Bio-nanocomposite edible coatings: a sustainable strategy for postharvest preservation of fresh produce

1 Introduction

Fruits and vegetables constitute an essential part of the human diet primarily due to their rich composition of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, polyphenols, carotenoids, and flavonoids, vitamins, minerals and fibers (Alam et al., 2025). These compounds help reduce the risk of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders (Dulta et al., 2022). However, fresh produce are extremely perishable, with high metabolic rate, leading to short shelf life of about one to 5 weeks when stored under optimum conditions (Moradinezhad et al., 2025). The postharvest storage life of especially climacteric fruits such as avocado (Persea americana, Mill.), mango (Mangifera indica L.), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is restricted by the climacteric ripening pattern which exhibits high ethylene accumulation, promoting faster ripening as result of the high respiration rate (Alam et al., 2025). Most fresh fruit and vegetables contain 80%–90% moisture content at their optimum quality status and are also considered to have a high postharvest mass loss, mostly due to moisture loss through transpiration, which contributes about 90% of the total mass loss (Ballesteros et al., 2022; Khan et al., 2023). Moisture loss is known for accelerating susceptibility of fresh produce to postharvest physiological disorders and pathogens (Li et al., 2024). Different approaches including modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) to maintain appropriate gas; nitrogen (N₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and oxygen (O₂) concentration within the package to inhibit spoilage, suppress microbial growth, and slow down oxidative deterioration, chemical treatments such as calcium dips and low temperature storage and gamma irradiation have been investigated to reduce the detrimental changes such as microbial growth, desiccation and discoloration (Alam et al., 2025; Moradinezhad et al., 2025). Although these techniques are effective in maintaining the postharvest quality and prolonging the shelf life of fresh produce, they are associated with the negative effect on the environment especially MAP and fungicides (Hesami et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2023). They cause environmental pollution by persisting in soil and water and disrupting microbial communities (Hesami et al., 2021). Fungicides enter ecosystems via spray drift, agricultural runoff, and leaching, often causing acute or chronic toxicity to aquatic life (Moradinezhad et al., 2025). Fungicide’s residues accumulate in air, soil, and water, threatening biodiversity and ecosystems (Hesami et al., 2021). Furthermore, consumer preference for unwaxed fruit also coincided with recent trends towards organically produced fruit and vegetables. Thus, edible coatings (EC) are an environmentally friendly alternative for preserving the postharvest quality of fresh produce.

Edible coatings, also called “environment friendly” coatings, are thin, consumable layers applied directly on the surface of fresh produce to reduce water transfer, gaseous exchange (CO₂ and O₂) and oxidation processes (Khan et al., 2023) (Figure 1). The composition of EC can be classified into different groups, namely, hydrocolloids, lipids, proteins, polysaccharides and composite material (Alam et al., 2025). Another distinguished characteristic of EC are their high latent ability to be used as carriers of postharvest active ingredients such as colorants, antimicrobial compounds, spices, nutrients, flavors, and anti-browning agents that can reduce the risk of pathogens and prolong produce postharvest life (Benbettaïeb et al., 2019). Among polysaccharides EC, chitosan (CS) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) have dominated the food industry due to their strong antimicrobial, antifungal and antioxidant properties, improved moisture retention and mechanical strength, and effective gas barrier properties, effectively inhibiting microbial growth and extending shelf life of fresh produce (Moradinezhad et al., 2025). A study by Hesami et al. (2021) showed that CS (1%) effectively reduced weight loss, firmness loss and decay, maintained total soluble solid (TSS), titratable acidity (TA) and ascorbic acid of Ber fruit (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) stored at 5 °C and 25 °C for 28 days compared to control. Another study by Ballesteros et al. (2022) demonstrated that CMC (1.5%) based coating effectively reduced weight loss and gas transfer rates (O₂, CO₂, and C₂H₄), microbial growth and improved phenolic compounds and antioxidants of goldenberries (Physalis peruviana L.) stored at 20 °C and 4 °C for 12 and 30 days, respectively compared to control. Although CS and CMC coatings are effective in delaying ripening and extending shelf life of fresh produce, their use as a monolayer presents several limitations due to their inherent hydrophilic nature, which results in poor water vapor barrier properties, low mechanical strength, and potential instability on the produce surface (Sharma et al., 2025). This leads to inadequate and inconsistency effectiveness of CS and CMC across diffident verities of fresh produce to improve postharvest quality. Thus, incorporation of nanoparticles (NPs) into CS and CMC matrix improves mechanical strength, thermal stability, and antibacterial properties, making EC effective for improving postharvest quality and storability of various fresh produce under different storage conditions.

