scientific authority, while the National Agricultural Research Centre (www.narc.gov.pk), a central research center and campus of PARC, operates the specialized Honey Bee Research Institute (HBRI). HBRI plays an important role in domesticating Apis mellifera and in providing technical guidelines for managing and conserving native species, including Apis cerana and Apis dorsata, in different ecological zones of Pakistan (Khan and Ghramh, 2023). HBRI is considered a leading national institute that operates in close collaboration with other national associations to improve the beekeeping sector and honey exports.

At the provincial level, the extensions of agricultural departments, such as in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the historic Tarnab farm in Peshawar (Agriculture Department KP - Tarnab Peshawar), serve as the most active center for beekeeper training, honey research, and trade. Likewise, in Punjab, extension services facilitate migratory beekeeping practices, allowing beekeepers to follow seasonal nectar flows from Ziziphus and Acacia (Saeed, 2022). These provincial facilities serve as direct links between beekeepers and the scientific community; however, they face continued challenges, including fragmented data collection and limited access to modern extraction technology for small-scale farmers, particularly in remote areas (Usman et al., 2022).

A network of associations and links between rural producers and international markets play a crucial role in developing commercial and social environments. The All Pakistan Beekeepers Exporters and Honey Trader Association (APBEHTA) (Official Industry Link/Facebook) and the Pakistan Beekeepers Association (PBA) (Industry Coordination Portal) are central to maintaining this engagement and supporting the value chain, particularly for high-value Ziziphus (Sidr) honey exported to the Middle East (Khan, 2015). Some regional organizations, including the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Honey Beekeepers Association (KPHBA) (Extension & Services), the All Pakistan Honey Bee Keepers Association at Tarnab Farm, and the Gilgit-Baltistan Beekeepers Association, provide essential support to beekeepers facing pesticide threats and land-access disputes during migrations. Improving coordination among these associations and the Trade Development Authority of Pakistan (TDAP) is essential to standardize honey quality and expand Pakistan’s presence in the international honey market (Pervez and Manzoor, 2023).

Despite the presence of these agencies, research institutes, universities, and beekeeper associations, Pakistan’s apicultural governance remains fragmented and lacks a coordinated national strategy. Inconsistent extension services, duplication of activities, and gaps in disease monitoring continue to constrain sectoral development. Although some institutes play important roles in introducing modern beekeeping practices and providing technical training, sustained investment in molecular diagnostics, national colony surveillance, breeding programs, and digital data management remain limited. Moreover, weak linkages between research institutions, provincial extension departments, universities, and commercial beekeepers reduce the translation of scientific findings into field-level management practices. Establishing a coordinated national apiculture strategy with clearly defined institutional responsibilities, harmonized surveillance programs, centralized colony registration, and stronger collaboration among government agencies, universities, and beekeeper associations would substantially improve evidence-based decision-making and the sustainable development of the sector.

3.3 Socioeconomic role of beekeeping

Beekeeping provides a critical source of supplementary income for an estimated 25,000–30,000 farm families in Pakistan (PBC, 2022; Khan and Ghramh, 2023). It is particularly important in arid regions where agricultural options are limited and food production is sparse. The industry has grown at a remarkable rate and currently produces approximately 25,000–30,000 metric tons of honey annually (NEWS, 2026) (Figure 4), with a growing export market to the Middle East and Japan (PBC, 2022; Usman et al., 2022; Khan and Ghramh, 2023; Pervez and Manzoor, 2023). The value chain comprises beekeepers as producers, processors and packers, marketers, and input suppliers (i.e., manufacturers and sellers of hives and equipment). A significant portion of honey is traded informally in local markets without branding, resulting in substantial value loss due to fragmented trade. Although honey production has increased in recent years (NEWS, 2026), multiple constraints, including fragmented marketing systems, lack of product standardization, inadequate quality certification, poor branding, insufficient processing infrastructure, and dependence on informal markets, continue to limit economic returns.

In addition to direct production, beekeeping contributes substantial value to agriculture through pollination services, a vital yet often unquantified component of the national economy whose value is likely to exceed the market value of all hive products (Partap, 2011). Pollination by honey bees contributes to increased fruit set, seed production, crop quality, and uniformity in many pollination-dependent crops cultivated throughout Pakistan. Despite this importance, the economic contribution of pollination services has not yet been quantified at the national level, representing a major knowledge gap that limits the incorporation of pollination into agricultural policy and ecosystem valuation. Declines in bee populations directly impact the productivity and profitability of agriculture, thereby posing a potential risk to national food security. While honey bees are the most significant managed pollinators, Pakistan’s agricultural productivity benefits from a broader community of insect pollinators. For example, mango (Mangifera indica), one of Pakistan’s premier export crops, is pollinated by a wide variety of pollinators besides Apis species, including syrphid flies, native bees, stingless bees, and wasps (Irshad and Stephen, 2014; Bashir et al., 2019). Likewise, okra, cucurbits, and stone fruits benefit from multiple pollinator taxa. This functional redundancy provides ecological insurance against pollinator decline but remains undocumented in systematic surveys.

Beekeeping represents an affordable and accessible livelihood opportunity for resource-poor households, as it requires relatively small investments compared with other agricultural enterprises. In several regions, women and youth actively participate in colony management, honey harvesting, processing, packaging, and local marketing (Bradbear, 2009). However, reliable national statistics documenting gender participation, youth employment, and household income generated through apiculture remain scarce. Future socioeconomic studies need to quantify these contributions to better inform rural development and poverty alleviation programs.

3.4 Topographical and climatic regions based on floral resources

The diverse topography of Pakistan ranges from coastal plains to the world’s highest mountains. This results in different agro-ecological zones, each with unique floral resources that shape its beekeeping calendar and potential (Saeed, 2022). The success of beekeeping is particularly influenced by the availability of pollen and nectar sources. The floral calendar varies dramatically by region. The Pakistan Agriculture Research Council (PARC) divides the country into different agro-ecological zones, which include the northern mountainous zone, temperate mountains, rainfed zone, western mountains, irrigated plains, piedmont plain, western dry plateau, desert zone, and coastal zone (Figure 1). However, based on beekeeping activity and concentration, the country can be divided into the following four regions:

