Agroecology in West Africa: the pathway towards a sustainable transition of agri-food systems? A review

This article reviews the state of the art on the potential of agroecology to contribute to the sustainable transformation of agrifood systems in West Africa. Data were retrieved from Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar and grey literature. The 484 publications reviewed span the last 25 years, focusing primarily on West Africa, while selected studies from other regions were included where relevant to the analysis. Over the past two decades, agroecology has gained a growing interest in different scientific fields, and is increasingly discussed as an alternative approach to conventional agricultural models. The reviewed evidence suggests that several agroecological practices are rooted in local knowledge and may contribute to addressing some of the environmental and food-systems challenges facing the region. However, the nature and the magnitude of these contributions remain context-dependent and unevenly documented across the region. Existing studies point to potential benefits for agricultural resilience, food security and nutrition, biodiversity, socioeconomic viability, human values, but the available evidence remains insufficient to highlight the potential of agroecology for food systems transformation. Scaling up agroecology is further constrained by interrelated challenges, including limited training and advisory services, restricted access to inputs and markets, and policy support. In many regions, research on agroecology has covered only a limited range of topics, highlighting the need for more context-specific and multidimensional science. Future studies should investigate the conditions under which agroecological transitions are most likely to succeed, including the interactions among policy support, training, resource access, markets, and economic incentives. Greater attention is also needed to its socioeconomic viability and to the development of locally adapted advisory and support services.

Conceptualization and evolution of agroecology

Agriculture, a subsistence activity for over 40% of the world’s population (IAASTD, 2009), faces major challenges, including biodiversity loss, climate change, and food security (Geck et al., 2023; IPBES, 2019). In response, agroecology emerges as an alternative, gaining increasing support through local and international initiatives (IPES-Food, 2020b; Nyéléni, 2015). It is supported by a wide range of stakeholders, from development institutions to farmer movements, to transform food systems (FAO et al., 2023; IPES-Food, 2020b). This transformation today holds great potential to address challenges facing agrifood systems and to contribute to achieving sustainable development goals (Bezner Kerr et al., 2023; Geck et al., 2023).

Agroecology is mostly defined as a scientific discipline, a set of agricultural practices, and a social movement (Wezel et al., 2009). The term was first used in 1928 by Basil Bensin (Trabelsi, 2017), but the concept has evolved from focusing on plot-level analysis to a holistic approach to food systems (Wezel and Soldat, 2009).

Initially developed as a scientific discipline, the concept of agroecology has evolved significantly. It now fully incorporates the multifunctionality of agriculture (Hervieu, 2002) and adopts a systemic approach that includes various scales of analysis (plot, farm/agroecosystem, landscape, food system). Studies widely agree with the multiple dimensions of the agroecological approach, and its evolution over time strengthens its manifestation as a scientific discipline, social movement, and set of practices (Sinclair et al., 2019; Wezel and Jauneau, 2011; Wezel et al., 2009).

In the 1980s and 1990s, agroecology was described as “ the application of ecological principles to the management of sustainable agroecosystems ” (Altieri, 2018). Since the 2000s, it has been redefined as “ the ecology of food systems ” (Francis et al., 2003), thereby incorporating political, economic, societal, and environmental dimensions and becoming fully transdisciplinary.

As a set of practices, agroecology advocates for the creation of diversified and resilient agroecosystems in contrast to monocultures (Altieri, 2002). The concept encompasses a broad range of agricultural techniques (Tittonell et al., 2022). The boundaries between these techniques and the concept of agroecology are often challenging to delineate. The concept of agroecology runs counter to monocultures. However, recent studies have criticized this approach and questioned the role of diversification and monocultures (Lenné and Wood, 2024; Wood, 2023), especially in pest management. The agroecological movement advocates for sustainable and equitable food systems in response to current challenges such as climate change and food security (HLPE, 2019). It supports rural employment and values the role of small farmers (Nyéléni, 2015). To encompass these new dimensions, Gliessman (2018) redefines the concept as “ an integration of research, education, and action ” for the ecological, economic, and social sustainability of food systems. This evolution of the concept highlights the foundations upon which modern agroecological practices are built.

Global food-system challenges and the need for sustainable transformation

The issue of agroecology for a sustainable transformation of agri-food systems has become central to discussions at various levels (Stassart et al., 2012). The productivist models from the Green Revolution have shown their limitations and are now being questioned. Although these models reached high productivity and production volumes during the peak years of this revolution (Tilman et al., 2002), they are now understood to be significantly responsible for many crises the world currently faces. These include: (i) the collapse of agrobiodiversity (Hallmann et al., 2017; IPBES, 2019) through uniformity in agricultural systems and the massive use of synthetic inputs; (ii) climate change, with agriculture both impacted by and contributing to it in various ways (IPES-Food, 2016); and (iii) the deteriorating socioeconomic conditions (poverty, undernutrition, malnutrition) of small farmers worldwide (IAASTD, 2009; ONU, 2019), despite their continuous involvement in agricultural value chains.