The EC utilizes organic nanomaterials (NMs) such as nanocellulose (CNFs) and nano-liposomes and inorganic NMs (metal and metal oxides) including titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and nanoclay to form nanocomposite coatings (Sharma et al., 2025). Nanoparticles (1–100 nm) are increasingly incorporated in EC due to several advantages such as tasteless, nontoxic, biodegradability, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, improved mechanical strength and barrier properties due to their large surface area, thus enhancing preservation performance of EC (Sharma et al., 2025). However, the use of NPs in EC has some drawbacks primarily due to consumer acceptance, safety concerns, and regulatory challenges (Dulta et al., 2022). Hence, bio-nanocomposite edible coating (BNEC) represents a promising innovation in food preservation, addressing both sustainability and food safety concerns (Li et al., 2024). The BNEC are primarily made from renewable natural biomaterials such as polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins, combined with NMs to enhance their properties, including better encapsulation of bioactive agents and improved food preservation (de Oliveira Filho et al., 2022; Li et al., 2024). Although they are effective in preserving the postharvest quality of fresh produce, challenges remain in standardizing their production and ensuring consistent performance across different varieties of fresh produce.

2 The application of bio-nanocomposite coatings for the preservation of fresh produce

2.1 Biopolymer matrices and nanotechnology used in edible coatings

The effectiveness of EC is largely determined by the chemical composition of the biopolymer matrix and is further enhanced by the incorporation of nanoscale reinforcements (Abdallah et al., 2020). Polysaccharide-based matrices are among the most extensively applied due to their excellent gas barrier properties, biocompatibility, and widespread availability. Chitosan, a deacetylated derivative of chitin, is particularly valued for its inherent antimicrobial activity and film-forming capacity (Basumatary et al., 2022), which collectively retard fruit respiration and delay spoilage (Romanazzi and Moumni, 2022). Alginate, extracted from brown seaweed, forms robust, transparent films in the presence of divalent cations such as calcium, effectively minimizing weight loss in fresh-cut produce by providing an efficient moisture barrier (Ballesteros et al., 2022). Additionally, cellulose derivatives including CMC and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) are employed to enhance mechanical strength and adhesion, thereby improving film performance (Figure 2) (Ballesteros et al., 2022).

Protein-based coatings, sourced from gelatin, whey, or soy proteins, offer superior mechanical properties and act as effective O₂ barriers. However, their hydrophilic nature renders them prone to swelling and structural degradation under high-humidity conditions (Basumatary et al., 2022). To overcome these limitations, current research focuses on cross-linking strategies and the development of composite systems that combine proteins or polysaccharides with lipids (e.g., waxes, fatty acids) to form emulsion-based coatings. These hybrid systems achieve a balance between structural robustness and hydrophobicity, providing both mechanical integrity and moisture resistance (Figure 2) (Li et al., 2024).

The integration of nanotechnology represents a transformative advance in edible coating design. Nanomaterials address inherent biopolymer limitations, such as low mechanical strength and high water sensitivity (Wang et al., 2025). Incorporation of CNFs or nanoclay within the polymer matrix creates a tortuous diffusion pathway, significantly reducing gas permeability and effectively prolonging shelf life of fresh produce (Nasra et al., 2025). Moreover, nano-emulsified delivery of essential oils or bioactive compounds enhances antimicrobial efficacy by increasing surface-area-to-volume ratios, enabling potent activity at lower concentrations compared to conventional approaches (Wang et al., 2025). Nanotechnology also imparts active functionalities beyond mechanical enhancement. The inclusion of nanometallic oxides, such as ZnO or TiO₂, introduces ultraviolet shielding and photocatalytic antimicrobial properties, mitigating lipid oxidation and microbial spoilage (Bizymis and Tzia, 2022). Collectively, these innovations facilitate a more sustainable food supply chain by reducing reliance on non-biodegradable plastics and curbing post-harvest losses, thereby promoting food safety and quality (Figure 2).