• The Indus River plains: Encompassing the majority of Punjab and Sindh, this is an arid to semi-arid region with hot summers (May–June, temperatures > 40 °C) and mild winters. Agriculture is largely irrigated through extensive canal networks (Waghchoure-Camphor and Martin, 2008; Khan and Ghramh, 2023). This zone is the breadbasket of Pakistan, with major honey flows occurring from cultivated crops (Figure 1).
• The Western and Northern highlands: This region includes KPK, GB, Azad Kashmir, and the Sulaiman Range. It has a temperate-to-alpine climate, with significant altitudinal variation, higher precipitation, and cold winters with snowfall at higher elevations. This region produces highly valued multifloral and well-known acacia honey (Khan and Ghramh, 2023). The northern highlands (KPK, GB, and Azad Kashmir) have diverse forests and fruit flora (Figure 1).
• The Balochistan plateau: A vast arid and hyper-arid region with extreme temperature variations, sparse rainfall, and desert vegetation, interspersed with irrigated fruit orchards in highland valleys and drought-adapted vegetation. Beekeeping in the region is challenging and largely migratory, and the honey season is short and highly dependent on erratic rainfall patterns (Waghchoure-Camphor and Martin, 2008) (Figure 1).
• Sub-Mountainous rainfed zone and Pothohar Plateau: Stretching between the Salt Range and the foothills of the Himalayas, this semi-arid to sub-humid barani (rainfed) belt is characterized by undulating terrain, 300–1,000 mm of annual rainfall, hot summers, and cool winters, with agriculture largely dependent on seasonal precipitation rather than canal irrigation. Ecologically rich in natural stands of Acacia modesta (Phulai), Ziziphus spp., Brassica crops, and diverse wild legumes, it functions as a critical spring honey corridor and transitional migratory zone linking the Indus plains with the northern highlands (Figure 1).

The details of season-wise floral blooming of each region are provided in Table 1 (Jasra and Rafi, 2002; Partap et al., 2017; Aqueel et al., 2023).

Table 1. Details of zone-wise and season-wise flora availability in the various agro-ecological zones of Pakistan.

Major nectar- and pollen-yielding taxa are given in Latin and by their common names. Refer to Figure 1 for the geographical locations of the provinces.

3.5 Concentration of beekeeping activity: drivers and patterns

Many ecological, climatic, and socioeconomic factors influence the activity and concentration of beekeeping in a particular region. The province of Punjab hosts more than 60% of Pakistan’s colonies (Pervez and Manzoor, 2023) because (1) intensive and sequential agriculture provides a near-continuous forage chain and increases the need for pollination services, making honey bees an essential component of modern crop production systems; (2) the Ziziphus spp. belt in districts such as Bhakkar, Layyah, Muzaffargarh, Chakwal, Mianwali, Talagang, Attock, Rawalpindi, and Jhelum in the Pothohar region offers a prolific, high-quality honey flow; (3) a better road network and infrastructure facilitate migratory beekeeping; and (4) proximity to major urban centers (Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, and Islamabad). Known for its high-quality multifloral honey, KPK is the second most important honey-producing region in Pakistan and plays a significant role in the country’s apiculture sector. In some districts of the province, including Kohat, Karak, Dera Ismael Khan, Swat, Dir, Malakand, Nowshera, Chitral, Mansehra, Haripur, and Abbottabad, beekeeping is more concentrated due to rich forest and orchard resources (Usman et al., 2022). Sindh and Balochistan (Figure 1) have significant but less dense activity, often limited to specific fertile valleys or irrigated corridors and specific seasons. GB and AJK also host a substantial number of colonies, particularly of the native A. cerana.

Balochistan represents one of Pakistan’s regions with the highest potential, yet it remains among the most underutilized regions for pollination-integrated agriculture. Districts including Quetta, Ziarat, Pishin, Kalat, Killa Saifullah, Loralai, and Mastung are major producers of apple, almond, apricot, cherry, peach, grape, and pomegranate (Wasim, 2011; Khan and Ghramh, 2023). These crops are highly dependent on insect-mediated cross-pollination for optimal fruit set, size, and quality. Currently, pollination services in Balochistan’s orchards rely predominantly on seasonal migratory colonies transported from Punjab and KPK rather than on locally maintained apiaries. This dependency creates logistical vulnerabilities, security constraints, and transport costs, while mismatches between migratory schedules and orchard bloom timing often result in suboptimal pollination coverage (Pervez and Manzoor, 2023).

The barriers to developing local beekeeping in Balochistan are substantial: (i) extreme climate variability and temperature fluctuations; (ii) chronic water scarcity limiting colony hydration; (iii) long floral dearth periods outside orchard seasons; (iv) limited institutional extension and training infrastructure; and (v) security-related mobility restrictions that complicate migratory beekeeping (MNFS&R, 2021). Addressing these challenges through climate-resilient hive designs, drought-tolerant bee stock selection, and orchard-based stationary beekeeping models would simultaneously boost fruit yields and establish sustainable local apicultural enterprises.

Overall, the spatial distribution of beekeeping activity in Pakistan reflects the interaction of ecological suitability, agricultural intensity, transportation infrastructure, market accessibility, institutional support, and migratory management practices rather than floral resources alone. Regions supporting sequential nectar flows enable commercial migratory beekeeping and higher colony densities, whereas harsh climatic conditions, prolonged floral dearth, limited extension services, water scarcity, and poor transport infrastructure restrict beekeeping expansion in many arid and mountainous regions. Future planning should therefore integrate climatic suitability modeling, pollination demand, land-use patterns, and socioeconomic factors when identifying priority regions for sustainable apicultural development.

3.6 History of native species beekeeping

Beekeeping practices in Pakistan have a long history, evolving from honey hunting to traditional beekeeping, with honey hunting representing the extraction of wild honey and managed beekeeping reflecting deliberate colony husbandry. Honey hunting involved harvesting honey from naturally occurring colonies of wild species, particularly Apis dorsata and Apis florea, without long-term colony management or maintenance of colonies after harvest. In contrast, traditional managed beekeeping primarily involved Apis cerana, whose colonies were intentionally maintained in wall cavities, hollow logs, earthen pots, and other locally constructed fixed-comb hives. The modern apiculture industry began in the late 1970s with the introduction of Apis mellifera and movable-frame Langstroth hives by government departments (e.g., PARC) and development projects (Waghchoure-Camphor and Martin, 2008). Pakistan has a variety of natural flora and fauna, which have been systematically documented through various projects. In 2007, the World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) helped publish the field guide “Birds of Pakistan”, and the “National Insect Museum” was established, which began catalogingcategorize insects from existing and new collections (Waghchoure-Camphor and Martin, 2008; Khan and Ghramh, 2023).