Hunger and poverty persisted, especially following the global COVID-19 crisis, which further revealed the socio-ecological fragility of the current global food system (IPES-Food, 2020a). Commodity and agricultural input prices have soared, causing significant supply challenges in developing countries. Over 600 million people are expected to still suffer from hunger by 2030 (FAO et al., 2023), meaning that the “zero hunger” and “no poverty” goals of the 2030 Agenda are unlikely to be met. To reduce vulnerability in the coming decades, humanity will need a systemic transformation of the industrial agricultural model to achieve better sustainability.

Additionally, food systems account for at least 34% of global greenhouse gas emissions with the broad contribution from agriculture (Crippa et al., 2021), but agroecological practices can play a key role in emissions reduction in West Africa (Fitzpatrick, 2015; Gao and Cabrera Serrenho, 2023). While agricultural inputs and products are prominent in international trade (IAASTD, 2009), around 85% of agricultural food is consumed directly on or near production sites (ETC Group, 2009). IPES-Food (2024) highlights the capacity of localized food systems to provide diverse, local, and higher-quality foods to local markets without intermediaries.

These elements underscore the demand for greater sustainability and resilience in global agriculture, particularly in West Africa. It raises essential points that warrant an in-depth discussion on the potential and challenges of agroecology. It is essential to generate context-specific evidence from West African countries on the links between the promotion of agroecology and food security and nutrition, as well as climate change mitigation. Further scientific evidence is also needed to investigate the potential of agroecology to alleviate rural poverty and to address the challenges associated with the wider adoption of agroecological practices and other related approaches. The plausible pathways through which agroecology could contribute to a profound transformation of current food systems therefore deserve closer scrutiny by the scientific community.

Agroecology in West Africa: evidence, knowledge gaps and research questions

There is an increasing need for West African farmers to adopt appropriate technologies and sustainable agricultural practices that improve productivity and resilience, (Zougmoré et al., 2014). Farmers’ organizations in the region have also increasingly embraced agroecology in their advocacy efforts to defend social and environmental dimensions of food systems, including adaption to climate change, improved livelihoods, food sovereignty (Bottazzi and Boillat, 2021). In recent years, the issue of agroecology has taken on an important role in debates on the sustainable transformation of agrifood systems. Scientific literature supports this movement, with an increase in evidence-based publications guiding public policy, suggesting levers for a sustainable agroecological transition (Côte et al., 2022), highlighting challenges to achieving it (Bezner Kerr et al., 2019, 2021, 2022), and proposing methods to evaluate effects and performance of agroecology (Darmaun et al., 2023; Geck et al., 2023; Levard, 2023; Lucantoni et al., 2021; Mottet et al., 2020).

Despite this scientific momentum, key questions still remain especially in the context of West Africa. This narrative review, therefore, revolves around the following three research questions: How can agroecology help meet challenges of food security in West Africa?

What are the main levers for scaling up agroecology in the West African context?

What specific obstacles hinder the scaling up of agroecology in West Africa, and how can they be overcome?

This study aimed at collecting and analyzing data in order to understand the current state of research on agroecology from various perspectives around the world, with a specific focus on West Africa. This review was conducted using data from several sources (Figure 1), including: the databases and collections of Google Scholar, Scopus and PubMed; as well as the libraries and websites of various projects and organizations whose areas of interest are closely linked to the research topic such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA), the Agroecology Fund, the Agroecology Coalition, the Network of Peasant Organizations and Agricultural Producers of West Africa (ROPPA), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The grey literature sources included reports and publications from key organizations involved in agricultural and agroecological development across West Africa region. A limited number of studies from geographical regions outside West Africa were also considered during the analysis to deepen understanding of the topic, enable comparative analysis, and identify aspects that have received limited attention in the West African literature.

The selection of Scopus and Google Scholar was motivated by their accessibility and their broad coverage of disciplines related to agriculture, environmental studies, and social sciences. PubMed was included due to its strong focus on public health and nutrition, which are often closely intertwined with discussions on agroecology and the sustainability of food systems.

The inclusion of grey literature made it possible to triangulate scientific evidence with practice-based knowledge and insights from civil society and development institutions. This approach is particularly relevant for capturing the context-specific dynamics of agroecological transitions in West Africa. The use of grey literature is justified by the limited amount of data available on the subject of this review in scientific databases across the West African region.

The publications included in this review cover the period from 2000 to 2024, in order to capture recent and significant developments in the field of agroecology. This period has been characterized by a growing body of initiatives, experimental practices, and scientific outputs related to agroecology, particularly in countries of the Global South. An exploratory search conducted in March 2024 confirmed this temporal concentration of publications and helped identify relevant keywords and the most appropriate databases.