2.2 Types of nanomaterials in bio-nanocomposite coatings

Nanomaterials such as cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), graphene, nanoclay, nano-silica and TiO₂, carbon-based and bio-based NMs play a crucial role in enhancing the properties of BNEC which are used for various applications, including corrosion protection, wear resistance, and antimicrobial activity (Bizymis and Tzia, 2022). These coatings incorporate different types of NMs, each contributing unique properties that improve the overall performance of the coatings (Dulta et al., 2022). The integration of these NMs into polymer matrices results in coatings with superior mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties (Ravi et al., 2024). The CNCs are bio-based NMs with high thermal stability and mechanical strength. They form an exceptional cross-linked network in polymer matrices, enhancing the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of coatings (Randis et al., 2023). Graphene is a two-dimensional carbon material known for its high aspect ratio and superior mechanical properties, thus enhances the impenetrability of coatings, providing excellent barrier properties against corrosion and surface faults (Idumah, 2021). Nanoclay has a layered structure that enhances the mechanical and physical properties of coatings. It contributes to the anti-microbial attributes and enhances the durability of the coatings (Idumah, 2021). Nano-silica and TiO₂ are utilized for their ability to improve the surface hardness and wear resistance of coatings. They also contribute to the coatings' anti-corrosion properties by forming a protective barrier (Saleh, 2025). Furthermore, carbon-based and bio-based NMs are effective in enhancing the barrier properties of organic coatings, providing long-lasting corrosion protection (Ravi et al., 2024). Moreover, metal oxide NPs such as ZnO, TiO₂, Ag and MgO, nano-clays and layered silicates, biopolymer-based and green-synthesized NPs, have been reported to exhibit strong antibacterial activities against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria (Mayakrishnan et al., 2025; Sasikala et al., 2024). Sganzerla et al. (2023) has also found that AgNPs bioreduced with the essential oil of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) exhibiting antimicrobial activity against eight microorganisms, i.e., Staphylococcus epidermidis, Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella flexneri, and Enterococcus faecalis. The integration of ZnO NPs in the biopolymer matrix was found to enhance the elasticity, perforation resistance, durability, temperature stability and antibacterial properties of the nanocomposites (Karuppan Perumal et al., 2025). Similarly, Radulescu et al. (2025) showed that the addition of MgO-based NMs enhanced the matrix’s mechanical qualities, thermal and aqueous stability, and moisture absorption and aqueous stability in cherries (Prunus avium L.). Despite the potential of the aforementioned nanomaterials in bio-nanocomposite coating, their constituents may migrate from the nanocomposite into the food. Moreover, optimization with different antioxidant and NPs combinations should be explored for further enhancement of antimicrobial activities. In contrast, their toxicity aspect should also be scrutinized to ensure comprehensive risk assessment and human health safety (Figure 2).

2.3 Mechanisms of action in postharvest preservation

Postharvest losses are caused by physiological factors such as high respiration, transpiration (wilting or moisture loss), mechanical damage (bruising), decay or molds and pathogens (Li et al., 2024). Microbial growth and oxidative deterioration are two primary causes of quality deterioration and short shelf life of fresh produce (Khan et al., 2023). The BNEC have emerged as effective solutions for postharvest preservation, particularly through their antimicrobial and anti-fungal properties, thus their ability to inhibit fungal growth and extend shelf life of fruits and vegetables (Peña-Ortiz et al., 2025). The most common effective application methods of BNEC include dipping, spraying and brushing (Figure 2) (Senthilkumar et al., 2026). A study by Li et al. (2024) showed that CS + CNCs (20%) enriched with carvacrol extracted from oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) effectively inhibited the growth of E. coli and S. aureus by 57.13% and 62.18%, respectively compared to uncoated mango and banana (Musa acuminata Colla) fruit (Table 1). This could be attributed to the excellent antibacterial properties of nanocomposite coating due to the incorporation of carvacrol. Also, the antimicrobial activity of the coating reduces soft rotting of fresh fruits, improves the safety of consumption by diminishing microorganism spoilage, indicating great potential in fruits preservation materials to prolong the shelf-life of fresh produce (Sharma et al., 2025). Furthermore, CS exhibits inherent antimicrobial properties and when combined with NPs enhance the antifungal activity of the nanocomposite coating (Abdalbeygi et al., 2022). Another study by de Oliveira Filho et al. (2022) showed that BNEC developed using arrowroot starch (Maranta arundinacea L.) (0.1%), CNC (2%), carnauba wax nanoemulsion (CWN) (15%), lemon grass (Cymbopogon martini Roxb.) (0.2%) and spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) (0.3%) essential oils (CEO and MEO, respectively) exhibited antimicrobial activity, reduced visible fungal deterioration (40%–60%), and microbial load (3.59–4.03 log CFU g^-1 for mesophilic aerobic bacteria and 4.45–5.22 log CFU g^-1 for fungi and yeast) in strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) during 12 days of storage at 7 °C ± 1 °C and 70%–75% RH compared to control (Table 1). This could be due to the antimicrobial capacity of BNEC, attributed to the excellent antimicrobial capacities of MEO and CEO. Bio-nanocomposite coatings exhibit significant barrier properties against moisture, oxygen, and ethylene, thus reducing water loss, respiration, and ripening rates (Begum et al., 2022; de Oliveira Filho et al., 2022). Dulta et al. (2022) reported that oranges (Citrus × sinensis L.) coated with CS (0.5%)+ZnO-Np (0.50 g/L) had the least weight loss, firmness loss, respiration rate, polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activity and microbial development and improved antioxidant activity during 20 days of storage at 4 °C ± 1 °C compared to control. Another study by Peña-Ortiz et al. (2025) showed that CMC + bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) composites (obtained by culturing Ancylobacter sp. strain STN1A) (7.5%) effectively reduced weight variation, restricted microbial growth, achieving significant reductions of up to 27.75% in bacterial content while also decreasing yeast and fungal counts and improved the overall visual appearance of the treated tomato fruits during 26 days of storage at room temperature compared to control (Figure 2; Table 1).