Before the widespread adoption of modern hives and the introduction of non-native species, three native species formed the backbone of honey production in the country: (1) A. cerana was managed in the mountainous and high-altitude northern areas in fixed-comb hives. To prevent bee stings, beekeepers generally used a smoker made of rolled cotton cloth (locally known as Jhumro) and believed that various scents, such as ginger, could make the bees lethargic during harvest. (2) Apis dorsata (giant/rock honey bee) is wild and cannot be domesticated in hives; it builds single large combs in open spaces such as high tree branches or cliffs (Crane, 1999; Usman et al., 2022). Conventionally, honey hunters harvested A. dorsata nests using smoke to drive away the bees, often at considerable physical risk. (3) Apis florea (little/dwarf honey bee), which is found primarily in the plains and warmer southern regions, builds small combs around thin twigs (Jasra and Rafi, 2002; Munir et al., 2024). Historically, this species was not managed; rather, villagers typically cut the entire branch to retrieve the honey.

Traditional beekeeping systems persisted for a long time due to minimal financial investment and reliance on locally available materials and indigenous ecological knowledge. The introduction of movable-frame Langstroth hives and A. mellifera fundamentally transformed Pakistani apiculture by improving colony management, honey harvesting efficiency, disease control, queen replacement, and migratory beekeeping. This transition was driven by ecological differences in the availability of floral resources, increasing demand for higher honey yields, commercialization of apiculture, and the adoption of improved hive technologies and migratory beekeeping practices. Modern apiculture has increasingly favored A. mellifera owing to its higher colony strength and commercial productivity. These advances substantially increased commercial honey production but also contributed to the gradual decline of traditional A. cerana management in many regions. Conserving indigenous beekeeping knowledge alongside modern production systems remains important for maintaining locally adapted genetic resources, preserving cultural heritage, and enhancing the long-term resilience of the sector.

3.7 The introduced Apis mellifera: history of importation

The modern beekeeping industry is dominated by the Western honey bee. In 1908, A. mellifera colonies were first introduced to the subcontinent by Sir Louis Dane, but they died shortly afterward due to heavy rainfall and a lack of expertise (Singh, 2020). Afterward, many attempts by various organizations failed. In 1977–1979, packaged bee colonies were imported from Australia and further acclimatized at the National Agriculture Research Centre (NARC), Islamabad. Following initial acclimatization and subsequent support from a German training program, A. mellifera colonies in Pakistan multiplied from a few dozen to hundreds through queen rearing. The species is now widespread and has become the dominant species in commercial Pakistani apiculture (Khan and Ghramh, 2023). It is primarily managed in the country’s agricultural zones, where extensive cultivation of crops, including citrus, mango, sunflower, and brassica, provides a large, though often monofloral, forage base. A. mellifera is preferred by beekeepers due to its high honey production, low swarming tendency, and the ability to be managed in intensive migration. Compared with the native A. cerana, A. mellifera forms larger colonies and produces more honey, making it more suitable for commercial beekeeping. A. cerana, however, is better adapted to local climates and survives harsh environmental conditions more effectively, though its productivity is lower. While A. mellifera is economically preferred, it requires careful management and is more vulnerable to pests and diseases such as V. destructor. In contrast, A. cerana is relatively resilient but less efficient for migratory beekeeping. Overall, the choice reflects a trade-off between higher yield and local adaptability. However, the widespread dominance of this species has certain ecological consequences, as it may displace native pollinators through competition and serve as a source of pathogens that may spill over into native A. cerana populations (Paini, 2004).

Since expertise is lacking, the beekeeping sector in Pakistan has always relied on imported, non-native honey bee stocks, specifically from Italy and Australia (Gupta et al., 2014), to enhance colony performance and yield. Although the USA and New Zealand are major global exporters of queen bees (Woyke, 1980), direct and routine imports of queen bees from these countries into Pakistan are not explicitly documented in the scientific literature. Imports into the region are generally poorly regulated and lack rigorous quarantine protocols. Years of repeated and unregulated introductions and interbreeding of A. mellifera may have resulted in a genetically admixed population in Pakistan. Available evidence suggests that the genetic identity of the originally introduced subspecies has largely been eroded, and current populations represent hybrids of various European lineages (Harpur et al., 2012). This raises concerns about genetic dilution, in which any local adaptations that may have developed over four decades could be lost, and about the constant risk of introducing new pests or novel pathogen strains.

3.8 Production metrics and apicultural products

Honey is the main commercial product marketed by floral type, such as Ziziphus (the most prized), Acacia, citrus, robinia, berseem, Eucalyptus, and multifloral forest honey. The majority of honey is sold raw, unprocessed, or minimally filtered. Honey yield is highly variable and is influenced by species, management, pre-flow colony strength, forage quality and density, weather conditions during bloom, and beekeeper skills, including swarm control, disease management, and timely migration (Khan et al., 2024). According to published literature, the average annual yield of A. mellifera, ranges from 15–40 kg per colony (Figure 4), with considerable variability in reporting. Well-managed migratory colonies in prime flows produce above 40 kg, while sedentary and weak colonies yield < 10 kg (Khan et al., 2024; Alyas et al., 2026). These wide discrepancies between reported estimates are largely due to variation in sampling timing and methods, geographical regions, climatic conditions, floral resource availability, colony management practices, colony vigor, and differences in beekeeping operations and informal marketing channels, along with the absence of a comprehensive national colony registration system. Future development of harmonized national monitoring systems would substantially improve the accuracy of production statistics and facilitate evidence-based planning.

Honey yields of A. cerana in Pakistan are substantially lower than those of A. mellifera and generally lower than yields reported for A. cerana in other countries of the region, typically ranging from 6–16 kg per colony (Figure 4). This relatively low productivity is due to species’ smaller colony size, traditional and often destructive harvesting practices, inadequate colony management, and limited adoption of improved beekeeping techniques (Hepburn and Radloff, 2011). However, some healthy colonies in the northern areas produce > 20 kg annually. Beeswax is another valuable hive product, mostly sold in crude cakes to intermediaries for processing into foundation sheets, candles, and cosmetics. Royal jelly is produced in very small quantities for local alternative medicine, but there is no commercial-scale market in the country. Similarly, propolis and bee venom are rarely harvested, and public awareness of these value-added products is limited.

The relative standing of Pakistan’s apiculture industry, particularly honey production within the regional context, is informative (Figure 4). According to the International Trade Center, Pakistan makes a relatively small contribution to honey production and export markets compared with China, Iran, and India (International Trade Centre, 2023). Details of honey production and marketing, based on consolidated data from selected nearby countries, are provided in Figure 4 and Table 2. Despite suitable and diverse floral resources, Pakistan is not a large-scale honey producer, and average per-hive productivity is also lower than that of major regional countries. This dwarfness represents a considerable gap for improvement through better management. Significant potential exists for productivity improvement through evidence-based management, disease surveillance, beekeeper training, and the adoption of standardized production and processing practices (Alyas et al., 2026). The country is a minor exporter, primarily to the Gulf Arab states (FAO, 2023; International Trade Centre, 2023), while broader exports are restricted by quality inconsistencies, concerns about pesticide residues, and a lack of international brand recognition. In contrast, Iran and China dominate global markets. This gap between current and potential yield, coupled with the underutilized diversity of hive products, represents significant potential for improvement and economic opportunity.

Table 2. Comparison of honey production, hive numbers, species-specific honey yields, and honey export volumes in Pakistan and neighboring Asian countries. (-): data not available or not applicable.

3.9 Major pests and pathogens of honey bees

Over the past two decades, an alarming and often catastrophic decline in honey bee populations has been observed across the globe, including Pakistan, which acts as a stark warning of a potential global pollinator crisis. Research indicates that the decline is caused by a complex, interacting web of stressors that act synergistically (Goulson et al., 2015; Potts et al., 2016). Among the stressors, biological agents, including parasitic mites and fungi, and viral and bacterial pathogens, are the most direct and important threats to honey bees. These stressors considerably impair the colony’s health and reduce colony productivity and pollination efficiency. In Pakistan, many investigations have reported these stressors, but the majority of studies are localized and descriptive and lack molecular confirmation.

V. destructor is an ectoparasitic mite that is the most destructive pest globally of A. mellifera and is also prevalent in Pakistan (Nazzi and Le Conte, 2016; Abban et al., 2024). The mite causes significant damage to bees and is a competent vector of a variety of viruses, including deformed wing virus (DWV), acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), and Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV). Varroa infestation suppresses bee immune response, making bees susceptible to otherwise benign infections (Kaur et al., 2021), and infestation is almost invariably fatal to an A. mellifera colony. In Pakistan, Varroa infestation is typically highest during winter and early spring, particularly in brood-rich hives. Varroa is recorded as a dominant ectoparasitic species of A. mellifera across different areas of Pakistan (Rehman et al., 2018; Qadir et al., 2021).

Tropilaelaps sp. is another destructive mite that primarily targets brood, feeding on the hemolymph and fat bodies of developing larvae and pupae, leading to irregular brood patterns, stunted adult bees, and high colony mortality. Unlike Varroa, these mites have a significantly shorter life cycle and a brief phoretic phase on adult bees, which facilitates rapid population growth and means that they require constant access to sealed brood for survival (Anderson and Morgan, 2007). In Pakistan, two species of Tropilaelaps have been reported: T. clareae and T. mercedesae (Del Cont et al., 2021). In 1992, many beekeepers reported heavy colony losses due to T. clareae (Camphor et al., 2005). Tropilaelaps infestation levels were reported to increase after February and to reach a peak in April, resulting in significantly reduced brood survival, colony loss, and a subsequent decline in honey yield, thereby undermining apicultural productivity (Camphor and Martin, 2009).

Acarine disease, or acarapidosis, is caused by the tracheal mite, Acarapis woodi, and is a lethal disease targeting young honey bees, impairing respiration and affecting their flight performance (Sarwar, 2016). According to local beekeepers, A. woodi is the single most destructive pest of A. cerana, frequently collapsing many colonies in recent years, particularly in northern areas of Pakistan. A. woodi was introduced into the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan in 1981 through imported honey bee colonies from Afghanistan (Khan et al., 1987).

Nosemosis is a serious and common disease of adult honey bee workers caused by intracellular microsporidian pathogens of the genus Nosema (Abban et al., 2024). Symptoms of nosemosis include dysentery (yellow or white spots in the hive), crawling or sick bees outside the hive, lower spring buildup, weak colonies, and K-wing or unhooked wings. There are two key globally distributed Nosema species: N. apis and N. ceranae. Nosema infection has been reported in approximately 25% of Pakistan’s honey bee colonies (Alam et al., 2025). Chalkbrood, a fungal disease caused by Ascosphaera apis, primarily infects brood larvae, transforming them into chalk-like mummified forms. The disease is aggravated by environmental factors such as high humidity, poor hive ventilation, and colony stress, all of which contribute to its proliferation (Genersch et al., 2010). Chalkbrood has been reported among the range of pathogenic threats to honey bee populations in Pakistan (Aziz and Alam, 2024). Bacterial brood diseases pose major challenges to bee colonies and health worldwide, with American foulbrood (AFB), caused by Paenibacillus larvae, and European foulbrood (EFB), caused by Melissococcus plutonius, being the most consequential. P. larvae produces resilient spores capable of surviving extreme conditions for decades in the hive environment. AFB is considered the most virulent brood disease, capable of quickly destroying bee colonies. Although not as virulent as AFB, M. plutonius still induces significant stress on honey bee colonies and is associated with seasonal outbreaks (Genersch et al., 2010). The prevalence of AFB and EFB has been reported in surveys conducted across major agricultural regions of Pakistan, including Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Anjum et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2025).

The greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella) is widely reported as a principal pest, posing a significant threat to apiculture globally, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. In Pakistan, G. mellonella infects A. cerana and A. mellifera colonies, with higher incidence in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab. Seasonal surveillance studies have demonstrated that the infestation rate peaks during the warmer, humid months, particularly in July and August (Sohail et al., 2017). Different studies have highlighted the need for strategic initiatives to mitigate the economic losses caused by G. mellonella. The lesser wax moth (Achroia grisella) is another serious pest and a major contributor to the degradation of wax comb, particularly in poorly managed hives (Sarwar, 2016). The small hive beetle (Aethina timida) is an emerging global threat, including in Pakistan, and has been shown to affect both the larval and adult stages of honey bees. It affects brood development and bee pollen, and it compromises the quality of honey in Pakistan.

Collectively, the evidence suggests that honey bee health in Pakistan is threatened by multiple interacting factors, including parasites, pathogens, environmental stressors, colony nutrition, and management practices. Seasonal migration of colonies further facilitates pathogen dissemination across geographically distant populations by increasing colony density at major nectar flows and promoting contact among colonies originating from multiple regions. Similar epidemiological patterns have been reported in numerous commercial beekeeping systems worldwide, emphasizing the importance of coordinated national surveillance programs and harmonized biosecurity measures. The limited use of molecular surveillance further constrains the early detection of emerging pathogens and the development of evidence-based management strategies, underlining the need for coordinated nationwide monitoring.

All these pests and pathogens pose significant threats to apicultural sustainability, highlighting the need for integrated management strategies focused on local ecological conditions and beekeeping practices. Recent advances in molecular diagnostic techniques have enabled comprehensive molecular investigations of viral pathogens in A. mellifera and A. cerana species in South Asia. High-throughput metagenomic sequencing of insect viruses has revealed an extensive viral community in honey bee populations in Pakistan and Bangladesh, indicating widespread viral infections (Kwon et al., 2024). Molecular surveillance studies using RT-PCR and next-generation sequencing have revealed the presence of various viral pathogens in A. mellifera colonies, including DWV, IAPV, and black queen cell virus (BQCV) (Nazir et al., 2023).

3.10 Management of honey bee diseases and pests

In Pakistan, beekeepers generally rely on traditional management practices, such as moving colonies to new areas and splitting hives to lower pest pressure, removing highly infested frames, and monitoring brood to optimize colony performance. Currently, Pakistan lacks a coordinated national surveillance system to monitor and quantify colony losses, infestation rates, and pesticide exposure. Conventional methods and control strategies are used without standardized frameworks. Chemical control and fluvalinate-based strips are commonly employed to manage V. destructor infestations in the country (Figure 5). Organic acids, such as oxalic acid and formic acid, have been shown to be highly effective in reducing Varroa mite loads at optimal dosages. Notably, formic acid exhibits superior efficacy as compared to oxalic acid, thymol, and other chemicals in suppressing Varroa infestations (Aziz et al., 2015; Qadir et al., 2021). The strategic use of soft and hard acaricides in rotation can prevent the development of resistance in mites and protect colony health (Rinkevich, 2020). Some Pakistan-based studies have also demonstrated that plant-derived extracts and oils, including tobacco extract and clove oil, have strong acaricidal properties against Varroa mites while exhibiting very low toxicity to honey bees (Mahmood et al., 2014; Anjum et al., 2015).

For Tropilaelaps clareae, many studies have reported that formic acid, thymol, and synthetic acaricides, such as fluvalinate and Apistan strips, significantly reduce mite infestations (Raffique et al., 2012; Islam et al., 2017; Alam et al., 2022). Based on these results, formic acid proved to be the most effective candidate among the tested products for controlling T. clareae. Complementing chemical interventions, botanical treatments have gained attention for their acaricidal properties and lower impact on honey quality. Locally available plant extracts represent promising alternatives to chemical acaricides, particularly in areas where access to synthetic treatments is limited (Genersch et al., 2010; Mahmood et al., 2014).

According to the literature and reports from many beekeepers, formic acid is highly effective in controlling both V. destructor and T. clareae, but its persistent use may promote resistance in mites. Queen caging to develop a broodless period, as described in a previous study (Gregorc et al., 2017), together with the application of a very low concentration of formic acid, is believed to be more effective and to reduce the risk of mite resistance development. Some of beekeepers also believe that fluvalinate-based strips are more effective than other chemical treatments. To treat nosemosis, beekeepers in Pakistan use antibiotics such as Fumidil-B (fumagillin dicyclohexylamine), which is considered the most effective treatment and is normally administered in sugar syrup during spring or autumn but is not easily available in local markets. Alternatively, they use Linezolid tablets and Tylopen and Tylosan injections, while some beekeepers replace the sheets and provide supplements or pollen in the feed. No standard protocol is available to beekeepers for controlling AFB and EFB; some use tetracycline or oxytetracycline antibiotics in powdered sugar, while others discard and burn infected brood frames. For chalkbrood, local beekeepers practice requeening, provide supplemental feed, and use acidification measures, such as adding protein supplements and lemon juice or vitamin C, which are considered gold-standard practices. To control wax moths, paradichlorobenzene (PDB), locally known as Pernail, is recognized as an effective treatment, while beekeepers also use aluminum phosphide tablets.

Overall, disease management in Pakistan lacks harmonized guidelines and relies predominantly on chemical control. Although several chemical, botanical, and cultural studies have demonstrated effectiveness under controlled conditions, their field-scale adoption is inconsistent due to a lack of standardized management protocols. Future field trials employing standardized experimental designs across multiple ecological regions are required before recommending large-scale implementation. Acaricides can effectively suppress mite populations in the short term; however, repeated and inappropriate application increases the risk of acaricide resistance, chemical residues in hive products, and unintended effects on colony health (Shafique et al., 2025). Sustainable control will depend on adopting integrated pest management practices, including regular colony monitoring, threshold-based treatment decisions, cultural management practices, brood interruption, hygienic queen selection, and improved colony nutrition, in combination with the judicious use of approved acaricides, molecular diagnostics, and beekeeper training.

3.11 Impacts of climate change on apiculture in Pakistan

Pakistan ranks among the most vulnerable countries to climate change in the form of extreme temperatures, irregular rainfall, prolonged droughts, and extreme weather events, which pose serious challenges to agricultural systems (World Bank Group, 2022). Such environmental pressures have direct and cascading impacts on apiculture. In semi-arid zones, summer temperatures rise above 40 °C, pushing A. mellifera colonies toward their physiological limits and decreasing foraging activity. Since 2022, there has been a 15% reduction in national honey production, attributed to extreme smog and climate-induced drought (Aljazeera, 2025; Saleem et al., 2025).

Phenological shifts induced by climate change affect crucial temporal alignment between flowering plants and pollinator activity (Le Conte and Navajas, 2008). These irregular shifts in blooming periods, especially for Ziziphus, Acacia, and citrus, disrupt the entire operational calendar of migratory beekeeping in Pakistan. In Balochistan and parts of Sindh, the honey season has been shortened, and the risk of colony starvation has risen due to reduced rainfall (Khan and Ghramh, 2023). Conversely, heavy rain and flooding damage floral resources and disrupt migration routes. Extreme heat events can impact pathogen dynamics by stressing colonies, reducing immune competence, and potentially accelerating the reproduction and transmission of pathogens (Le Conte and Navajas, 2008). Due to water scarcity in arid zones, colony hydration decreases, particularly during summer months when evapotranspiration is higher. The genetic inferences are also important; however, adaptive traits for heat and drought resilience in both A. mellifera and A. cerana remain uncharacterized (Saleem et al., 2025).

Climatic stress also interacts with nutritional deficiencies, parasite infestation, pesticide exposure, and habitat degradation to reduce colony resilience (Le Conte and Navajas, 2008; Goulson et al., 2015). Understanding these interactions remains a major research priority for developing climate-resilient beekeeping systems in Pakistan. Despite increasing recognition of climate-related risks, no long-term studies have quantified the effects of climatic variability on colony survival, honey production, pollination efficiency, or pathogen dynamics under Pakistani conditions. There is a need for coordinated nationwide monitoring programs integrating climatic, ecological, and epidemiological data.

There are major research gaps that remain: (1) long-term monitoring of colony productivity in relation to temperature and precipitation; (2) assessment of climate change strategies, including shade management, supplemental feeding regimes, and breeding for thermotolerance; (3) impacts of climate change on the geographic distribution of suitable apicultural zones; and (4) economic modeling of pollination service losses under climate scenarios. Addressing these gaps would help ensure apicultural policy is consistent with Pakistan’s overall climate adaptation and food security objectives.

3.12 Apicultural research in Pakistan

A systematic evaluation indicates that research on honey bees in Pakistan remains emergent, uneven, and fragmented. Although the number and frequency of studies have increased since 2000, thematic integration and methodological sophistication remain limited. Initial studies from the 1970s to the 1990s focused predominantly on the introduction, acclimatization, and basic management of A. mellifera, and on preliminary surveys of local bee flora. Despite being mostly observational and lacking genetic, epidemiological, and ecological depth, these initial studies were essential to the development of the apiculture industry in the country.

Although the ecological and pollination services provided by honey bees are recognized as critical to global agricultural productivity (Klein et al., 2007), comparable ecological evaluations have not been conducted within Pakistan’s agricultural ecosystems. Over recent decades, the majority of research conducted by national universities and research institutes has focused on methods to control V. destructor and Tropilaelaps mites (Raffique et al., 2012; Mahmood et al., 2014; Islam et al., 2017; Alam et al., 2022). Although these studies have provided some baseline information, they are repetitive and lack advanced-level molecular characterization and profiling of pathogen strains and do not resolve pathogen diversity, virulence patterns, and host–pathogen interactions under local conditions. The lack of systematic viral surveillance represents a critical blind spot, particularly given the well-established role of V. destructor as a vector of viral pathogens. Without molecular-level monitoring, the true burden and diversity of viral infections in Pakistan remain underestimated. Critically, the pathogenic landscape, including viral diversity such as DWV, remains incompletely characterized.

In recent years, few morphometric studies have been conducted to differentiate honey bee species and document regional differences (Mustafa et al., 2022). These studies provide useful taxonomic insights but are limited to small numbers of samples from selected areas and cannot resolve introgression dynamics. Genetic characterization using mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers represents an important step toward understanding population dynamics (Madella et al., 2020; Alburaki et al., 2022). Very few studies have examined genetic diversity using only a few markers, such as COI and ND5, and sampling has remained geographically restricted (Rizwan et al., 2018; Khan, 2021). Melissopalynological analyses have identified dominant pollen sources, and crop-level pollination studies confirmed productivity benefits and contributions to food systems (Potts et al., 2016).

Overall, the research trajectory reflects incremental development, but apicultural research in the country remains largely confined to descriptive paradigms. The majority of the available literature consists of short-term field observations, unevenly distributed across disciplines and geographical regions (Khan and Ghramh, 2023). Current understanding of honey bee diversity, pathogen distribution, pollination ecology, and climate adaptation remains geographically incomplete. Standardized methodologies and coordinated national datasets remain limited, making comparisons among studies difficult and restricting the development of evidence-based management recommendations. A nationally coordinated genomic baseline for both native and introduced honey bee populations using advanced genetic tools has yet to be developed. Systematic evaluations of viral diversity and the virulence of Nosema strains are limited, and the extent of acaricide resistance in Varroa mites (Rinkevich, 2020) has not been thoroughly investigated despite prolonged chemical exposure.

University involvement in apicultural research is an important aspect of beekeeping research that has not been properly developed in Pakistan. Currently, no Pakistani university offers a dedicated degree program in apicultural science. Research in beekeeping is conducted occasionally in departments of Zoology, Agriculture, or Entomology without long-term institutional support or proper funding. Among universities, the University of the Punjab is currently working on honey bee genetics, biodiversity, and pathogen ecology, while PMAS-Arid Agriculture University has developed expertise in honey bee management, disease diagnostics, Varroa mite control, and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies. The University of Agriculture Faisalabad has supported research on pollination biology, pesticide impacts, and crop–pollinator interactions, whereas Sindh Agriculture University has promoted beekeeping research and extension activities adapted to the agroecological conditions of southern Pakistan. Additional contributions from institutions such as The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, the University of Poonch Rawalakot, and several universities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have expanded understanding of pollinator diversity, floral resources, and honey bee health across diverse ecological regions. Collectively, these efforts have laid the foundation for a more coordinated national apiculture research agenda; however, significant gaps remain in molecular genetics, selective breeding, disease epidemiology, and long-term monitoring of native honey bee populations.

Capacity-building efforts are intermittent. The HBRI and Tarnab Farm, Peshawar, organize periodic training workshops for beekeepers, but these are not sufficient to meet national demand (Khan and Ghramh, 2023). There is no formal qualification or structured certification program for beekeeping extension specialists. Proposed capacity-building mechanisms include: (i) integrating beekeeping modules into agricultural extension curricula; (ii) developing beekeeping clubs in secondary schools and rural vocational education centers; (iii) targeted training workshops for women’s self-help groups, which have been identified as having underutilized potential for adding value to bee products; and (iv) competitive research grants for university-industry partnerships linking research with field management.

Pakistan has a rich history of apiculture, but despite the ecological and economic significance of honey bees, advanced research integrating molecular genetics with disease ecology remains underdeveloped. Existing studies are often geographically restricted and lack the analytical and methodological depth required to understand population structure, pathogen diversity, and resilience mechanisms (Rizwan et al., 2018; Khan, 2021). The presence of Varroa and Tropilaelaps mites, brood diseases, and Nosema infection in the country has been reported in many studies, but the majority of these studies are localized, descriptive, and not confirmed using advanced molecular techniques (Usman et al., 2022). Critical information is lacking regarding the correlations between genetic diversity and disease prevalence or potential resistance. Integrated multidisciplinary collaborations across molecular genetics, disease ecology, pollination biology, climate science, socioeconomic analysis, and precision apiculture are required to identify vulnerable populations, inform targeted breeding efforts, and effectively protect these important pollinators. Establishing a national honey bee monitoring network involving universities, government agencies, and commercial beekeepers would substantially improve surveillance of colony health, genetic diversity, emerging pathogens, and environmental change while facilitating the translation of scientific knowledge into practical management. Collaboration with international research programs would also facilitate technology transfer in molecular diagnostics, selective breeding, digital hive monitoring, remote sensing of forage resources, and artificial intelligence-assisted colony management. Such collaborative initiatives have accelerated apicultural research in several countries (Potts et al., 2016).

4 Discussion

This review demonstrates that the beekeeping sector in Pakistan has substantial ecological, biological, and socioeconomic potential for sustainable apiculture due to its diverse climatic zones, extensive floral resources, the coexistence of indigenous (A. cerana) and introduced (A. mellifera) species, and a long tradition of beekeeping. Despite this potential, the sector is scientifically underdeveloped within the national agricultural system. Honey bee pollination sustains the production of many crops and contributes millions of dollars annually to agricultural productivity (Klein et al., 2007; Saeed, 2022). However, the long-term resilience of the sector is increasingly constrained by interacting biological, environmental, institutional, and socioeconomic challenges. Rather than acting independently, these factors influence colony health through complex interacting mechanisms that require integrated management and coordinated research efforts (Potts et al., 2016). Genetic diversity represents a critical, though inadequately explored, component of honey bee resilience in Pakistan (Khan, 2021). Colonies with reduced genetic diversity exhibit lower resilience to environmental stressors, while nutritional stress can exacerbate susceptibility to pathogens and parasites (Oldroyd and Fewell, 2007; Goulson et al., 2015). Sustainable apiculture requires integrated approaches that simultaneously strengthen breeding programs, disease surveillance, forage conservation, and beekeeper education. Despite decades of queen importation, the absence of a national baseline genetic assessment of honey bee populations in Pakistan remains a critical limitation for beekeeping. Uncontrolled gene flow can erode locally adapted genotypes and interfere with coevolved host–parasite dynamics (Tan et al., 2021). Existing molecular studies provide preliminary insights but remain geographically restricted and insufficient to evaluate the impacts of queen importation, colony movement, or potential genetic introgression on locally adapted populations (Khan, 2021). This knowledge gap limits evidence-based breeding, conservation, and biosecurity programs. Healthy genetic diversity in bee populations contributes to improved disease resistance and social immune responses, such as hygiene and grooming behaviors that may limit pathogen transmission (Oldroyd and Fewell, 2007; Alburaki et al., 2022). Without genetic monitoring, breeding programs remain largely empirical, restricting predictable improvements in productivity and colony resilience. Research on the genetic diversity of honey bee populations in Pakistan remains very limited. For A. mellifera, very few studies using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and/or microsatellites have reported regional genetic structuring, but comprehensive studies across climatic regions are absent (Rizwan et al., 2018; Mustafa et al., 2022). A. cerana is even less studied; detailed genetic studies to identify different ecotypes or conservation units are lacking (Khan, 2021; Tan et al., 2021). No national-level baseline genetic database exists for either species. This lack hinders the conservation of unique local adaptations, including heat/drought tolerance and disease resilience, and the development of smart breeding programs. Additionally, it also acts as a barrier to monitoring of genetic erosion due to unregulated importation and understanding gene-disease interactions. Conservation of A. cerana and sustainable genetic management of A. mellifera are among the most important but under-researched areas in Pakistan.

Honey bee colonies in Pakistan are consistently threatened by parasites and pathogens, whose combined impacts are synergistic rather than merely additive (Potts et al., 2016; Rehman et al., 2018; Usman et al., 2022). V. destructor is a well-known and the most destructive ectoparasite worldwide; it harms bee health by feeding on fat bodies and transmitting a number of pathogenic viruses (Abban et al., 2024). The mite-virus consortium creates a pathological condition that negatively affects colony viability. Nosemosis, caused by N. ceranae and N. apis, further induces colony losses by impairing nutrient absorption, causing premature foraging, shortening worker lifespan, and disrupting apiary demographics (Paris et al., 2018). Coinfections involving Varroa-vectored viral infections and nosemosis pose synergistic impacts that induce physiological stress and weaken the immune system, making colonies far more vulnerable to the devastating effects of parasites and pathogens, emphasizing the importance of understanding pathogen interactions rather than treating them as isolated threats (Paris et al., 2018; Abban et al., 2024). Coinfections involving mites, viruses, microsporidia, and other pathogens can have synergistic effects and intensify colony-level stress, but these are poorly investigated under Pakistani conditions.

The emergence and spread of Tropilaelaps mites in Asian countries add another layer of urgency due to their rapid reproduction and capacity to cause severe colony collapse (Anderson and Morgan, 2007). Infestation levels in Pakistan are particularly high in spring, which reduces colony health and performance (Camphor et al., 2005; Camphor and Martin, 2009). Furthermore, brood diseases, including chalkbrood, AFB, and EFB, contribute significantly to colony weakness and morbidity (Khan et al., 2025). The lack of longitudinal data in Pakistan limits the precise estimation of associated impacts and pathogenic loads.

Climate change is a growing driver of pollinator decline, disrupts plant-pollinator phenology, and reduces the temporal alignment between flowering plants and pollinator activity (Le Conte and Navajas, 2008; Weerasinghe and Weerasinghe, 2025). Climatic conditions in Pakistan significantly impact bee distribution (Saleem et al., 2025), apicultural resilience, honey production (Aljazeera, 2025), and the physiological functions of honey bees. Extreme heat events further influence pathogen dynamics by inducing transmission and forcing energy allocation toward thermoregulation rather than growth and defense. Despite increasing recognition of these impacts, the effects of climate variability on honey bee populations in Pakistan, a climate-vulnerable region, remain poorly quantified.

The economic consequences of pollinator decline extend far beyond honey production. Crop-specific evaluation patterns show that insect pollination is intrinsically connected to agricultural value. Using dependency coefficients, a Latin American study estimated that crops valued at US$22.95 billion are dependent on pollinators (Basualdo et al., 2022); this framework may be applicable to Pakistan’s agricultural systems. Moreover, according to modeling studies, declines in pollinator populations can lead to reduced supplies of nutrient-rich foods, especially fruits and vegetables, which may increase the risk of mortality (Smith et al., 2015). Thus, pollinator health is closely linked to both food security and public health.

The control of pathogens and parasites in Pakistan is chemically oriented, with limited regard to ecological impacts. The application of synthetic chemicals such as amitraz and fluvalinate without prior monitoring of parasite pressure constitutes an unsustainable management practice. It is initially effective, but its frequent use leads to intense selection pressure for acaricide resistance. Indications of Varroa mite resistance to amitraz have already been reported in the USA (Rinkevich, 2020). Chemical residues accumulate in bee products; these toxic reservoirs can impair brood development and queen vitality for years. These management practices foster dependency and contamination of hive products, provide short-term solutions, and actively undermine long-term sustainability.

Similar challenges have been reported across many regions experiencing rapid expansion of commercial beekeeping. In response, several countries have strengthened honey bee health through coordinated surveillance programs, standardized disease diagnostics, selective breeding, integrated pest management, and pollinator conservation initiatives (Dietemann et al., 2013; Potts et al., 2016). These experiences demonstrate that sustainable improvements in colony health depend on coordinated governance, long-term monitoring, and evidence-based management rather than isolated interventions. Strengthening Pakistan’s beekeeping sector will require coordinated institutional action involving government agencies, universities, research institutes, extension services, and commercial beekeepers. International experience indicates that national colony registration systems, harmonized surveillance programs, certified queen breeding initiatives, and evidence-based extension services can substantially improve honey bee health and productivity (Potts et al., 2016). Adapting similar frameworks to Pakistan should be guided by local ecological and socioeconomic conditions.

Collectively, the interrelated pressures, including genetic uncertainty, prevalent diseases, climate stress, and institutional constraints, underscore the need for advanced, integrated national-level studies on beekeeping in Pakistan. The international apiculture system provides evidence that the development of a sustainable beekeeping sector depends on coordinated genomic monitoring, pathogen diagnostics, resistance surveillance, precision apiculture, remote sensing, digital hive monitoring, climate modeling, and breeding programs (Kocher et al., 2010; Jara et al., 2015). Systematic whole-genome sequencing, studies of genetic structure, long-term monitoring of pathogens, profiling of acaricide resistance, and climate-related productivity data are also limited in Pakistan. Addressing these gaps requires establishing systematic national genomic repositories, implementing routine molecular diagnostics to detect and quantify pathogens and screen for resistant alleles, and conducting spatially coordinated disease surveillance across the country. From a policy perspective, the importance of queen importation, mandatory disease surveillance systems, stronger extension services, and enhanced national-level governance need to be highlighted. Strategic investment in apicultural research is an essential component of agricultural resilience. As pollinators support the productivity of orchards, vegetable systems, and oilseed crops, protecting bee health through integrated, science-based management approaches will be vital for maintaining agricultural resilience and food security in Pakistan.

Considering the overall synthesis, the following key research questions are formulated to guide improvements in the apiculture sector and honey bee management in Pakistan:

5 Outstanding questions

5.1 Population genetics

How do the genetic diversity, population structure, and adaptive variation of Apis mellifera and Apis cerana differ across different agro-ecological regions of Pakistan, and how are these patterns influenced by queen importation, migratory beekeeping, and other anthropogenic pressures that may erode locally adapted populations?

5.2 Disease surveillance and colony health

How do pathogens, parasites, and their coinfections such as Varroa destructor, Tropilaelaps spp., Nosema spp., bacterial brood diseases, and associated viral complexes vary across ecological zones, and what integrated molecular surveillance and diagnostic frameworks are needed for early detection, long-term monitoring, and effective disease management?

5.3 Mechanisms for colony resilience

What genetic, behavioral, immunological, microbiome-associated, and environmental mechanisms determine the resilience or susceptibility of Apis mellifera and Apis cerana to pathogens, pesticides, climate variability, nutritional stress, and habitat fragmentation, and how can these insights be translated into sustainable breeding and management strategies?

5.4 Comparative agricultural contributions of the two species

What are the relative contributions of Apis mellifera and Apis cerana to crop pollination, ecosystem services, and rural livelihoods in Pakistan, and how do interspecific interactions, floral resource partitioning, swarming and absconding behavior, and environmental change influence their productivity, colony fitness, and suitability for sustainable apiculture?

5.5 Policy and institutional development

What coordinated national framework is required to strengthen Pakistan’s apiculture sector by integrating standardized beekeeping practices, genetic conservation, disease surveillance, research, extension services, and a centralized digital honey bee information platform to support evidence-based decision-making and long-term sustainability?

6 Conclusion

This review provides the first comprehensive synthesis integrating the biological, ecological, socioeconomic, institutional, and research dimensions of Pakistan’s beekeeping sector. Collectively, the available evidence demonstrates that despite considerable ecological and agricultural potential, beekeeping in Pakistan remains insufficiently supported by integrated scientific research. Although the country has diverse agro-ecological zones and suitable environmental conditions, the apiculture sector still faces several limitations. The majority of these constraints include habitat degradation, limited genetic characterization of honey bees, fragmented institutional coordination, insufficient long-term monitoring, continued reliance on empirical methods for pest management, comparatively low colony productivity, scattered research, fragmented data, and inadequate access to modern diagnostic infrastructure. These challenges reduce the robustness of managed pollinators under conditions of high pathogen pressure and environmental change. The review further highlights that published studies remain geographically restricted, methodologically heterogeneous, and focused on individual topics rather than integrated assessments of colony health. Future research should therefore prioritize nationwide monitoring of honey bee genetic diversity, pathogen epidemiology, pollination services, climate resilience, and socioeconomic impacts using standardized methodologies and multidisciplinary collaborations. Emphasis should be placed on conserving indigenous and locally adapted honey bee genetic resources, strengthening conservation-based queen breeding programs, expanding molecular diagnostic capacity, and developing coordinated national surveillance systems. The development of contemporary laboratory facilities, promoting international scientific collaboration, and focusing on integrated genomics and disease ecology research will support scientific and evidence-based management and governance policies. Institutionalization of beekeeping, regulation of queen imports, and development of a centralized national digital platform to improve data consistency are much-needed steps in Pakistan. Collaboration among researchers, policymakers, extension services, and the beekeeping community is vital for implementing improved management strategies. Integrating scientific innovation with evidence-based policy, modern apicultural management, and traditional ecological knowledge will improve honey bee health, agricultural productivity, biodiversity conservation, and rural livelihoods and will create export and economic opportunities in the expanding international market for hive products. Such coordinated efforts will enhance the resilience and long-term sustainability of apiculture while reinforcing its contribution to national food security and ecosystem services. Pollinator-friendly pesticide legislation and the protection of diverse flowering resources across agricultural landscapes may help sustain healthy and resilient pollinator communities.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. ChatGPT, Core Model (OpenAI; https://chatgpt.com/) was used to assist with editing, drafting, revising, and improving the language, clarity, grammar, and overall readability of selected sections of the manuscript. All scientific content, literature interpretation, critical analysis, fact-checking, and final decisions were performed and verified by the authors, who take full responsibility for the accuracy and integrity of the manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Footnotes

Edited by: Miguel Corona, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), United States

Reviewed by: Rahla Meziane, BATNA 1, Algeria

Jesús Humberto Reyna-Fuentes, Technological University of the Bicentennial of Mar de Tamaulipas, Mexico