The year 2000 was selected as the starting point because it marks a turning point in the evolution of agroecology, as the concept began to expand beyond agronomic practices to encompass broader food system perspectives (Francis et al., 2003). Since then, agroecology has increasingly integrated systemic, socio-economic, and food system dimensions.

The search strategy relied on a combination of keywords such as “agroecology,” “food security and nutrition,” “scaling up,” “drivers and barriers,” “socio-economic viability,” and “climate change,” combined with the names of “West African countries.”

A thematic analysis was conducted based on the selected documents in order to identify the main drivers and barriers to scaling up agroecology in West Africa. Key trends in the scientific literature were extracted and categorized by country and thematic area, allowing for the identification of region-specific dynamics associated with agroecological transitions. This approach made it possible to highlight both convergences and divergences in the ways agroecology is conceptualized, implemented, and disseminated across different West African contexts.

Overview of the selected publications

The number of publications on agroecology in West Africa has increased exponentially over the study period (Figure 2). Of the 484 documents included in this review, approximately half (263 publications) were published within the last five years (2020–2024). Furthermore, nearly 84% of the publications (405 documents) were produced between 2015 and 2024, highlighting a relatively recent but rapidly growing interest in the topic.

This recent surge in scientific production underscores the still-emerging nature of agroecology in both scientific and policy debates in West Africa. However, it also raises important questions regarding the contribution and positioning of local researchers in that knowledge production. In this regard, the findings point to the need for more endogenous research, better rooted in local contexts and realities.

Five main themes have been identified from this literature corpus (Table 1). These themes include: agroecological practices and their effects on climate change;

impacts on food security and nutrition;

agroecological transitions in West Africa;

the socio-economic viability of agroecological systems; and

the drivers and barriers to their scaling up.

The majority of the reviewed publications focus on crop production, while relatively limited attention is given to other key sectors such as fisheries and aquaculture, sustainable livestock systems, and agro-processing. This dominant orientation reflects a still partial approach to agri-food systems in their entirety.

Among the most frequently documented agricultural practices are agroforestry, the reduction of external input use, soil fertility management, and crop diversification through intercropping and crop rotations (Table 1).

As of the completion date of this analysis (30 th, November 2024), only a limited number of studies explicitly address the drivers and barriers to scaling up agroecology in the West African context (Fitzpatrick, 2015; Antwi-Agyei et al., 2021; Côte et al., 2022). This gap in the literature highlights the need for further research on the concrete conditions that enable the dissemination and adoption of agroecological approaches in the region. Several studies should explore under-investigated areas, particularly the links between agroecology and climate change, as well as the potential for agroecological practices to improve the food security, incomes and livelihoods of rural communities.

Agroecology in West Africa: emergence and evolution

In West Africa, agroecological initiatives initially emerged primarily through farmer movements such as Enda Pronat in Senegal (DyTAES, 2020) and OBEPAB in Benin (Ozor and Nyambane, 2021), focused on combating synthetic inputs and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Since 1996, the OBEPAB (Beninese Organization for the Promotion of Organic Agriculture) has worked in Benin to promote environmentally friendly farming, particularly through organic cotton production and raising awareness against pesticide use (Ozor and Nyambane, 2021). In 2004, the Coalition for the Protection of African Genetic Heritage (COPAGEN) was established to fight against GMOs (Genetically Modified Organism) in Africa and to support peasant agroecology. The Nyéléni global forum in 2007, which brought together over 500 organizations, established the principles of this approach (Nyéléni, 2007).

Support for agroecology movements has strengthened over the past decade. The Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA), created in 2008 and officially launched at COP 17 in Durban in 2011, advocates for food sovereignty and family farming as alternatives for transforming food systems (AFSA, 2017a,b). In 2017, several farmer organizations adopted the Peasant Agroecology Manifesto, emphasizing the importance of agroecology for planetary and human security (CNOP, 2017). In 2018, ROPPA endorsed this manifesto with an official position statement and, together with IPES-Food, launched the Alliance for Agroecology in West Africa (3AO), an advocacy network promoting agroecological transition.

In Senegal, DyTAES (Dynamic for an Agroecological Transition in Senegal) was established in 2019, bringing together various organizations to identify the challenges of senegalese agriculture and promote agroecological initiatives (DyTAES, 2020). At the public policy level, most West African countries, with a few exceptions, have incorporated agroecological principles into their agricultural strategies, although investments in this area remain limited (CEDEAO, 2023). The ECOWAS Agroecology Program, launched in 2017, aims to transform regional food systems (Milhorance et al., 2023).

These various movements and developments highlight the commitment of civil society actors, including farmers’ organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), to advocating for the promotion of agroecology. Political commitment, however, remains limited and largely invisible, although a few isolated initiatives are beginning to emerge, notably in Senegal. While civil society advocacy is becoming increasingly prominent, further efforts will be needed to more effectively attract the attention and secure the commitment of political actors.

Principles of agroecology integrated in farming practices in West Africa

Following a consultative process between two symposia on agroecology (in September 2014 and April 2018), the FAO established a set of ten elements of agroecology in 2018 (FAO, 2018a). These elements were identified for their transformative potential toward sustainable, equitable, and resilient agri-food systems (FAO, 2018b). However, they alone do not fully capture the concept’s potential.

After the foundational principles by Miguel Altieri (Altieri, 2014; Darmaun, 2023) and others (Altieri and Nicholls, 2005; CIDSE, 2018; Dumont et al., 2015; Stassart et al., 2012), HLPE (2019) published a set of 13 principles well aligned with the FAO’s ten elements and Gliessman’s five levels of agroecological transition (Gliessman, 2015, 2016). Some of these principles are incorporated in initiatives supporting producers while others are absent in current agricultural advisory frameworks in West Africa (Djamen, 2024) (Figure 3).

The literature today shows strong convergence among agroecological initiatives that rely on these two frameworks. This harmonized analytical framework helps reduce discrepancies around the principles and elements of the agroecology concept, contrasting with the ongoing debate around a unified definition of the subject (Biovision and Agroecology Info Pool, 2018; Gliessman, 2018).

Potential of agroecology for transforming food systems

One of the major questions today is whether agroecology can meet the challenges of food security while preserving the environment. This section explores arguments for and against agroecology.

Supportive and opposing narratives for broader agroecology

The agricultural intensification narrative

Globally, demographic trends are a concern. The Sub-Saharan Africa’s (SSA) population is expected to exceed 1.5 billion by 2030 and reach two billion by 2050 (Jacquemot, 2023). In response, increased productivity and food production are essential for achieving food security. The narrative of agricultural intensification to feed a growing population is characterized by increased use of synthetic inputs (Falconnier et al., 2023), irrigation, mechanization, and biotechnologies. It is seen as a necessary alternative to feed a rapidly growing African population (Jacquemot, 2023). Africa remains dependent on imported food resources, especially cereals (EU, 2024; Jacquemot, 2023). In SSA, food imports are projected to increase drastically, from 15 billion to 110 billion between 2018 and 2025 (EU, 2024), to meet population needs (Falcon et al., 2022; UN, 2024). By 2050, demand is expected to rise by 50-60% (Falcon et al., 2022). Furthermore, West African countries face various crises, including population migrations in the Sahel, climate change, land degradation, and desertification. The intensification approach is thus justified by these crises and the motivation to “ feed the people ” (HLPE, 2019; Jacquemot, 2023). The question, therefore, is how to produce sufficient food to meet growing needs while minimizing environmental degradation, avoiding further exacerbation of climate change, and ensuring food quality.

The agroecological narrative

In contrast to the intensive model, agroecology promotes sustainable food systems that value local knowledge and ecological processes (HLPE, 2019; Lucantoni et al., 2023; Stassart et al., 2012). It aims to reduce agriculture’s contribution to climate change and biodiversity loss (Anderson et al., 2021; Dittmer et al., 2023; Rockström et al., 2009) while improving food security and nutrition. Agroecology also enhances agricultural resilience to shocks (Lin et al., 2011; Sinclair et al., 2019) especially in the context of climate change (Altieri et al., 2015). Unlike the conventional model, which meets only 30% of global food needs, small agroecological producers supply approximately 70% of the world’s food from relatively small cultivated areas, demonstrating an underestimated potential for strengthening food security (IPES-Food, 2024). Another argument highlights nutrition and food sovereignty. Agroecological farmers, by producing their own needs and those of their communities, strengthen food security, food sovereignty, and nutrition, diversifying diets (Bellon et al., 2016; Bezner Kerr et al., 2019, 2021, 2022; Jacquemot, 2023; La Via Campesina, 2015). But under what conditions would engaging in an agroecological transition benefit West African farmers, taking into account their specific contexts? And to what extent could promoting agroecology help policymakers fulfil their commitments to food and nutrition security and poverty reduction while reducing environmental degradation? These are critical questions that require robust scientific evidence across the diverse contexts of the region.

These two opposing narratives share the goal of producing enough to feed the world. By questioning whether it is possible to feed Africa based on the agroecological approach, Fitzpatrick (2015) highlighted both the potential of agroecology and the challenges to be addressed. Increasingly, research provides insights supporting agroecology, but there is still a need to produce more evidence on the means to achieve this goal, as well as on the potential compromises between the two narratives. A substantial gap remains in the current scientific literature, along with unequal access to evidence across countries, making it particularly challenging to develop uniform strategies for the West African region.