TABLE 1. The effect bio-nanocomposite edible coatings on postharvest quality of fresh produce.

CNCs, cellulose nanocrystals; CS, or CH, chitosan; CWN, carnauba wax nanoemulsion; AA, arrowroot starch; CEO, Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) essential oil; MEO, Mentha spicata (L.) essential oil; SA, sodium alginate; ZnO, zinc oxide; NP, nanoparticle; BNC, bacterial nanocellulose; CMC, carboxymethyl cellulose; TiO_2, titanium dioxide AG, arabic gum; CuO, copper oxide; Se, selenium; BCEO, black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) essential oil.

3 Safety, toxicological, and regulatory considerations

The migration and bioavailability of NPs in BNEC are crucial considerations for food safety and regulatory compliance (Ajdary et al., 2021). These coatings, often incorporating NPs such as ZnO, Ag and Copper (II) oxide (CuO), are effective in enhancing antimicrobial properties and shelf life of fresh produce (Basumatary et al., 2022). The potential migration of NPs from the coating into produce and their subsequent bioavailability are critical safety concerns, e.g., consumer exposure and health risks, with research indicating that while migration generally stays below safety thresholds, it is highly dependent on several factors such as NPs size, environmental conditions, produce surface degradation and coating characteristics (Ajdary et al., 2021; Xuan et al., 2023). Acidic environments such citrus fruit juices and increased temperature or time significantly increase the migration rate of metal NPs from the coating into the fresh produce (Xuan et al., 2023). The NPs at cutting edges or on the surface of the coating are more easily released due to weak binding whereas higher concentrations of nanofillers in the composite often lead to higher migration, though complete encapsulation within a stable matrix can prevent migration (Divya et al., 2018). The Ag NPs, commonly used for their antimicrobial properties, can migrate from coatings into produce, although studies show that migration levels are often within regulatory limits (Ding et al., 2024; Li et al., 2024).

The toxicological impact of NPs is a significant concern, with potential effects including cytotoxicity and genetic toxicity (Xuan et al., 2023). Smaller particles (10 nm) are generally more cytotoxic than larger ones (50 nm) (Ding et al., 2024; Malhotra et al., 2020). Nanoparticles can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact, potentially causing cellular damage and chronic diseases (Malhotra et al., 2020). The Ag-NPs has been reported to potentially cause cytotoxicity and alter gut microbiota whereas ZnO-NPs are known to cause hepatic injury, kidney toxicity, and lung damage (Ajdary et al., 2021). Therefore, there is a need for more research to explore and understand the long-term exposure risks and the mechanisms of nanoparticle toxicity.

