Fruit byproducts as multifunctional biopolymer matrices for active and sustainable food packaging

1 Introduction

The ubiquitous use of synthetic plastics derived from fossil fuels has led to severe and persistent environmental pollution, particularly due to their resistance to degradation and the accumulation of plastic waste in terrestrial and marine ecosystems. In the context of food packaging, these materials have been widely adopted because of their excellent mechanical strength, barrier properties, and low cost. However, increasing environmental awareness and regulatory pressure have intensified the search for biodegradable and renewable alternatives capable of maintaining performance while reducing ecological impact. This shift has fostered growing interest in materials derived from natural polymers, especially those obtained from agro-industrial residues.

Within the established literature, biodegradable packaging materials are fundamentally categorized into three main classes based on their macromolecular composition: proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides. Among these, polysaccharides—such as cellulose, starch, chitosan, and pectin—have become the most prominent direction in the development of bioplastics due to their excellent film-forming abilities, natural abundance, and favorable thermo-mechanical potential. Currently, the main scientific debate in the field revolves around overcoming the inherent limitations of these pure biopolymers, particularly their high moisture sensitivity and relatively poor mechanical strength compared to synthetic plastics. To address this, extensive research has focused on formulating complex bio-nanocomposites, either by blending different biopolymer classes or by incorporating functional nanoscale additives and bioactive plant extracts to create active, smart, and highly resistant packaging systems. The critical necessity to reduce fruit and vegetable postharvest losses—which can reach up to 55% annually—and ensure global food security has significantly driven this recent research into edible coatings and films. Concurrently, the transition toward these high-performance, smart, and sustainable food packaging solutions is actively mitigating plastic waste while enabling advanced packaging functionalities (Ali et al., 2025; Bilal et al., 2026). However, a major unresolved challenge remains: the conventional extraction, purification, and modification of these biopolymers from primary agricultural resources often involve high production costs, energy-intensive unit operations, and the use of toxic solvents, which paradoxically undermines their environmental and economic sustainability. Consequently, the scientific focus is rapidly shifting toward the direct valorization of agro-industrial byproducts as a more eco-efficient feedstock.

At the same time, the agro-food industry generates millions of tons of byproducts annually, including fruit peels, pomace, and seeds, which are often underutilized or disposed of in landfills (Bayer et al., 2014). To ensure terminological clarity throughout this review, the terms ‘fruit byproducts’, ‘fruit residues’, and ‘fruit waste’ will be used interchangeably to denote these non-edible fractions. These materials fall under the broader umbrella of ‘agro-industrial waste’, whereas the term ‘biomass’ is used specifically to refer to the complex organic matter (e.g., the lignocellulosic matrix) that constitutes them. This current disposal practice not only contributes to environmental burdens, such as greenhouse gas emissions and leachate formation, but also represents a loss of valuable biomass. Importantly, these byproducts are rich in structural biopolymers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and starch, as well as in bioactive compounds including polyphenols, carotenoids, and essential oils. The coexistence of structural and functional components within the same biomass makes fruit byproducts particularly attractive as multifunctional raw materials for the development of packaging systems that combine mechanical integrity with active properties.

The valorization of these renewable feedstocks into nanostructured and biopolymer-based soft materials represents a promising strategy within the framework of a circular bioeconomy. Depending on the processing route, it is possible to tailor the organization of these materials at the micro- and nanoscale, thereby influencing their macroscopic properties and functionality. In particular, nanostructured features may arise from the intrinsic organization of plant cell wall components, from the isolation of nanofibrillar elements, or from biotechnological processes such as the biosynthesis of bacterial cellulose. These structural characteristics are closely linked to key properties required for food packaging applications, including mechanical performance, barrier behavior, and the ability to deliver antioxidant or antimicrobial functions.

To provide a comprehensive overview, this article was designed as a narrative review. The literature search was conducted across major scientific databases, including Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. The search strategy employed combinations of keywords such as “fruit byproducts”, “active food packaging”, “bacterial cellulose”, and “biopolymer matrices”. The selection was primarily restricted to peer-reviewed research and review articles published in English between 2010 and 2025. The inclusion criteria required studies to directly investigate the conversion of fruit-derived agricultural waste into bioplastics or soft materials for packaging. Conversely, articles were excluded if they focused exclusively on synthetic polymers without bio-based integration, or if their primary application was not related to food packaging.

To avoid terminological ambiguity, it is crucial to explicitly distinguish the categories of sustainable packaging discussed herein. Biodegradable packaging refers to materials capable of being entirely decomposed by microbial action into natural elements, whereas compostable packaging requires specific, regulated composting conditions (e.g., high temperature and humidity) to break down without leaving toxic residues. When formulated from safe, food-grade biomacromolecules, these materials can act as edible films (pre-formed solid sheets used as wrappers) or edible coatings (applied directly onto the food surface in liquid form). Functionally, these systems can be engineered as active packaging, which deliberately interacts with the product to extend shelf life (e.g., releasing antimicrobials/antioxidants or blocking UV light), or as intelligent packaging, which does not merely protect but monitors the condition of the packaged food or its environment (e.g., using natural pH-responsive pigments to visually indicate microbial spoilage).

Despite the rapid advancement in the state of the art regarding fruit byproduct valorization, current literature remains highly fragmented. Most existing reviews are predominantly descriptive, focusing either on isolated macromolecules or compiling isolated case studies without establishing their technological relevance or comparing the scalability of different systems. A major unresolved challenge is the lack of a critical framework that evaluates how different processing intensities impact both the final material properties and the overall environmental footprint. To address this gap and define clear future research directions, this review moves beyond descriptive summaries to provide a critical and comparative evaluation of the field. Specifically, to guide researchers through these thermo-mechanical and eco-efficient trade-offs, the following three distinct processing strategies are critically discussed: (1) the extraction and purification of structural macromolecules, enabling controlled formulation of film matrices; (2) the use of fruit byproducts as substrates for the production of nanofibrillar bacterial cellulose; and (3) minimal-processing approaches based on the direct utilization of whole fruit byproducts, which emphasize low processing intensity and resource efficiency. By systematically contrasting these approaches, this article explicitly defines the inherent trade-offs between material performance, processing complexity, and sustainability. Ultimately, this holistic perspective dentifies current bottlenecks and provides novel future directions for the scalable application of fruit byproduct-based films in circular food packaging systems.

2 Strategy 1: extraction and purification of structural macromolecules

The isolation of structural biopolymers—such as cellulose, starch, and pectin—from fruit byproducts relies on the targeted deconstruction of the plant cell wall matrix, yielding well-defined macromolecules that can be engineered into advanced, active nanocomposites with tailored thermo-mechanical properties. However, the extraction protocols strongly influence the final physical and functional characteristics of the resulting materials. Although this approach enables precise control over composition and performance, its critical limitation lies in the extensive use of chemical solvents and high energy demand. The sequential purification steps not only compromise environmental sustainability but often alter the native interaction mechanisms of the polymers, demanding the reintroduction of plasticizers or reinforcing agents to achieve the desired packaging performance.

2.1 Cellulose and nanocellulose derivatives

Extracting cellulose from agricultural biomass generally involves sequential chemical treatments, including alkaline processing to remove hemicelluloses, bleaching to eliminate lignin, and, in some cases, acid hydrolysis to obtain highly crystalline cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) or cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) (Wang and Zhao, 2021). While effective, these conventional procedures impose a severe environmental burden. Methodologically, the process requires high concentrations of hazardous chemicals (e.g., NaOH, NaClO, and H₂SO₄) and generates massive amounts of highly acidic and alkaline toxic effluents that necessitate complex wastewater treatments (Coelho et al., 2020). Furthermore, achieving a neutral pH after each chemical stage demands extensive repeated washing, leading to a substantial water footprint (Coelho et al., 2020; Dai et al., 2018). Thermally, the prolonged heating required for alkaline cooking (often at 80 °C–100 °C for several hours) and the subsequent intensive drying of the highly hydrophilic cellulose networks consume tremendous amounts of energy (Coelho et al., 2020; Dai et al., 2018). To mitigate these impacts, optimizing the process is essential. Among these steps, bleaching plays a critical role in preserving fiber integrity. For example, mild bleaching conditions applied to apple pomace (1%–1.5% NaClO at 80 °C) have been shown to produce long cellulosic fibers (500–750 μm) while avoiding the extensive oxidation and polymer degradation associated with harsher treatments (Wang and Zhao, 2021). Once purified, these cellulose fractions can be used either as structural matrices or as reinforcing elements in film formulations.

Cellulose derived from different fruit byproducts has been successfully incorporated into a variety of film systems. Pineapple peels, which contain around 25% cellulose, are a relevant source: acid hydrolysis yields CNCs that can reinforce gellan gum films, increasing their stiffness, or be combined with natural carnauba wax to produce fully bio-based nanocomposites with high hydrophobicity and UV resistance (Dai et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2024). Similarly, CNCs obtained from grape pomace via sulfuric acid hydrolysis exhibit high crystallinity (∼71%) and act as effective reinforcing agents and permeability modifiers when incorporated into starch-based films (Coelho et al., 2020).

More broadly, cellulose extracted from banana peels, walnut shells, apple pomace, and pineapple peels has been widely explored as both a reinforcing phase and, in some cases, as a primary matrix component (Harini et al., 2018; Hoque and Janaswamy, 2024; Wang and Zhao, 2021; Zhu et al., 2024). In particular, CNFs obtained from banana peels through enzymatic hydrolysis have demonstrated a strong ability to improve both mechanical performance and water barrier properties in starch-based nanocomposites (Tibolla et al., 2019). In a related approach, nanocellulose from pineapple peel was incorporated into films based on pectin extracted from watermelon rind, leading to enhanced water resistance, reduced water vapor permeability, and improved preservation of fresh-cut cauliflower compared to films made from pectin alone (Shourove et al., 2025).

Furthermore, agricultural residues from fruit harvesting operations, such as banana rachis, have been successfully valorized as an abundant source of cellulose. Following extraction, this cellulose can be chemically modified via etherification into carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and applied as a highly effective edible coating to delay senescence and maintain the physicochemical quality of highly perishable fruits like strawberries during cold storage (Abdullah et al., 2023).

2.2 Starch

Significant amounts of starch have been isolated from unconventional fruit-derived sources, including cashew nut shells (Harini et al., 2018), mango kernels (Melo et al., 2019), and ciriguela (Spondias purpurea L.) (Rodrigues et al., 2021). These materials have shown promising potential as film-forming matrices. For example, starch from mango kernels exhibits a relatively high amylose content, which promotes stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonding and results in films with improved structural integrity compared to those dominated by amylopectin (Melo et al., 2019). Likewise, starch extracted from ciriguela fruits has demonstrated good film-forming ability along with notable thermal stability (Rodrigues et al., 2021).

More broadly, fruit byproducts are emerging as renewable and underexplored sources of starch for the development of bioplastic materials. In the case of banana peels, the extracted starch is characterized by a moderate amylose content and a high proportion of branched amylopectin (∼88.5%), a structural feature that contributes to flexibility and cohesive film formation (Chandrasekar et al., 2023; Harini et al., 2018). When combined with nanocellulose derived from the same biomass and cross-linked with citric acid, this starch can be used to produce bioactive thermoplastic films with enhanced functionality, including high UV-blocking capacity (up to 98%) and improved preservation of perishable foods (Chandrasekar et al., 2023).

Other fruit-derived residues also illustrate the versatility of these systems. Starch obtained from cashew nut shells, for instance, can be reinforced with cellulose from walnut shells to produce materials with high thermal stability, exhibiting degradation temperatures around 310 °C (Harini et al., 2018). A more integrated approach is observed in the valorization of mango seed kernels, which can be fractionated into starch (∼39% yield), lipid (mango kernel fat), and phenolic-rich extracts. When recombined, these fractions form a cohesive, fully bio-based film system in which the lipids and phenolic compounds act synergistically as internal plasticizers and functional additives, enhancing hydrophobicity while imparting antioxidant and UV-absorbing properties without the need for synthetic components (Melo et al., 2019).

Similarly, the valorization of discarded or unmarketable unripe green bananas has proven to be an excellent source for starch isolation. When incorporated with chitosan, this green banana starch can be formulated into active edible coatings that significantly reduce weight loss, preserve firmness, and delay the overall postharvest senescence of fresh fruits (Abdullah et al., 2026).

2.3 Pectin

Pectin, a major structural component of plant cell walls, is widely recovered from fruit byproducts such as pomegranate peels (Oliveira et al., 2016), banana peels (Oliveira et al., 2017), and dragon fruit (pitaya) peels (Zhang et al., 2024). Owing to its complex polysaccharide structure, pectin is highly valued for its film-forming and gelling capabilities, making it a key candidate for biodegradable packaging applications.

In recent years, increasing attention has been given to the development of greener extraction methods to replace conventional hot acid extraction (AE). While AE is highly scalable and remains the industrial standard, it suffers from severe environmental and economic drawbacks, including high energy consumption, prolonged extraction times, and the generation of massive volumes of corrosive effluents that require costly wastewater treatment (Tristanto et al., 2024). Furthermore, AE predominantly extracts highly linear homogalacturonan chains while potentially degrading functional side branches (Zhang et al., 2026). To address these limitations, subcritical water extraction (SCWE) has shown particular promise. Environmentally, SCWE is superior as it relies solely on water, eliminating toxic solvents and secondary effluents; economically, while the solvent is cheap, SCWE requires high-pressure reactors, which raises initial capital costs and complicates continuous industrial scalability (Tristanto et al., 2024). Nonetheless, SCWE provides significantly higher yields—such as an 18.8% increase for red dragon fruit peels compared to AE (Tristanto et al., 2024). Regarding pectin quality, the high temperatures and pressure in SCWE induce the thermal degradation of glycosidic bonds, resulting in lower molecular weight pectin with an increased proportion of hairy (RG-I) regions and lower viscosity, which can subsequently enhance the moisture barrier of resulting films. Alternatively, ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) offers a highly energy-efficient and scalable approach operating under mild, non-thermal conditions. For example, a mild non-thermal acid-assisted ultrasonic process applied to cherry pomace achieved higher yields (5.01%) than conventional AE (3.55%) while significantly reducing extraction time (Zhang et al., 2026). Most importantly regarding quality, UAE’s non-thermal cavitation specifically preserves the high molecular weight of the pectin backbone and its heat-sensitive arabinose- and galactose-rich side chains. This structural preservation allows the co-extraction of endogenous phenolic compounds, which cross-link with the pectin network via hydrogen bonding. As a result, the obtained films display significantly improved flexibility (with elongation at break increasing by over 300%), strong UV-blocking capacity, and pH-responsive behavior (Zhang et al., 2026).

Beyond extraction strategies, the functional performance of pectin-based films can be further enhanced through the incorporation of reinforcing agents. For instance, pectin extracted from pomegranate peels shows marked improvements in tensile strength and elastic modulus when reinforced with up to 6 wt% montmorillonite (MMT) nanoclays, which also increase the tortuosity of diffusion pathways and substantially reduce water vapor permeability (Oliveira et al., 2016). Similarly, pectin obtained from banana peels can be combined with silver zeolite nanoparticles to produce films with high tensile strength (up to 43.2 MPa) and pronounced antimicrobial activity, highlighting the versatility of pectin as a matrix for the development of active packaging materials (Ghanta and Saini, 2025).

2.4 Comparative synthesis and sustainability trade-offs of extracted macromolecules

While the extraction of specific macromolecules allows for tailored film formulation, a comparative analysis across cellulose-, starch-, and pectin-based systems reveals distinct performance, processing, and sustainability trade-offs. Regarding material performance, cellulose nanostructures offer superior mechanical reinforcement and strong water barrier improvements due to their highly crystalline nature. In contrast, while starch and pectin exhibit excellent film-forming abilities and can intrinsically carry active compounds (such as co-extracted phenolics in pectin) (Zhang et al., 2026), they inherently suffer from high moisture sensitivity and lower mechanical strength compared to nanocellulose, strictly necessitating plasticizers, cross-linkers, or blending to achieve adequate packaging performance.

However, these performance advantages must be weighed against severe processing constraints and sustainability criteria. The extraction of nanocellulose is the most energy- and chemical-intensive, traditionally requiring sequential alkaline, bleaching, and acid hydrolysis steps that generate substantial toxic effluents. Furthermore, excessive chemical treatments (e.g., bleaching with >2% NaClO) can severely oxidize and degrade the cellulose chains, highlighting a significant processing limitation that restricts scalability and consistency (Wang and Zhao, 2021). Conversely, while conventional hot-acid extraction of pectin also raises environmental and equipment corrosion concerns, emerging green technologies (e.g., subcritical water and ultrasound-assisted extraction) mitigate these environmental impacts and eliminate toxic residues (Tristanto et al., 2024). Nevertheless, it is critical to acknowledge the variability introduced by these green methods; for example, subcritical water extraction can alter the molecular weight and reduce the degree of esterification of the resulting pectin, directly affecting its rheological behavior (Tristanto et al., 2024). Therefore, establishing industrial scalability for Strategy one requires carefully balancing the intensity of the extraction protocols to manage biomass heterogeneity while ensuring environmental sustainability.

3 Strategy 2: Fruit byproducts as substrates for bacterial cellulose biosynthesis

Bacterial cellulose (BC), an exopolysaccharide produced by Komagataeibacter species such as K. xylinus and K. hansenii, has attracted considerable attention for food packaging applications due to its high chemical purity, elevated crystallinity, outstanding mechanical strength, and distinctive three-dimensional nanofibrillar network (Amorim et al., 2023; Güzel and Akpınar, 2019). These attributes make BC particularly suitable as a reinforcing phase or even as a standalone matrix in high-performance biodegradable films. However, despite its technological potential, the large-scale production of BC remains economically challenging. A major limitation is the reliance on conventional culture media, such as the Hestrin–Schramm (HS) medium, which can account for 30%–65% of total production costs (Amorim et al., 2023; Guimarães et al., 2023; Mardawati et al., 2023; Molina-Ramírez et al., 2018).

In this context, fruit processing byproducts have emerged as an attractive and sustainable alternative for BC production. These residues are naturally rich in fermentable sugars (e.g., glucose and fructose), as well as essential nutrients such as minerals and vitamins, which support bacterial growth and cellulose biosynthesis without the need for costly synthetic supplements (Amorim et al., 2023; Guimarães et al., 2023; Martinez et al., 2025). Beyond reducing production costs, this approach also aligns with circular bioeconomy principles by valorizing agro-industrial waste streams. Once produced, BC can be effectively incorporated into other biopolymer matrices, where its nanofibrillar structure acts as a reinforcing network. For instance, the addition of BC to films based on cashew gum or pectin has been shown to significantly enhance tensile strength and elastic modulus (Silva et al., 2021; Viana et al., 2018).

3.1 Performance of specific fruit waste media

The replacement of chemically defined media (like HS) with fruit byproducts not only reduces production costs but also actively dictates the fermentation yield and the ultimate thermo-mechanical and physical properties of the resulting BC. Various fruit wastes provide unique profiles of fermentable sugars, structural fibers, and organic acids that distinctly modulate the bacterial biosynthesis process.

Banana and pineapple (sugar and fiber-rich matrices): Substrates with high concentrations of accessible sugars yield exceptional BC production rates. Rotten banana extracts are intrinsically rich in glucose (up to 36.9 g/L) and contain polymeric components such as lignin and pectin that induce an osmotic stress, stimulating bacteria like Komagataeibacter medellinensis to achieve exceptionally high BC yields (4.81 g/L) compared to standard HS media (2.75 g/L) (Molina-Ramírez et al., 2018). Furthermore, the dense fibrillar network formed in the banana-derived medium translates into BC films with extraordinary mechanical properties. While Molina-Ramírez et al. (2018) reported a remarkable tensile strength of 280.6 MPa and a Young’s modulus of 9.4 GPa for these films, it is crucial to note that direct quantitative comparisons of mechanical properties across different studies should be interpreted with caution. Variations in film thickness, relative humidity during conditioning, drying methods, and testing strain rates significantly influence the absolute values obtained. Nevertheless, the magnitude of these results highlights the fundamental suitability of banana-derived BC for high-strength composite reinforcements. Similarly, pineapple core waste from the canning industry can be utilized without complex sugar supplementation. The native crude fiber content (∼4.5%) in the pineapple core acts as an additional carbon source, resulting in BC yields and fibril diameters (23–85 nm) that are directly comparable to those obtained in standard high-sugar synthetic media (Mardawati et al., 2023).

Apple and citrus (pectin and acid-rich matrices): Apple pomace, a massive byproduct of the cider and juice industries, has proven to be a highly effective carbon source when combined with green and black tea extracts (acting as a natural nitrogen source). A medium containing 10% apple waste extract yielded 0.79 g/L of BC, surpassing the 0.68 g/L yield of the commercial HS control. The BC membranes produced from this apple-tea medium exhibited a high crystallinity index (∼88%) and superior mechanical performance (tensile strength up to 19.68 MPa) (Amorim et al., 2023). Citrus peels (lemon, mandarin, orange, and grapefruit) hydrolyzed with dilute acid also serve as excellent sole nutrient sources. Among them, mandarin peel hydrolysate achieved the highest BC yield (3.92% w/w) due to its optimal balance of high citric acid and low phenolic content. While orange and grapefruit media produced BC with the highest crystallinity (>91%), lemon-derived BC exhibited the highest water-holding capacity (886%) and thermal stability (Güzel and Akpınar, 2019).

Grape bagasse: Grape bagasse offers an interesting contrast depending on the winemaking process. White grape bagasse (WGB) extracts are abundant in sugars (74.2 g/kg) and act as a highly efficient carbon substitute. Replacing the carbon source in HS media with WGB resulted in a BC yield of 1.25 g/L—five times higher than the standard HS medium. Moreover, the resulting films demonstrated a five-fold increase in water-holding capacity (126 g/g) and were up to 72% more flexible due to the presence of hemicellulose traces that prevent excessive cellulose-cellulose hydrogen bonding (Ogrizek et al., 2021). Conversely, red grape bagasse (RGB) yields significantly less BC because most of its fermentable sugars (only 1.5 g/kg remaining) are previously consumed by yeasts during the alcoholic maceration process of red wine. RGB-derived BC films tend to be very brittle and cannot even be analyzed by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) (Ogrizek et al., 2021).

Cashew apple: Cashew apple juice residue is highly efficient for producing superabsorbent biomaterials. BC synthesized by K. xylinus ARS B42 in cashew apple media exhibits an extraordinary superabsorbent capacity, retaining water up to 14,664% of its dry weight. This exceptionally porous and flexible fibril architecture, combined with high thermal stability, makes it highly attractive for active packaging or biomedical applications (Guimarães et al., 2023).

3.2 The dual role of endogenous compounds (phenolics, tannins, and vitamins)

When utilizing whole fruit byproducts, the endogenous biochemical composition of the extract heavily influences the fermentation efficiency. These bioactive compounds can act either as severe inhibitors or as potent promoters of bacterial cellulose biosynthesis.

The inhibitory role of phenolics: Fruit peels are naturally rich in polyphenols and tannins. While moderate amounts can act as stimulants, high concentrations (typically above 0.6%–0.8%) exhibit strong antimicrobial properties that significantly suppress the growth of acetic acid bacteria and reduce BC yields (Güzel and Akpınar, 2019; Nguyen et al., 2024). Therefore, for highly astringent substrates like cashew apples or phenolic-rich citrus peels, prior detoxification is mandatory. For instance, despite orange and lemon peels having high reducing sugar contents, their highly concentrated phenolic profiles severely limited the production of BC (Güzel and Akpınar, 2019). Similarly, cashew apples contain high levels of condensed tannins (∼0.35%) which not only inhibit fermentation but also adhere to the surface and interior space of the BC network. This phenolic adhesion creates hydrophobic interactions that restrict water adsorption and prevent the growth of the BC pellicle’s thickness (Nguyen et al., 2024). To overcome this, pretreatments such as the addition of 5% powdered gelatin have been implemented to precipitate >99% of condensed tannins by forming insoluble tannin-protein complexes. However, the necessity of such pretreatments introduces critical trade-offs. Economically, adding coagulants and performing subsequent centrifugation or filtration steps increases the overall production costs and processing complexity. From a sustainability perspective, using animal-derived gelatin may conflict with the vegan and fully plant-based appeal of the final packaging, although the resulting tannin-protein precipitates could theoretically be upcycled into other bio-composites. Regarding final material quality, successful tannin removal ensures that the biosynthesized BC retains high purity, exhibiting a highly crystalline structure and functional groups virtually identical to BC produced in expensive synthetic media (Nguyen et al., 2024).

The promoting role of vitamins and organic acids: Conversely, beneficial endogenous compounds natively enhance the bioprocess without the need for synthetic supplements. Vitamin C, highly abundant in cashew apple residue (152.6 mg/100g), serves as a vital antioxidant that protects bacterial cell viability and naturally inhibits the excessive formation of gluconic acid, a competing byproduct that acidifies the medium and consumes glucose (Guimarães et al., 2023). Furthermore, organic acids natively present in fruit peels, such as citric acid found in mandarin peels, act as promoters for bacteria to produce BC and improve overall yields (Güzel and Akpınar, 2019). Endogenous polymeric components, such as soluble lignin and pectins present in banana waste, also induce a beneficial osmotic stress that improves BC production while naturally enhancing the antioxidant properties of the resulting bioplastic (Molina-Ramírez et al., 2018).

3.3 Tailoring packaging properties via substrate selection

Interestingly, the choice of fruit byproduct directly modulates the macroscopic properties of the resulting BC films, allowing for the targeted customization of packaging materials based on the specific substrate used:

High-strength matrices: BC produced from high-glucose substrates, such as rotten banana pulp or optimized apple waste, develops a highly compact and dense nanofibrillar arrangement (Amorim et al., 2023; Molina-Ramírez et al., 2018). This dense structure translates into remarkable tensile strength and Young’s modulus. Although specific peak values (such as the 280 MPa previously noted for banana-derived BC) are highly dependent on specific testing and drying conditions and should not be directly benchmarked against other matrices, the overall superior mechanical performance makes these films ideal for rigid or high-strength packaging applications, such as the formulation of biodegradable cardboard (Martinez et al., 2025; Molina-Ramírez et al., 2018).

Superabsorbent and flexible matrices: Conversely, BC biosynthesized in media like white grape bagasse or cashew apple juice displays a looser, more open 3D fibril network with enhanced flexibility (Guimarães et al., 2023; Ogrizek et al., 2021). This less entangled architecture drastically increases the water holding capacity of the biomaterial. Remarkably, BC from cashew apple residue can absorb water up to 14,664% of its dry weight, acting as a superabsorbent biomaterial (Guimarães et al., 2023). These highly flexible, moisture-retaining networks show immense potential for active packaging matrices designed to carry liquid antimicrobial or antioxidant extracts for the preservation of perishable foods (Ogrizek et al., 2021).

3.4 Fermentation dynamics, limitations, and substrate comparability

While the biochemical composition of fruit waste media significantly influences BC production, it is crucial to avoid oversimplifying these outcomes as direct cause-and-effect relationships. The available evidence indicates that fermentation conditions—such as the specific microbial strain, cultivation time, pH, temperature, and oxygen availability—play an equally decisive, and often intertwining, role. For instance, the yield and structural properties of BC are highly strain-dependent; under identical conditions, K. xylinus ATCC 53582 is known for rapid, high-yield production, whereas K. xylinus ARS B42 synthesizes a much more porous, superabsorbent network (Guimarães et al., 2023). Furthermore, maintaining an optimal acidic pH (e.g., pH 4.4) is critical to regulate competing gluconic acid production (Martinez et al., 2025), while the static air-liquid interface area (oxygen transfer rate) strictly limits overall productivity (Güzel and Akpınar, 2019). To overcome scale-up limitations, the use of stable microbial consortiums (e.g., Kombucha) offers an alternative to isolated strains, potentially allowing for non-sterile conditions and greater phage tolerance, albeit often at the cost of lower production rates (Amorim et al., 2023).

When comparing the technological and industrial promise of the discussed substrates, distinct advantages and limitations emerge. Sugar- and fiber-rich substrates (e.g., banana pulp and pineapple core) appear the most industrially promising for structural applications; they provide high yields of dense, mechanically robust BC without requiring synthetic sugar or nitrogen supplementation (Mardawati et al., 2023). In contrast, pectin- and acid-rich substrates (e.g., citrus and cashew apples) yield highly porous matrices ideal for active packaging, but their industrial scalability is frequently hindered by the presence of antimicrobial tannins and essential oils, which severely inhibit bacterial growth and necessitate additional, cost-increasing pretreatment steps (e.g., gelatin precipitation) (Guimarães et al., 2023; Nguyen et al., 2024). Finally, bagasse from winemaking (especially red grape bagasse) is the least industrially viable as a sole nutrient source; the depletion of sugars by yeast during prior alcoholic fermentation results in extremely low BC yields and highly brittle materials (Ogrizek et al., 2021), mandating costly exogenous nitrogen or carbon supplementation.

3.5 Downstream processing: the true sustainability bottleneck

While utilizing fruit waste substrates significantly lowers the economic and environmental costs of the fermentation media, the true sustainability of BC production is heavily compromised by its downstream processing requirements. First, the bioprocess generally demands energy-intensive sterilization of the fruit-derived media (e.g., autoclaving at 121 °C for 15–20 min) to prevent contamination during the prolonged static cultivation (Guimarães et al., 2023; Martinez et al., 2025). Second, once harvested, the BC pellicles must undergo severe alkali purification—typically boiling in 2%–5% NaOH at 80 °C for 1 to 2 hours—to lyse embedded bacterial cells and remove residual culture media (Guimarães et al., 2023; Viana et al., 2018). This step not only requires heating energy but also generates highly alkaline secondary effluents. Furthermore, neutralizing these pellicles demands massive volumes of distilled or running washing water, substantially increasing the water footprint of the process (Mardawati et al., 2023; Sá et al., 2020). Finally, because the harvested BC network retains massive amounts of liquid (often over 98% moisture), the drying energy required to convert these hydrogels into usable solid films—whether via prolonged oven-drying at 50 °C for 24–48 h or highly energy-intensive freeze-drying—remains a major scalability hurdle (Amorim et al., 2023; Sá et al., 2020). Therefore, to achieve genuine commercial and environmental sustainability, future research must optimize non-thermal sterilization techniques, develop recyclable purification solvents, and implement more eco-efficient dewatering technologies.

4 Strategy 3: minimal-processing approaches based on whole fruit byproducts

To align with the principles of a circular economy and “zero-waste” biorefineries, a paradigm shift is occurring toward minimal-processing approaches. This strategy relies on the direct deconstruction and holistic use of the bulk byproduct to form the packaging matrix, circumventing the highly energy-intensive, solvent-dependent, and time-consuming steps required to isolate pure polymers (Santos et al., 2023; Silva et al., 2024). By utilizing the entire biomass, these materials intrinsically retain the natural antioxidants, pigments, and functional compounds natively present in the plant cell wall, transforming agro-industrial waste into highly active food packaging (Qiu et al., 2021; Santos et al., 2023).

4.1 Hydrothermal and mild chemical deconstruction

Recent advances have demonstrated that whole biomass can be converted into continuous films through green, water-based pretreatments. For instance, orange processing byproducts (peel and pomace) subjected to eco-efficient hydrothermal pretreatments (using only water, pressure, and heat at 121 °C) undergo partial solubilization of hemicelluloses and pectin, disrupting the recalcitrant lignocellulosic matrix. When cast with glycerol, these bulk orange suspensions form continuous, cohesive bioplastics with high UV-absorption and antioxidant capacities, ideal for protecting oxidizable foods (Santos et al., 2023). Similarly, bulk banana peel powder has been fully converted into bioplastic films using either hydrothermal or mild dilute sulfuric acid pretreatments. These green treatments allowed the retention of endogenous phenolics, yielding hydrophobic films capable of blocking over 98% of UV radiation (Silva et al., 2024). For more recalcitrant biomass, the use of recyclable organic acids like trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) has been explored to directly digest cocoa pod husks and vegetable stems (Bayer et al., 2014). TFA co-solubilizes cellulose and other organic matter, transforming them into amorphous cellulose-based plastics with mechanical properties rivaling some commercial synthetic polymers without needing multiple purification stages (Bayer et al., 2014). Avocado peels and seeds have also been processed via mild acetic acid hydrolysis, followed by plasticization with polyglycerol and blending with low-methoxyl pectin. The integration of the whole seed and peel complex creates a highly transparent material with excellent oxygen barrier properties, robust antioxidant capacity, and low overall migration, rendering it highly suitable for direct food contact (Merino et al., 2021).

4.2 Endogenous plasticization and self-binding

Another remarkable advantage of using whole fruit byproducts is their inherent self-binding capacity under thermo-compression, effectively eliminating the need for synthetic binders (Gustafsson et al., 2019). For example, apple pomace can be compression-molded into 3D objects (fiberboards) or solvent-cast into thin films using its own endogenous composition. The naturally occurring free sugars (such as fructose, glucose, and sucrose) natively present in the apple pomace act as potent primary plasticizers (Gustafsson et al., 2019). Films and 3D objects relying on these endogenous sugars exhibited a fluffier, interconnected structural morphology with dramatically higher elongation (up to 55% flexibility) compared to purified systems plasticized solely with exogenous glycerol, proving the outstanding plasticizing effect of native fruit sugars (Gustafsson et al., 2019).

4.3 Direct blending into polymer matrices

Whole fruit powders can also be directly incorporated as active functional fillers into other biodegradable matrices to create systems that bridge the gap between active and intelligent packaging. For instance, ultrasonicated grape skin, which inherently retains a complex mixture of cellulose nanofibers, hemicellulose, pectin, and polyphenols, has been blended with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (Qiu et al., 2021). In this context, the antimicrobial and UV-shielding properties of the grape skin act as an active packaging mechanism to actively protect the food. Simultaneously, its pH-responsive color-changing ability acts as an intelligent packaging feature, allowing consumers to visually monitor food freshness in real-time. Similar intelligent pH-indicator films have been developed by directly adding fine grape skin powder into a k-carrageenan/HPMC matrix to visually monitor meat spoilage without any prior chemical extraction (Chi et al., 2020). Regarding their end-of-life, both these PVA and carrageenan/HPMC systems are fully biodegradable and potentially edible. Furthermore, cocoa bean shells (CBS), a byproduct of chocolate production rich in fibers and polyphenols, have been directly solvent-mixed with poly(lactic acid) (PLA) to form a compostable plastic. The inclusion of CBS powder notably recovered the crystallinity of the initially amorphous PLA, improved the oxygen barrier properties, imparted antioxidant activity, and significantly accelerated the aquatic biodegradation of the composite (reaching 70% biodegradability in just 30 days) (Papadopoulou et al., 2019). Direct blending has also been extensively applied via extrusion and casting, such as combining apple pomace with cassava starch and PBAT (Carpes et al., 2021) to yield a fully biodegradable and compostable film, or mixing ripe banana peel flour with cornstarch to modulate water vapor permeability in fully biodegradable edible films (Arquelau et al., 2019; Medeiros Silva et al., 2020). Conversely, integrating pomegranate, papaya, and jackfruit peel powders into gelatin/polyethylene bilayers (Nur Hanani et al., 2018) results in only a partially biodegradable bio-based composite, as the polyethylene layer remains a non-degradable conventional plastic.

4.4 Scalability, practical constraints, and technological maturity

While the direct utilization of whole biomass offers a compelling approach, the current literature predominantly presents idealized, laboratory-scale success stories. To accurately assess the practical value of these minimal-processing strategies, a critical distinction must be made between these early-stage demonstrations and genuinely scalable industrial technologies. Currently, most whole-biomass films remain at a low technological maturity level (laboratory proof-of-concept). Moving toward pilot and industrial scales introduces significant practical constraints, primarily driven by feedstock variability. Because whole byproducts are unrefined, their exact biochemical composition—such as the ratio of pectin, cellulose, phenolics, and endogenous sugars—fluctuates wildly depending on the fruit cultivar, harvest season, and geographic origin. This inherent heterogeneity makes rigorous process control and batch-to-batch reproducibility exceptionally difficult. In practical terms, uncontrolled variations in the raw biomass often lead to particle agglomeration, phase separation, and structural defects during film formation. Therefore, elevating the maturity level of these materials requires shifting the research focus from simple laboratory solvent-casting to scalable, continuous processing technologies. Advanced engineering approaches, such as reactive extrusion or solid-state shear pulverization, will be necessary to forcefully homogenize and cross-link these fluctuating organic components into a uniform matrix. Ultimately, acknowledging and addressing these practical constraints is the essential bottleneck for transitioning Strategy 3 from a laboratory demonstration into an industrially viable packaging solution.

To provide a comprehensive and structured overview of the developed materials, Table 1 summarizes the diverse fruit sources, processing methodologies, and resulting film matrices discussed in this review. The table critically contrasts the key physical properties, active functions, and inherent limitations associated with each of the three main valorization strategies.

TABLE 1. Comparative summary of fruit byproduct-based packaging materials across different processing strategies.

Strategies: 1 - Macromolecule Extraction; 2 - Bacterial Cellulose (BC) biosynthesis; 3 - Minimal Processing.

5 Critical evaluation: Trade-offs, sustainability, and industrial feasibility

The development of bioplastics from fruit waste does not rely on a singular, universally applicable methodology. Moving beyond descriptive observations, a critical evaluation of the underlying structural mechanisms, processing limitations, and industrial feasibility reveals a continuous balancing act between opposing factors: material performance, processing complexity, and sustainability. By systematically comparing the three strategies, key trade-offs and scalability bottlenecks emerge.

5.1 The cost of purity: Material performance vs. eco-efficiency

The advantage: Strategies that rely on isolating specific macromolecules (Strategy 1) or synthesizing BC (Strategy 2) yield highly refined materials. For example, cellulose extracted from avocado peels and cross-linked with calcium ions produces bioplastics with remarkable tensile strength, flexibility, and high optical transparency (Ahmed and Janaswamy, 2023). Similarly, BC provides an ultra-pure, highly crystalline 3D nanofibrillar network that offers unmatched mechanical resistance and water-holding capacity (Amorim et al., 2023; Gustafsson et al., 2019; Ogrizek et al., 2021).

The trade-off: Achieving this level of purity and performance comes at a high processing cost. In Strategy 1, the biomass must undergo intensive, sequential chemical treatments (as detailed in Section 2.4) which consume significant amounts of energy, water, and harsh chemical solvents (Dai et al., 2018; Hoque and Janaswamy, 2024). This severely reduces the overall eco-efficiency of the process. In Strategy 2, although utilizing fruit waste media (like cashew apple juice or grape bagasse) lowers the cost of nutrients (Guimarães et al., 2023; Ogrizek et al., 2021), the microbial fermentation process is inherently slow, often requiring up to 14 days of static cultivation (Nguyen et al., 2024; Ogrizek et al., 2021). Furthermore, it requires the energy-intensive sterilization of the culture media (Guimarães et al., 2023), making rapid, continuous industrial scale-up a significant challenge compared to conventional plastic extrusion.

5.2 The “zero-waste” challenge: True sustainability vs. material homogeneity

The advantage: Strategy 3 (Minimal Processing) maximizes environmental sustainability by utilizing the entire bulk byproduct (e.g., direct use of orange pomace, banana peel powder, or grape skin) (Qiu et al., 2021; Santos et al., 2023; Silva et al., 2024). Methodologically, this resource-efficient approach avoids toxic solvent extractions and minimizes the generation of secondary chemical effluents, relying instead on simpler methods like mild hydrothermal treatments (Merino et al., 2021; Santos et al., 2023; Silva et al., 2024). However, it must be acknowledged that this processing still involves energy consumption, water use, and potential residue generation. Validating the true eco-efficiency of these methods requires comprehensive Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs), which are currently scarce in the literature.

The trade-off: Because whole biomass is used, the resulting material is a complex, heterogeneous mixture of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, proteins, lipids, and low-molecular weight compounds (Merino et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2024). This lack of refinement creates significant structural and commercial limitations. Visually and morphologically, the presence of natural pigments and unrefined fibers drastically increases the opacity, alters the color (often imparting brownish or yellowish hues), and generates high surface roughness. For instance, direct blending of fruit powders into a polymer matrix often causes visible particle agglomeration and structural discontinuities (Chi et al., 2020; Nur Hanani et al., 2018). Consequently, the overall sensory acceptability may be compromised, as the unpurified biomass often retains the strong inherent odor of the original fruit waste and conflicts with consumer preference for highly transparent packaging (Azmin et al., 2020). Physically, unpurified hydrophilic compounds (like proteins, sugars, and loose fibers) increase the free volume between polymer chains, leading to a much higher water vapor permeability compared to pure films (Medeiros Silva et al., 2020; Verma et al., 2024). Furthermore, the retention of endogenous sugars and proteins can compromise the microbial stability of the films, as these unpurified nutrients may act as substrates for mold and bacterial growth in high-humidity environments. Finally, the complex unrefined matrix raises concerns regarding the migration of low-molecular-weight compounds (such as natural dyes, organic acids, and unreacted phenolics) from the packaging into the food, necessitating rigorous overall migration testing to ensure food-contact safety compliance.

5.3 The functional dilemma: active properties vs. mechanical cohesion

The advantage: A major benefit of minimally processed fruit byproducts is that they natively retain endogenous bioactive compounds. Phenolics found in cherry pomace, pomegranate peels, and grape skins intrinsically transform the packaging into an active material, granting it antioxidant, antimicrobial, and UV-blocking properties (Harini et al., 2018; Qiu et al., 2021). Additionally, native sugars left in apple pomace can act as excellent primary plasticizers, naturally increasing the flexibility of the material (Gustafsson et al., 2019).

The trade-off: Incorporating high loads of unrefined fruit powders or extracts to boost these active properties can severely disrupt the mechanical integrity of the packaging. The raw particles can interrupt the continuous polymer network, acting as structural flaws. For example, incorporating whole apple pomace into a starch/PBAT blend increases the formation of discontinuities, effectively reducing overall tensile properties of the composite (Carpes et al., 2021). To compensate for this loss of cohesion, formulators must often introduce additional binding agents, such as extracted pectin or carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), to glue the heterogeneous matrix back together and restore its structural strength (Merino et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2024).

Design Guidelines for Balanced Formulations: To successfully balance the retention of active compounds with structural integrity, future formulations must adopt systematic design guidelines. First, optimize loading thresholds: Studies consistently show that significant antioxidant and antimicrobial properties can be achieved at relatively low filler concentrations (e.g., 1 to 5 wt%); surpassing these optimal thresholds often leads to particle agglomeration, phase separation, and a sharp decline in tensile strength and barrier performance (Nur Hanani et al., 2018; Terzioğlu et al., 2021). Second, implement high-shear size reduction: Techniques such as ultrasonication or high pressure homogenization reduce fruit waste particles to micro- or nano-scales. This prevents the formation of large structural defects and improves interfacial adhesion between the filler and the matrix, as demonstrated by the excellent cohesion of films containing ultrasonicated grape skin (Qiu et al., 2021). Third, incorporate complementary binders: Because whole unrefined biomass lacks inherent cohesive strength, the integration of exogenous hydrocolloids (e.g., 20 to 50 wt% of pectin, carboxymethyl cellulose, or gelatin) is highly recommended. These biopolymers bridge the heterogeneous components, acting as a structural ‘glue’ that restores tensile strength and flexibility without compromising the functional availability of the active compounds (Merino et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2024).

5.4 Mitigating trade-offs through hybridization and process optimization

It is crucial to emphasize that the aforementioned trade-offs are not rigid binary constraints. In practice, the boundaries between material performance, processing complexity, and sustainability can be effectively softened through strategic formulation and hybrid material design. For instance, the mechanical and barrier limitations of minimally processed whole-biomass films can be significantly mitigated by blending them with small fractions of extracted biopolymers (e.g., commercial pectin or chitosan) or by utilizing natural cross-linkers such as citric acid (Chandrasekar et al., 2023; Merino et al., 2021). These hybrid approaches maintain a high degree of eco-efficiency while achieving competitive macroscopic properties (Merino et al., 2021). Recent empirical studies strongly support this hybridization approach. For instance, the incorporation of chitosan into banana starch matrices has been shown to significantly enhance the preservation properties of the coating (Abdullah et al., 2023). Similarly, blending Aloe vera with chitosan creates composite films with substantially improved antioxidant, antimicrobial, thermal, and barrier properties compared to their isolated componentes (Kaur et al., 2024). Furthermore, process optimization—such as replacing harsh chemical treatments with emerging green technologies (e.g., non-thermal ultrasound or subcritical water extraction)—demonstrates that advanced functionalization can be achieved without severely compromising the environmental footprint of the process.

5.5 Industrial feasibility and scalability bottlenecks

When critically assessing the industrial feasibility of these three strategies, distinct scalability bottlenecks and limitations become evident. Strategy 1 (Macromolecule Extraction) relies on well-established industrial processes for starch and pectin isolation; however, the extraction of nanocellulose often requires highly corrosive acids (e.g., sulfuric or trifluoroacetic acid) and intensive mechanical treatments. This raises significant equipment maintenance costs and toxic effluent disposal issues at a commercial scale. Furthermore, the extensive purification mechanisms often induce partial depolymerization of the target macromolecules, requiring the addition of exogenous cross-linkers to restore the mechanical integrity of the films.

Strategy 2 (BC Biosynthesis), despite producing materials with exceptional mechanical mechanisms (due to the highly crystalline 3D nanofibrillar network), faces the most severe industrial limitations. The requirement for strictly sterile bioreactor conditions and the prolonged static cultivation times (up to 14–21 days) result in low volumetric productivity and require an enormous physical footprint for scale-up, which currently restricts its use to high-value niche markets rather than bulk food packaging.

Conversely, Strategy 3 (Minimal Processing) offers the highest potential for rapid industrial implementation and economic feasibility. By utilizing simple hydrothermal treatments or direct blending, it can be easily integrated into conventional thermoplastic processing equipment, such as extruders. Nevertheless, its primary limitation lies in the lack of standardization: the chemical mechanisms of film formation and cohesion heavily depend on the heterogeneous and seasonally variable composition of the whole biomass, making batch-to-batch reproducibility the main hurdle for its commercialization.

The three main pathways for fruit byproduct valorization and the trade-offs between material performance, processing complexity, and sustainability are schematically outlined in Figure 1.