Socioeconomic benefits of agroecology

Across West African countries, and more broadly across Africa, agroecological practices are already present to varying degrees within farming systems (Viability Project Team, 2023). In many farms, farmers implement at least one practice that is consistent with agroecological principles, although the extent, combination, and intensity of adoption vary considerably across contexts (Kpadonou et al., 2017; Romero Antonio et al., 2024; Tapsoba et al., 2023). Some photographs of agroecological practices documented during fieldwork in Benin explain the diversity of agroecology across the region (Figure 4). The majority of the publications reviewed focused on Burkina-Faso, Mali, Nigeria, Benin, Niger, Senegal (Romero Antonio et al., 2024). More broadly, maize is the crop most frequently investigated in intercropping systems, particularly in association with beans, cowpea, soybean, millet, sorghum, and groundnut (Franke et al., 2010; Kermah et al., 2017; Romero Antonio et al., 2024). Crop rotation and cereal-leguminous intercropping are identified as the most popular agroecological practices in Benin and in Burkina-Faso (Tapsoba et al., 2023). Key elements serve as a basis for analyzing the socioeconomic advantages of agroecology. Studies showed that although conventional agriculture often achieves higher yields (Seufert et al., 2012), the gap narrows as agroecological practices are adopted. In Burkina Faso, for instance, with the Zaï practice, Cartsburg et al. (2024) observed improved yields of maize, sorghum, and millet by up to 35% over ten years. In both Ghana and Nigeria, maize-legume intercropping systems have been shown to increase maize-grain yield (Franke et al., 2010; Kermah et al., 2017). The Zaï technique is an indigenous soil and water conservation practice that involves digging large planting pits and filling them with organic matter before sowing (Slingerland and Stork, 2000; Reij et al., 2009; Danso-Abbeam et al., 2019). These pits capture and retain surface runoff water, thereby improving soil moisture availability, over 500% of the water holding capacity of the soil (Danjuma and Mohammed, 2015) and concentrating nutrients around the plants. The Zaï and other practices such as half-moon structures, organic mulching also enhance soil fertility and carbon sequestration (Slingerland and Stork, 2000; Ouédraogo et al., 2001; Bright et al., 2017; Vall et al., 2017) while limiting the use of chemical inputs (Fitzpatrick, 2015). Like the Zaï technique, the half-moon practice is a water-harvesting technique that involves creating semi-circular planting pits to capture and retain runoff water (Reij et al., 2009). When combined with the incorporation of an organic matter in the planting pits, this technique has been shown to increase sorghum yields by improving degraded soil productivity and enhancing the management of runoff water in semi-arid regions of Burkina-Faso (Zougmoré et al., 2003). Other results from Ghana have revealed agronomic benefits of stone bunds practices, particularly improved soil water infiltration and retention, enhanced vegetation health, and increased crop yields. For sorghum, for instance, crop yields increased by more than 35% (Tefera et al., 2024). Zougmoré et al. (2014) identified, for West African Sahel, Zaï, half-moon and stone bunds techniques as among the most successful practices for improving water and nutrient availability, and soil structure. Such practices could therefore be promoted to sustain food production and secure farmers’ livelihoods while contributing to the provision of ecosystem services (Zougmoré et al., 2014).

Similarly, agroforestry combined with other soil fertility management practices has shown positive results in Benin (net margins and economic viability) (Cartsburg et al., 2024). An optimized intercropping system combining Piliostigma reticulatum with pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and annual groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) increased crop yields and had a positive effect on carbon sequestration, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation in Senegal over an 11-year study period (Bright et al., 2017). Additionally, the combination of legumes with cereals has resulted in yield increases of at least 20%, particularly in systems with low nitrogen inputs (Zhao et al., 2022). Yield increases up to double have also been reported by Pretty (2006) and Pretty et al. (2011). The implementation of a wide range of agroecological practices such as the use of biochar, mulching, animal manure, cover crops, can contribute to improving the socioeconomic stability of the rural households, especially for women. The application of these practices in Benin enhanced household livelihoods and generated benefits such as increased savings and improved capacity to invest in their children’s education (Cartsburg et al., 2024).

Agricultural diversification is a key agroecological practice (Ponisio et al., 2015; Somé and Jones, 2018), with positive effects on food security and dietary diversity (Bezner Kerr et al., 2021). Case studies from Benin, Ghana, and Burkina-Faso showed that agroecology strengthens food autonomy and supports food sovereignty by enabling households to source directly from local markets (Bellon et al., 2016). In family gardens, Gbedomon et al. (2017) observed in Benin a diversity of food and medicinal plants used for various household needs; these practices contribute significantly to the conservation of agrobiodiversity (Payne et al., 2011). These production systems exhibit a wide diversity of crop rotation and association practices, as well as organic fertilization (El Bilali et al., 2023).

However, the lack of country-specific data, as noted by El Bilali et al. (2023), hinders large-scale adoption of agroecology. Many West African countries remain underrepresented in the evidence included in this review. This considerably limits the ability to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the situation and to develop solutions that are consistent and applicable across all countries. This can reflect discordant political choices favoring conventional models (Tapsoba et al., 2020). Important research efforts are needed to generate reliable data on agroecology and its potential to transform agri-food systems.

Persistent doubts and skepticism about the potential of agroecology, despite accumulating evidences, may be explained by the dominance of conventional agricultural systems, widely promoted as the model to follow (AFSA, 2017a,b; Bottazzi and Boillat, 2021), and the lack of solid evidences on the potential of agroecology in West Africa (El Bilali et al., 2023). A crucial need exists for assessments using methods tailored to the local contexts.

Socioeconomic viability of agroecological practices

Agroecological practices improve household nutrition and reduce dependency on chemical inputs through the use of local inputs (Bezner Kerr et al., 2022), while enhancing the quality of local products. These practices have positive impacts on both nutrition and the health of producers, reducing exposure to chemicals (Bezner Kerr et al., 2021; Deaconu et al., 2021).

However, these practices require significant involvement from producers and a strong civic commitment to facilitate the co-creation and sharing of knowledge (Bezner Kerr et al., 2022). They have the potential to improve food security, reduce rural poverty, and increase farm income while promoting social inclusion (Altieri, 2002; van der Ploeg et al., 2019; Romero Antonio et al., 2024). According to Mouratiadou et al. (2024), agroecological practices generate positive externalities in 51% of cases and negative ones in 30%; negative effects are often related to the significant labor requirements and associated costs. However, this labor-intensive nature of agroecology can be balanced by productivity and yield improvements (El Bilali et al., 2022).

The socioeconomic viability of agroecology varies according to contexts and practices, with effects often more visible over the long term (Cartsburg et al., 2024). Most studied practices include agroforestry, crop diversification, and sustainable land management (Orounladji et al., 2024; Mouratiadou et al., 2024). Further research on medium and long-term impacts is needed to fully evaluate the socioeconomic impacts of agroecology, especially on youth employment, food security, household incomes, local economies, nutrition, and diets.

Despite tangible socioeconomic benefits brought by agroecological practices, several technical and institutional challenges hinder their large-scale dissemination. Its socioeconomic viability encompasses the time required for the widespread and sustained adoption of agroecology, the stability of incomes and markets, and access to a stable and readily available workforce or to appropriate mechanization to offset the high labour requirements associated with agroecological practices (Romero Antonio et al., 2024). Research on the social acceptability of agroecology, as well as on its compatibility with the objectives and constraints of farmers and policymakers, would also help to shed further light on the challenges surrounding its long-term viability.

Obstacles and levers for implementing agroecology in West Africa

Obstacles to scaling up agroecology in West Africa

Implementing agroecology in West Africa faces several specific obstacles, which can be grouped into three main categories: institutional barriers, socio-economic challenges, and technical limitations.

Institutional barriers

The lack of institutional support and the focus of public policies on conventional models limit the adoption of agroecology (Aare et al., 2021; Peano et al., 2020). Public subsidies and development programs are still mainly oriented towards intensive agriculture (Dumont et al., 2021), to the detriment of agroecological systems (ECOWAS, 2023). Senegal provides an illustrative example of efforts to subsidize organic inputs, with a substantial proportion of public financial resources being allocated to support their use (Milhorance et al., 2023). Although some initiatives, such as the ECOWAS Agroecology Program (PAE), have emerged, they remain underfunded with limited reach. The lack of integration of agroecology into national policy frameworks is one of the major obstacles to its scaling up (Peano et al., 2020).

Socio-economic challenges

Rural poverty and limited access to financial resources are significant barriers to adopting agroecological practices. Smallholders often lack the means to invest in agroecological infrastructures or access specific ecological inputs (Bezner Kerr et al., 2022). Moreover, local markets for agroecological products are still underdeveloped, discouraging producers from adopting these practices without a guaranteed financial return. The lack of financial support and innovative financing mechanisms, such as adapted microcredits (Mekuria et al., 2022), is a major obstacle to widespread adoption.

Technical limitations

In West Africa, farmers’ training in agroecological practices remains insufficient, and the lack of specialized extension or agricultural advisory services (Djamen, 2024; Punzano et al., 2021) hinders agroecological knowledges sharing. Additionally, rural infrastructures (roads, storage systems.) are often inadequate to support an effective agroecological transition. Agroecological approaches also require substantial labor due to the extra work involved (Laske and Michel, 2022; Montt and Luu, 2020).

These barriers present challenges at various levels of the West African agricultural system for a successful transition. However, significant scientific research is still needed (El Bilali et al., 2023) to identify specific challenges within countries and develop targeted solutions for each specific context.

Despite these obstacles, some levers can support a successful transition to agroecology. Solutions are emerging to help farmers overcome difficulties.

Levers to scaling up agroecology

Increased political support

Strengthening public policies favoring agroecology is essential for scaling it up (AFSA, 2018). Senegal, for example, has integrated agroecological principles into its agricultural strategies (Bottazzi and Boillat, 2021; Milhorance et al., 2022, 2023), while ECOWAS promotes these practices through regional initiatives like its Agroecology Program (Milhorance et al., 2024). Several countries in the region have started adopting agricultural strategies that incorporate agroecological aspects (Benin, Togo, Burkina-Faso, Mali). This momentum needs to be sustained and translated into concrete actions. This approach has shown significant progress in other regions of Africa, notably East Africa (Biovision Foundation, 2024), where stronger political engagement is observed. Policies that support smallholders, combined with financial incentives for agroecology, can stimulate widespread adoption. Improved coordination is also needed to ensure consistency between national policies and local initiatives.

Capacity building and training

Farmers’ training and the dissemination of agroecological practices are crucial for adoption. Local initiatives, such as agroecology farmer schools and farmer field schools, provide platforms for knowledge exchange and practical training for producers (Bakker et al., 2021). Furthermore, agricultural advisory services need to be modernized to integrate digital tools and personalized advisory services to reach more farmers.

Access to local markets and short supply chains

Developing short supply chains and local markets that facilitate direct contact between consumers and producers is essential for improving the profitability of small producers (Iles, 2021; IPES-Food, 2024). In Benin and Burkina-Faso, online marketing platforms, short marketing circuits, fairs/exhibitions, combined with local direct sales initiatives, and Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) emerged as mechanisms for connecting agroecological producers with local consumers (Tapsoba et al., 2022). These initiatives can play a vital role in promoting agroecology, although it remains limited in scale and poorly known among consumers. The development of niche and institutional markets, particularly through school and university catering services and other forms of public procurement, could play a relevant role in stimulating demand for agroecological products and fostering the expansion of agroecological practices by smallholder farmers (Brooks et al., 2014). In parallel, accessible certification and insurance mechanisms, such as Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS), could help producers and other value-chain actors access remunerative markets while enhancing the recognition and differentiation of agroecological products (Home et al., 2017). These may therefore provide important incentives for strengthening the transition towards more dynamic and sustainable agroecological food systems.

Innovative financial support

Adapted financing mechanisms, such as microcredits and targeted subsidies, can help farmers overcome financial barriers to adopting agroecological practices. Funding for community projects, such as cooperatives and agroecology networks, can also play a central role in spreading sustainable practices.

These identified levers to scaling up agroecology in West Africa offer promising prospects. However, this transformation requires the implementation of key actions by networks of actors and public policies to reverse the current trend towards a more sustainable food system. Researchers, policymakers, development agencies, producers, and consumers must all coordinate efforts towards a clear strategic orientation and effective implementation.

Analytical synthesis: conditions for sustainable agroecological transitions in West Africa

An analysis of the body of literature reviewed suggests that the implementation and scaling up of agroecology in West Africa cannot be explained solely by the presence or absence of a few favorable factors considered in isolation. Rather, agroecological transitions result from the interaction and articulation of multiple institutional, socioeconomic, technical, and market-related factors (Cartsburg et al., 2024; Djamen, 2024; Mouratiadou et al., 2024). Thus, political support alone is unlikely to induce the large-scale adoption of agroecological practices in the absence of adequate technical training (AFSA, 2018), greater recognition and mobilization of local knowledge, access to financial resources, and viable markets. Similarly, capacity-building efforts are likely to produce limited and variable effects if producers lack reliable market outlets for their products or if lower-income consumers are unable to afford products that may be slightly more expensive, even when such products are perceived to be of higher quality and to offer potential health benefits. There is therefore a need to conceive and implement complementary and interdependent strategies and solutions capable of fostering lasting transformations of food systems.

Strong institutional and political commitment can help create a more enabling environment through more substantial and targeted subsidies, the more effective integration of agroecology into national agricultural strategies, and the translation of such commitments into concrete actions. Depending on the context, these actions could include the regulation of markets for imported products to promote local production and the reorientation of institutional procurement—including school and university feeding programs, food security reserves, and other forms of public procurement—towards agroecological products. Mechanisms designed to reduce or manage the economic and climate-related risks associated with the transition could further encourage different actors to remain engaged and progressively improve their practices, supported by more appropriate infrastructure and agroecology-oriented mechanization. Secure land tenure is also essential to enable farmers to engage in the longer and more complex production and investment cycles required by certain agroecological practices. Capacity building should, in turn, constitute one component of a broader support system encompassing technical training, the mobilization and valorization of local knowledge, and strategies such as experimentation, demonstration activities, and farmer field schools (Bakker et al., 2021), as well as improved access to safer inputs. Better organization and coordination among actors, combined with appropriate and affordable certification or insurance mechanisms, short supply chains, and innovative distribution initiatives, could further facilitate the recognition and valorization of transition efforts (Iles, 2021).

Conversely, some constraints may constitute cross-cutting bottlenecks capable of severely inhibiting transformation efforts. These include limited access to sufficient labor to meet the additional labor requirements associated with certain agroecological practices (Laske and Michel, 2022), restricted access to financial resources and appropriate infrastructure, and limited access to remunerative markets. For example, the lack of promising markets offering prices that adequately reflect the quality and differentiated value of agroecological products may rapidly reduce producers’ willingness to engage sustainably in agroecological practices (Tapsoba et al., 2022; Romero Antonio et al., 2024) when these are perceived as less profitable or involve higher production costs.

Overall, the available evidence suggests that agroecological transitions are more likely to succeed when they are supported by a coherent combination of concrete political and institutional commitment, adequate capacity building among relevant actors, appropriate economic incentives (Mekuria et al., 2022), access to suitable resources and infrastructure, stable and promising market opportunities, and greater recognition and mobilization of local knowledge. Scaling up agroecology should therefore not be understood as the linear adoption of a predefined set of practices and techniques, but as a complex and context-dependent process whose success depends on the interaction and the alignment of these conditions.

Research avenues in agroecology in the West African context

West Africa currently exhibits a significant lack of scientific evidence and proven experiences to justify the performance and potential of the agroecological approach in the region's diverse contexts. Several research avenues are proposed:

Few studies, both in West Africa and globally, have provided evidences of the social, economic, and human potential of the agroecological approach. This remains a largely unexplored field, and further works could offer tangible insights. Key barriers to scaling up agroecology are diverse and operate at multiple levels. Addressing these obstacles will require the generation of robust scientific evidence capable of informing strategies to overcome them. This includes, for instance, clarifying the level of political commitment required and identifying the main efforts and adjustments expected from producers and consumers to facilitate the scaling up of agroecology. What proportion of public resources allocated to agriculture should be dedicated to specific agroecological subsidies, and how can such support be combined with the engagement of more convinced and committed producers to initiate the local embedding of agroecology within farming systems? Another key challenge will be to identify the conditions and strategies needed to address labor constraints in a context where young people are becoming increasingly less attracted to agriculture, while promoting the development of more appropriate agroecological mechanization and infrastructure. Further in-depth research is needed to assess the technical potential of agroecology to effectively combine and optimize different production factors and agroecological practices in order to achieve sufficient and sustainable levels of production while contributing to food security, improved nutrition, food sovereignty and improved agricultural livelihoods.

Based on the identified research gaps, the following research directions are proposed: Generating long-term comparative field evidence on the performance of agroecological and conventional production systems;

Developing multidimensional performance assessments integrating productivity, income, labour requirements, nutrition, biodiversity, resilience and other trade-offs, based on context-specific and appropriately adapted assessment tools;

Conducting country-specific analysis of the institutional, governance and policy conditions required for scaling up agroecology in West Africa;

Examining the roles of markets, value chains, financing mechanisms and economic incentives in supporting agroecological transitions; and

Investigating mechanisms for co-creating, validating and disseminating locally grounded knowledge, including agroecology-based advisory and training approaches, with farmers and other relevant stakeholders.

Evidence is gradually emerging on the potential of agroecology to contribute to more resilient and sustainable food systems. The agricultural context of West Africa, characterized by smallholder farming, may offer a favorable condition for the expected transformations. However, significant obstacles and limitations persist, particularly due to limited institutional support, inconsistencies in agricultural development strategies, and insufficient evidence on the socioeconomic performance and other broader externalities of agroecological approaches.

While substantial scientific efforts are still needed to generate context-specific evidence for West African countries, policymakers also need to provide clearer policy directions and more concrete support for agroecological transitions. The evidence reviewed suggests that transitions are unlikely to result from isolated interventions, but rather depend on the interaction and alignment of multiple institutional, technical, socioeconomic, and market-related conditions. Scientific research has a critical role to play in strengthening the evidence base, as important knowledge gaps remain in several areas, including education and capacity building, certification and assurance mechanisms, specific market development, and the socioeconomic viability of agroecological systems.

Each West African country should move beyond the mere adoption of national strategies for agroecology by strengthening both the generation and use of context-specific scientific evidence. Such evidence would support more informed decision-making regarding how agroecological transitions can be facilitated within specific national contexts and provide a stronger basis for designing and implementing appropriate and context-sensitive support strategies.

Research should, in turn, invest more substantially in under-explored areas, including the multidimensional performance of agroecological systems, access to differentiated and remunerative markets, and the identification of context-specific drivers, enabling conditions, and barriers to scaling up agroecology. Generating such evidence would help identify country-specific pathways for agroecological transitions and inform more effective, coherent and context-sensitive policies and interventions.