Regulatory frameworks for nanocomposite EC are evolving to address the safety, migration, and toxicological challenges posed by NMs, with major oversight primarily provided by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), U.S. Food, Drug Administration (FDA) and World Health Organization (WHO) (Malhotra et al., 2020; Xuan et al., 2023). These frameworks usually require pre-market approval, strict migration testing, and specific labeling to ensure consumer safety (Xuan et al., 2023). For instance, EFSA Guidelines (2021) requires comprehensive characterization of NMs (size, distribution and solubility) and risk assessment of their potential to migrate, with stricter rules for particles that do not dissolve rapidly (Committee et al., 2021). The FDA requires manufacturers to provide data on the migration of NPs from coatings into food, assessing potential exposure risks (Xuan et al., 2023). For instance, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act which was established in 1938 and modified frequently and extensively, with major updates occurring as recently as 2022–2025, evaluates migration into food, toxicity and exposure levels of NPs, emphasizing that migration levels should remain below established safety thresholds (Ding et al., 2024; Kwiecinski and Yuan, 2026). The migration level of NPs and nanocomposite coatings into food or food simulants is generally considered very low within the range of 0.01–5 μg/dm² (Abdulraheem et al., 2025; Xuan et al., 2023). Although previous studies demonstrate that the toxicity of NMs or migration levels of NMs are low, the FDA encourages transparency and consumer information regarding the use of NPs in food products (Kwiecinski and Yuan, 2026; Xuan et al., 2023). Moreover, while the food safety and public health authority’s regulatory framework aims to ensure safety, they may not fully address the rapid advancements in nanotechnology, potentially leading to gaps in consumer protection. This highlights the need for continuous updates to regulatory practices to keep pace with innovation. Hence, ongoing research and regulatory oversight are essential to ensure consumer safety and address the gaps in understanding the long-term effects of NPs exposure.

4 Challenges and limitations of bio-nanocomposite edible coatings

The integration of nanotechnology into biopolymer matrices represents a transformative approach to food preservation, yet several systemic challenges impede the widespread commercial adoption of bio-nanocomposite coatings. To position these materials as viable alternatives to conventional packaging, critical issues related to economic feasibility, physicochemical stability, and nano-bio interactions must be addressed (Abdallah et al., 2020).

4.1 Economic viability and industrial scalability

A primary obstacle is the high cost of production relative to conventional synthetic packaging. Biopolymers such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids often require purification and modification steps that increase processing expenses while the synthesis, functionalization, and incorporation of NPs including CNCs and metallic oxides demand sophisticated instrumentation and substantial energy input (Bizymis and Tzia, 2022). Scaling laboratory-based methods, such as solution casting, to industrial-scale processes like extrusion or spray coating remains technically challenging (Li et al., 2024). In addition, the need for specialized equipment, skilled labor, and compliance with stringent food safety regulations further elevates financial barriers (Bizymis and Tzia, 2022). Achieving uniform NP dispersion at high throughput is particularly problematic; aggregation of NMs compromises the mechanical reinforcement and barrier properties of the composite, undermining its functional advantages (Bizymis and Tzia, 2022).

4.2 Stability and physicochemical interactions

Long-term stability of bio-nanocomposites is dictated by the interactions between the polymer matrix and embedded NPs. Phase separation can occur under variable environmental conditions, such as high humidity or temperature fluctuations (de Oliveira Filho et al., 2022). Hydrophilic biopolymers, including gelatin and whey protein, are prone to swelling upon moisture exposure, which disrupts the tortuous diffusion paths formed by NPs and diminishes barrier performance (Basumatary et al., 2022). The migration of NPs from the coating into food products raises safety concerns and regulatory challenges, as it can affect food quality and consumer health (de Oliveira Filho et al., 2022). Moreover, chemical compatibility between filler and matrix is critical; without surface modification or appropriate cross-linking, NPs may fail to integrate effectively, resulting in brittle films susceptible to delamination (Benbettaïeb et al., 2016).

4.3 Regulatory constraints

The absence of a universally accepted legal definition for engineered NMs (ENMs) complicates regulatory processes. This lack of clarity can lead to inconsistencies in how regulations are applied across different jurisdictions (Qu et al., 2025). Regulatory bodies in the EU, USA, and other regions are working to establish clear definitions to ensure consistent application of laws (Kwiecinski and Yuan, 2026). Detecting and characterizing NMs in food products is technically challenging, which complicates regulatory compliance and enforcement (Abdulraheem et al., 2025). Advanced techniques are required to accurately measure and characterize ENMs, which are not yet standardized across the industry (Kwiecinski and Yuan, 2026). Longitudinal toxicological data on chronic ingestion of NMs such as Ag and zinc ZnO remain limited (Gökmen et al., 2024; Qu et al., 2025). Regulatory frameworks for food-contact materials are stringent, and many bio-nanocomposites currently lack standardized migration testing protocols necessary for legal approval (Li et al., 2024). The combination of technical challenges in monitoring NP translocation and regulatory uncertainty represents a major bottleneck for commercialization.