6 Current challenges and future perspectives

Despite the rapid advancements in fruit byproduct valorization, several hurdles must be overcome to translate these biopolymer matrices into commercial food packaging systems. The primary challenge across all polysaccharide-based soft materials remains their inherent hydrophilicity, which results in high water vapor permeability and poor performance in high-humidity environments (Melo et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2024; Tristanto et al., 2024). To overcome this critical limitation, current interventions systematically adopt targeted physical and chemical strategies, such as the direct incorporation of lipid fractions (Melo et al., 2019) or natural waxes (Zhu et al., 2024), the development of biodegradable laminates and multi-layered films (Nur Hanani et al., 2018) and structural cross-linking with natural agents (Ahmed and Janaswamy, 2023). However, while these proposed solutions are highly effective in controlled environments, their technological readiness level (TRL) remains largely restricted to laboratory-scale solvent casting demonstrations (TRL 3–4). Transitioning these formulations to practical industrial applicability (TRL 7–8) is highly challenging, as it requires adapting them to continuous, scalable processes like melt-extrusion or automated lamination. These industrial processes often struggle with the thermal instability of volatile active compounds, the uniform dispersion of nanomaterials, and the complex rheological behaviors of unrefined biomass. Therefore, bridging the gap between bench-top demonstrations and mature, industrially viable manufacturing technologies represents a critical frontier for future research.

Additionally, maintaining consistent quality is a significant industrial bottleneck. The biochemical composition of fruit byproducts fluctuates based on seasonal variations and geographic origin, complicating the batch-to-batch reproducibility of the bioplastics. Beyond mitigating this variability, industrial scalability remains a critical bottleneck. To achieve continuous production, these organic matrices must be highly compatible with conventional thermoplastic equipment. For instance, minimally processed byproduct blends must withstand the thermomechanical shear of continuous extrusion and blow molding without severe degradation (Carpes et al., 2021). Furthermore, for successful implementation in high-speed packaging lines, the bioplastics must exhibit rapid film-forming capabilities, high tear resistance, and adequate tensile strength to avoid web breakage during rapid unwinding, forming, and sealing operations. Because single-layer bio-based films often lack the required moisture barrier or mechanical flexibility, industrial scaling will heavily rely on coating and lamination technologies. Combining a fruit-based biopolymer layer with a moisture-resistant biodegradable polymer (e.g., PBAT or PLA) or a conventional polyolefin through co-extrusion or bilayer lamination can yield a composite that meets rigorous commercial demands while reducing the volume of synthetic plastics (Carpes et al., 2021). Ultimately, the cost competitiveness of these materials will depend on balancing the low cost of the raw fruit waste with the energy demands and process adaptations required for these advanced, large-scale manufacturing techniques.

Looking forward, the evolution of these materials must also align with emerging global trends. As highlighted by recent comprehensive reviews, future research must rigorously address the toxicological safety and regulatory frameworks regarding the possible migration of nanoparticles and active compounds from the packaging into the food system (Ali et al., 2025). Moreover, accelerating the industrial implementation of these biopolymers will heavily depend on the integration of smart functionalities and Industry 4.0 technologies—such as artificial intelligence and real-time sensors—to optimize scalable production processes and continuously monitor food quality throughout the supply chain (Bilal et al., 2026).

Furthermore, advancing these materials to commercial scale will increasingly rely on interdisciplinary approaches and Industry 4.0 technologies (Bilal et al., 2026). The integration of intelligent sensing capabilities into plant-based biopolymers—such as real-time freshness indicators—represents a pivotal future direction to elevate these matrices into smart food packaging systems (Bilal et al., 2026).

6.1 Food-contact safety, regulatory compliance, and consumer acceptance

While the renewable nature of fruit byproducts is undeniable, translating these soft materials into commercial packaging requires strict adherence to food-contact safety regulations. Although the precursor biomacromolecules (e.g., pectin, cellulose, starch) and the natural active extracts are generally recognized as safe, the final composite must undergo rigorous migration testing.

Furthermore, establishing standardized compostability is crucial. Although many studies report high biodegradability through laboratory soil burial tests, future perspectives must include certifying these novel bioplastics under international industrial compostability standards to fully validate their end-of-life environmental claims.

Finally, consumer acceptance represents a vital commercial hurdle. The minimal-processing approaches (Strategy 3) and the use of unrefined extracts typically impart a brownish or yellowish hue and significantly increase the opacity of the films. While this opacity provides excellent UV-shielding properties to prevent photo-oxidation, it may negatively influence the perception of consumers who traditionally prefer highly transparent packaging to visually assess product freshness. Therefore, future commercialization strategies must carefully match the visual properties of the byproduct-based films with specific applications—such as packaging for light-sensitive products (e.g., nuts, meat derivatives, or dairy) where transparency is not mandatory, but protection against oxidative deterioration is essential.

7 Conclusion

The technological transition from conventional plastics to renewable soft materials derived from fruit byproducts represents a promising, yet challenging, pathway for sustainable food packaging. To effectively deploy these materials, the choice of processing strategy must align with specific application needs. The highly tailored physical properties of isolated nanocrystals and pectins (Strategy 1) are ideal for controlled matrices requiring high purity. The remarkable mechanical strength of microbially synthesized bacterial cellulose (Strategy 2) makes it the most suitable approach for high-strength packaging applications. Finally, the resource-efficient production of bulk holocellulosic films (Strategy 3) is best suited for active antioxidant and intelligent packaging, as it natively retains bioactive phenolics and pH-responsive pigments. Furthermore, due to its compatibility with conventional extrusion, Strategy 3 presents a strong potential for near-term industrial implementation. However, the commercial deployment of these technologies is not inevitable. As highlighted throughout this review, their advancement remains strictly constrained by significant trade-offs between material performance, processing complexity, and overall sustainability. Currently, most of these systems are restricted to low technological maturity levels (laboratory scale). Overcoming the existing practical bottlenecks regarding moisture resistance, processing scalability, and material homogeneity will be the essential step to realistically enable a new generation of active, more circular, and biodegradable soft packaging systems.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. I utilized AI assistance (ChatGPT) to generate the initial visual draft of Figure 1, which I subsequently modified/refined to accurately illustrate the scientific concepts discussed in this review.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Rafael Audino Zambelli, Federal University of Ceará, Brazil

Reviewed by: Santhiyagu Prakash, Tamil Nadu Fisheries University, India

Zienab F. R. Ahmed, United Arab Emirates University, United Arab Emirates

Pio Viscusi, University of Parma, Italy

Footnotes

BC, Bacterial cellulose; CMC, Carboxymethyl cellulose; CNC, Cellulose nanocrystals; CNF, Cellulose nanofibrils; HS medium, Hestrin–Schramm medium; PBAT, Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate); PLA, Poly(lactic acid); PVA, Polyvinyl alcohol; SCWE, Subcritical water extraction; TFA, Trifluoroacetic acid; WVP, Water vapor permeability.