Editorial: Global human-snake conflicts and ethno-ophidiology—bridging human health, biodiversity conservation, and cultural understanding

Human-snake interactions are among the most complex relationships between humans and wildlife. Throughout human history, snakes have occupied multiple and often contradictory roles: they are feared as sources of venomous bites, respected as ecological regulators, revered in religious and cultural traditions, utilized in traditional medicine and food systems, and increasingly recognized as important components of biodiversity conservation (Pandey, 2023). These multifaceted interactions have generated a broad spectrum of outcomes, ranging from coexistence (Malhotra et al., 2021) and cultural appreciation to conflict, persecution, injury, and death (Pandey et al., 2016, 2020; Pandey, 2023; Pandey et al., 2023; Baleela et al., 2026; Visvanathan et al., 2026). The Research Topic “Global Human-Snake Conflicts and Ethno-Ophidiology” was established to provide a platform for interdisciplinary studies, explore the diversity of interactions between humans and snakes worldwide, identify drivers of conflict and coexistence, document cultural perceptions and practices, examine mechanisms of snakebite prevention and mitigation, and promote evidence-based approaches that simultaneously advance human well-being and snake conservation. The collection under this Research Topic reflects the broad spectrum of contemporary human-snake research worldwide. However, one of the central themes emerging is the continuing global burden of snakebite and the need for innovative prevention strategies.

Among the 10 manuscripts received for this Research Topic, seven articles were accepted for publication, yielding a 70% acceptance rate. The rest of 30% articles were rejected. The published articles were contributed by a total of 27 authors involving in 21 institutions across eight countries (Nepal, India, Zambia, Namibia, Taiwan, Germany, United States, and the United Kingdom) spanning four continents (Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). These contributions comprised five article types: 3 Original Research Articles, 1 Review, 1 Perspective, 1 Brief Research Report, and 1 Technology and Code. These articles address issues ranging from snakebite epidemiology, snakebite prevention, human-snake conflict, conservation, urban ecology, public outreach, impacts on domestic animals, ethno-ophidiology, to an emerging communication technology for public engagement.

These authors demonstrated that snake-related challenges transcend geographical, cultural, and disciplinary boundaries. Singh et al. examined community-targeted snakebite prevention in rural Zambia. Drawing upon grassroots experiences, the authors discuss practical barriers and enabling factors that influence the success of educational and prevention initiatives in resource-limited settings. Their contribution highlights the importance of locally tailored interventions, community participation, and improved healthcare accessibility. The article emphasizes that snakebite prevention must be embedded within broader social and health systems rather than treated as an isolated public health activity. Similarly, Chandrasekharuni et al. provided a narrative review of efforts undertaken by the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust addressing snakebite mitigation in India. They demonstrate how long-term institutional commitment, community engagement, education, research, and advocacy can contribute to reducing the snakebite burden in the world’s most snakebite-affected countries. Their review and documentation of practical experiences from the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust offer valuable lessons for organizations and policymakers working in similar contexts. Another contribution by Damm et al. expands our understanding of snakebite epidemiology beyond traditionally recognized medically important species, specifically the Western Hognose Snake (Heterodon nasicus). Although this species is generally not considered among the world’s major medically important snakes, the study demonstrates that clinically relevant envenoming can occur under specific circumstances due to lesser-known medically relevant snakes. Such findings emphasize the need for improved reporting, documentation, and awareness regarding snakebite risks due to inadequately described or minor medically significant snakes.

Urbanization and land-use change are increasingly important drivers of human-snake conflict worldwide, resulting in snakebites and the unnecessary and unregulated, and often illegal killing of snakes. Mao et al. investigated the effects of urbanization on conflicts involving the Protobothrops mucrosquamatus in northeastern Taiwan. By examining conflict patterns, environmental characteristics, and outcomes of removal operations, the authors provided important insights into how urban ecology can contribute to conflict mitigation in human-dominated landscapes. Their findings underscore the importance of evidence-based management approaches that balance public safety concerns with animal welfare and conservation objectives. Next, the related dimension of conflict was explored through the impacts of snakebite envenoming on domestic animals in Goa, India by Attre et al. They highlight the economic and emotional consequences experienced by livestock owners and pet keepers. Frequent losses of domestic animals influence public attitudes toward snakes and can intensify retaliatory killing of snakes.

Effective conflict mitigation depends fundamentally upon understanding snake ecology and behavior. In this aspect, Pandey and Piya contributed a study examining the gut contents of the medically important Wall’s Krait (Bungarus walli). Although focused on natural history, this research carries direct implications for both conservation and snakebite prevention. Since the ecological knowledge forms a foundation for pragmatic strategies for biodiversity conservation and prevention of human-wildlife conflicts and associated consequences, the understanding where snakes occur, what they eat, how they respond to environmental change, and why they enter human settlements can help to develop highly effective and pragmatic prevention and conservation strategies. A persistent challenge in snake conservation is overcoming fear, misinformation, and negative public attitudes (Pandey et al., 2016, 2020; Goldstein et al., 2021; Pandey, 2023; Pandey et al., 2023; Allison et al., 2024; Pyne et al., 2024). Historically, many conservation initiatives have struggled to engage the public because snakes are often perceived differently from more charismatic wildlife (Pandey, 2023). Addressing this challenge, Bachhuber et al. described the use of livestreaming technology to connect the public with secretive and frequently misunderstood snakes innovatively. They demonstrated how modern communication technologies can broaden access to wildlife experiences, improve public understanding, and foster appreciation for snake species that are often feared or persecuted. In this digital era, the use of livestreaming technology can be a promising tool for conservation education and public engagement.

The concept of ethno-ophidiology acknowledges the diverse cultural, religious, symbolic, economic, and traditional dimensions of human relationships with snakes (Joshi and Joshi, 2010; García-López et al., 2017; da Costa et al., 2021; Pandey et al., 2023; Muniz et al., 2026). Authors explicitly address the social and cultural contexts that shape conflict and coexistence. Community outreach programs, public perception, local knowledge systems, attitudes toward venomous species, and responses to snake encounters all reflect cultural frameworks through which people interpret snakes and snakebite. By integrating these perspectives, the Research Topic advances a more holistic understanding of human-snake interactions. Such integration is essential because successful intervention rarely depends on biological knowledge alone. Rather, they require an appreciation of how communities perceive risk, value biodiversity, and engage with local traditions and belief systems.

Overall, bringing together a collection of studies from multiple countries and disciplines highlights both the complexity and the global relevance of human-snake interactions and demonstrates these interactions encompassing ecological processes, cultural traditions, conservation challenges, public health concerns, technological innovations, and questions of coexistence including snakebite issues. All these multifaceted issues require multiple approaches for the implementation of mitigation and coexistence strategies. Hence, this research topic is a substantial contribution, serving as a useful reference for researchers, conservation practitioners, public health professionals, educators, and policymakers working on snakebite mitigation and human-snake coexistence worldwide. These studies reinforce the principle that sustainable solutions require both scientific understanding and meaningful engagement with the social dimensions of human-snake relationships. Future research should expand geographical representation, strengthen documentation of traditional ecological knowledge, evaluate intervention effectiveness, investigate socioeconomic drivers of conflict, and explore the impacts of climate change and urbanization on human-snake interactions.

As Topic Editors, we extend our sincere gratitude to all authors, reviewers, and editorial staff whose efforts made this Research Topic possible. We trust that the insights presented in these articles will inform future research, strengthen conservation and public health initiatives, and encourage a co-existence between humans and snakes.

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Footnotes

Edited and reviewed by: Jacob Kerby, University of South Dakota, United States