4.4 Sensory and functional trade-offs

The incorporation of bioactive compounds and NMs can alter the taste and texture of food products. For instance, the use of essential oils and organic acids, while providing antimicrobial properties, may impart undesirable flavors or aromas to the food (Bizymis and Tzia, 2022; Khan et al., 2023). Edible coatings can affect the visual appeal of food products (Peña-Ortiz et al., 2025). The application method and the type of materials used can lead to uneven coatings or changes in color, which may not be acceptable to consumers (Dulta et al., 2022; Peña-Ortiz et al., 2025). Moreover, High NP concentrations or nano-emulsified bioactive compounds may impart off-flavours, alter colour, or reduce transparency in fruits and vegetables (Bizymis and Tzia, 2022). Balancing functional performance for shelf-life extension with the preservation of sensory properties remains a key challenge for researchers and food technologists (Basumatary et al., 2022; Yousuf et al., 2018). Addressing these multidimensional challenges economic, physicochemical, safety, and sensory is essential for advancing nanotechnology-enabled biopolymer coatings from laboratory innovation to scalable, market-ready solutions.

5 Future prospects and research directions

Bio-nanocomposite edible coatings are an innovative, sustainable, and smart food packaging technique derived from biopolymers and enhanced with NMs to create a protective, thin-layer barrier (<5 nm) applied directly on the surface of fresh produce (de Oliveira Filho et al., 2022). These coatings are “smart” because they offer active functionality, such as improved mechanical, barrier, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, and “responsive” to environmental changes including pH and temperature, or humidity, making them suitable for food preservation (Bratovcic, 2021; Li et al., 2024). They are increasingly integrated with natural bioactive compounds such as antioxidants (e.g., curcumin and clove oil) and antimicrobials (e.g., honey and essential oils) to form a dense, protective, and edible layer, thus enhancing fresh produce preservation, nutritional value and safety (Basumatary et al., 2022). In addition, nanoemulsions of essential oils exhibit strong antibacterial and antioxidant properties, inhibiting pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Botrytis cinerea, thus reducing spoilage of produce and providing health benefits (Bratovcic, 2021). Nanoemulsions facilitate the gradual release of bioactive compounds, enhancing their effectiveness over time, delaying oxidative damage, preserving nutritional attributes such as vitamin C and phenolic content and improving the overall shelf stability of the produce (Li et al., 2024; Sharma et al., 2025). While the benefits of these coatings are evident, challenges such as optimizing essential oil concentrations and ensuring sensory compatibility remain critical for commercial application.

The commercialization potential of BNEC in sustainable food systems is promising due to their ability to extend shelf life, reduce food waste, and offer an eco-friendly alternative to traditional or conventionally synthetic packaging which are associated with environmental pollution (Basumatary et al., 2022). Although the current market of BNEC is expanding, the transition to widespread commercial use requires overcoming regulatory challenges and ensuring consumer acceptance. Continued research and development, along with strategic industry partnerships, is vital in recognizing BNEC full potential in sustainable food systems. While the benefits of these coatings are substantial, concerns regarding the incorporation of NPs and their long-term health effects necessitate further research to ensure consumer safety.

6 Conclusion

Bio-nanocomposite edible coatings represent a cutting-edge, sustainable strategy for preserving perishable produce, leveraging the synergistic integration of biopolymers and nanomaterials to enhance mechanical strength, barrier functionality, and antimicrobial performance. By combining polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and nano-encapsulated bioactive compounds, these coatings effectively extend shelf life, maintain physicochemical and sensory quality, and mitigate postharvest losses, while reducing dependence on conventional plastics. Despite their promise, widespread commercial adoption is limited by high production costs, challenges in achieving uniform nanoparticle dispersion at industrial scales, environmental sensitivity of hydrophilic matrices, and insufficient safety and regulatory data on nanoparticle migration. Advancing scalable manufacturing methods, optimizing nano-bio interactions, and conducting comprehensive toxicological and sensory evaluations are critical for translating laboratory innovations into market-ready applications. Successfully addressing these challenges will establish bio-nanocomposite edible coatings as a transformative tool for sustainable postharvest management, reinforcing food security and supporting environmentally responsible supply chains.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Shuva Bhowmik, University of Otago, New Zealand

Reviewed by: Sarathadevi Kirushanthan, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka