Avocado (Persea americana Mill) seed starch: composition, extraction, and applications—a comprehensive review

Highlights

• Synthesis of structural and functional information regarding avocado seed starch.
• High apparent amylose content of isolated starch reaches 48%.
• Metabolically important resistant starch up to 78%.
• Biomaterials created through the sustainable processing and modification of starch.
• The starch obtained from waste material promotes the concept of circular bioeconomy.

1 Introduction

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.), a tropical and subtropical fruit of Central American and Mexican origin, has received significant interest worldwide due to its exceptional nutritional and functional properties (Salazar-lópez et al., 2020). Its pulp is a valuable source of monounsaturated fatty acids, dietary fiber, tocopherols, phytosterols, minerals, vitamins, and other bioactive phytochemicals, thus ensuring its widespread use in the food, nutraceutical, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries (Araújo et al., 2020). To meet growing consumer preferences for health-promoting plant-based products, there has been an increase in avocado production all around the globe, that has substantially driven the development of various streams of products and by-products from its processing (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b).

Avocado seeds represent 13%–18% of the total weight of the fruits and are generally discarded as waste during commercial processes. In this regard, the careless disposal of such waste causes problems associated with environmental pollution, increased costs for their management, and infestation by pests (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b). Nevertheless, contemporary research works revealed that the seeds of avocados contain high concentrations of starch, dietary fibre, minerals, phenolics, and antioxidants that possess more pronounced antioxidant activity than the pulp part of the fruits (Araújo et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022). Thus, the use of the avocado seed biomass becomes an interesting approach in sustainable food processing and waste reduction strategies.

Starch has received a considerable amount of research attention in competition with that of other seed components, owing to its technological properties and applications. It is one of the biopolymers that finds its suitability among a vast range of technological processes as of its ability to thicken, gel, stabilize, encapsulate, and adhere, as well as its film-forming abilities (Alcázar-Alay and Meireles, 2015). Presently, commercial production of starch still involves the use of traditional plant-based raw materials, including corn, potatoes, cassava, and wheat. Nonetheless, issues such as sustainability, food security, and utilization of waste agricultural material have stimulated the search for alternatives (Compart et al., 2023). Nevertheless, the growing demand for sustainable materials and increasing concerns regarding food security have stimulated intensive research into non-conventional starch sources obtained from underutilized crops and agro-industrial residues rather than relying exclusively on maize, wheat, potato, and cassava. Recent reviews on banana, taro, water chestnut, and other unconventional starches have highlighted their potential to diversify commercial starch resources while simultaneously promoting waste valorization and sustainable industrial development (Dhull et al., 2021; Kaur et al., 2021; Kaur et al., 2023).

Starch extracted from avocado seeds exhibits distinctive physicochemical, thermal, rheological, and digestibility characteristics that are also of much significance (Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016; De Dios-Avila et al., 2022). Moreover, advances in starch modification have demonstrated improved functionality for biodegradable packaging, drug-delivery systems, food products, and nanobiomaterials in various starch sources; these findings provide a basis for considering analogous potential applications of avocado seed starch (He et al., 2023). Recent advances in starch modification technologies further demonstrate that environmentally friendly approaches such as heat-moisture treatment, annealing, microwave processing, high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, and cold plasma offer promising alternatives to conventional chemical modification methods (Suri and Singh, 2023).

Although significant advances have been made in recent years, the present information is fragmentary and includes an overall critical analysis concerning methodologies of extraction, the relationship between structures and functions, modification techniques, and new applications of the starch from avocado seeds. The review discusses advances in studies on avocado seed starch in terms of;Generally, this review article tries to place avocado seed starch into the framework of sustainable biomaterials in terms of valorization and bio-based economy.

• Chemical structure and properties of avocado seed flour and starch;
• Extraction and purification techniques;
• Morphology, thermodynamic, physicochemical, and rheological behavior;
• Physical, chemical, enzymatic, and combined modification aspects;
• Current and future food applications along with pharma, textile, packaging, and others;
• Nanotechnological approaches using avocado starch, keeping it as sustainable biomaterials.

Although avocado seed valorization has received increasing attention, the existing literature remains fragmented in scope and emphasis. Bangar et al. (2022a) and Bangar et al. (2022b) provided a broad review of avocado seed composition, biological properties, and food-related applications, with starch discussed as one component of the seed rather than as the central subject (Flores et al., 2019). Hassan et al. (2024) subsequently focused on starch extraction, chemical processing, and selected antioxidant and antibacterial applications, particularly in relation to microwave-assisted extraction and chemically modified starch. More recently, the literature has expanded toward starch structure and functionality, non-conventional starch applications, biodegradable packaging, and nanostructured materials, but these developments remain dispersed across individual studies and broader reviews.

Accordingly, a focused synthesis is still needed to integrate the rapidly expanding evidence on avocado seed starch from extraction and purification through composition, morphology, crystallinity, thermal, rheological and digestibility characteristics, modification strategies, and emerging food, pharmaceutical, packaging, biomaterial, and nanotechnology applications. The present review addresses this gap by critically connecting processing conditions with structure–function relationships and potential industrial significance, while also identifying unresolved issues related to cultivar variability, extraction standardization, scale-up, safety validation, and techno-economic and life-cycle assessment. In contrast to earlier reviews that primarily address avocado seed valorization broadly or specific aspects of starch processing, this review places avocado seed starch itself at the centre of an integrated structure–processing–function–application framework and incorporates recent developments up to 2026.

2 Methodology

The narrative-critical approach was used in collecting and analysing the available scientific publications concerning starch extracted from avocado seeds (Persea americana Mill). The use of this technique appears justified by high variability among the existing studies as regards the source of the examined starch, the variety of avocados, the method of extraction, analysis techniques, and criteria for functional assessment of the material studied (Alcázar-alay et al., 2015; Hoover et al., 2010).

The related studies have been collected by searching scientific databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar. The keyword search strategy used included the following terms: avocado seed, Persea americana, starch, physicochemical properties, thermal properties, resistant starch, starch modification, rheology, biopolymer, nanoparticles, and functional properties. Manual searches of references of relevant reviews and primary research were performed to augment the database searches for a thorough literature search.

2.1 Inclusion criteria

Studies were included if they: (i) Explored experimental isolation cum extraction methodology of starch from avocado seed. (ii) Presented information about physicochemical, structural, thermal, rheological, digestibility, or functional aspects. (iii) Evaluated the methods used for starch modification, such as physical, chemical, enzymatic, or dual methods. (iv) Covered industrial or biotechnological applications of avocado seed starch and (v) Appeared in peer-reviewed scientific journals published in English.

In order to support an analysis of structure-function relationships, relevant studies on both conventional and unconventional starches from other plant sources were also included to provide mechanistic insights into avocado seed starch. Comparative analyses of extraction methodologies and starch characteristics across botanical sources are widely employed to identify common processing principles, structure-function relationships, and opportunities for process optimization (Cornelia and Christianti, 2018; Singh and Dartois, 2010; Ahmed et al., 2026).

2.2 Exclusion criteria

Studies were excluded if they: (i) Focused exclusively on the fruit pulp, oil, peel or phytochemical content of avocado; (ii) Were unrelated to starch properties or applications; (iii) Were grey literature or had insufficient details regarding methodology; (iv) Had overlapping information with previously selected studies.

The reasons behind such criteria were based on improving scientific reliability and consistency of research findings.

2.3 Data extraction and synthesis

Systematic data were collected from each of the suitable studies for information on the following parameters: type of cultivar; proximate composition; amylose concentration; granule structure; thermal properties; swelling capacity; solubility; pasting properties; amount of resistant starch; method of modification; and applications. Where the same procedures for analysis were used in different studies, comparison of results was undertaken and a representative range provided in order to highlight any trends, variations among different cultivars, and effect of processing. The main focus of this comparison was on the link between structure and function of rice.

The interpretation strategy for this review is influenced by existing knowledge on the structure-function properties of starch, studies on resistant starch, and sustainability in biomaterials (Liu et al., 2009; Otoni et al., 2021; Fuentes-Zaragoza et al., 2010).

3 Chemical composition and properties of avocado seed starch

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) seeds consist primarily of starch, along with minor amounts of protein, fiber, lipids, ash, phenolics, and moisture content (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b). Once the seed has been extracted and purified, starch constitutes the predominant fraction owing to significant depletion of other fractions after wet extraction processes. This has a direct impact on the architecture and functionality of the starch fraction.

3.1 Proximate composition

Avocado seed flour and isolated starch differ substantially in their proximate composition, with variations influenced by cultivar, fruit maturity, and processing conditions. Starch isolation markedly reduces non-starch constituents, particularly proteins, lipids, and ash, resulting in a comparatively purified starch fraction. In the study of De Dios-Avila et al. (2022) and Wardiyah et al. (2021), protein decreased from approximately 5.2% in the flour to 0.40%–0.45% in the isolated starch, while lipid and ash contents decreased to 0.13%–0.23% and 0.05%–0.06%, respectively. These changes indicate effective removal of non-starch components during isolation and are important for interpreting subsequent thermal, rheological, and functional properties of the purified starch.

The compositional differences between avocado seed flour and isolated starch reflect the purification effect of starch extraction. The substantially higher starch proportion in the isolated fraction, together with the marked reduction in protein, lipid, and ash contents, indicates effective removal of non-starch components during isolation. Variation in the reported ranges may also arise from cultivar differences, maturity, growing conditions, and differences in extraction and purification procedures. From an industrial perspective, the higher starch purity of the isolated fraction is advantageous because it provides a more consistent raw material for gelatinization, modification, film formation, and other downstream applications. Although conventional starches such as maize, cassava, potato, and wheat remain the dominant commercial sources, avocado seed starch offers an alternative route for recovering starch from an agro-industrial residue while reducing dependence on dedicated starch crops.

This high apparent amylose content of avocado seed starch (Table 1) is particularly important since amylose content has a pronounced effect on the process of gelatinization, susceptibility to retrogradation, resistance to degradation into other starch types, and the firmness of the gel formed (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b).

Table 1. Proximate ranges of avocado seed flour and isolated starch (dry basis).

3.2 Morphological properties

The morphology of starch granules is closely associated with their physicochemical, thermal, and functional behavior. Granule size, shape, surface characteristics, and internal organization are influenced by botanical origin, genetic background, environmental conditions, and starch biosynthesis during seed development (Singla et al., 2020; Compart et al., 2023). Differences in granule architecture can consequently affect hydration, swelling, pasting behavior, enzymatic accessibility, and digestibility. Similar structure–function relationships have been reported for starches from non-conventional botanical sources, including banana, taro, and water chestnut.

Microscopic analyses of avocado seed starch using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have shown predominantly oval, ellipsoidal, and spherical granules, with occasional elongated or irregular forms. The granules generally exhibit relatively smooth and intact surfaces, with limited evidence of pores, cracks, or fissures (Wang et al., 2022). Reported granule dimensions generally fall within the micrometre range, although considerable variation may occur depending on cultivar, maturity, and starch-isolation conditions. Such differences indicate that cultivar and processing history should be considered when comparing morphological characteristics among avocado seed starches.

Under polarized light microscopy, avocado seed starch granules exhibit characteristic birefringence, commonly observed as a Maltese cross. This birefringence reflects the ordered molecular arrangement within the granule and is consistent with its semicrystalline organization, comprising crystalline and amorphous regions (Wang et al., 2022). The degree of molecular ordering and crystalline organization can influence water penetration, swelling behavior, gelatinization, and susceptibility to enzymatic hydrolysis. Therefore, morphological and structural characteristics provide an important basis for interpreting the thermal behavior and relatively high resistant-starch content reported for avocado seed starch (De Dios-Avila et al., 2022; Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b).

3.3 Thermal properties

Several studies have assessed the thermodynamic behavior of avocado seed starch through DSC techniques. Avocado seed starch demonstrates higher gelatinization temperature values than other common types of starch including cassava, potato, and maize starch due to its highly stable and tightly packed granule structure (De Dios-Avila et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022). Parameter values of gelatinization are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Typical gelatinization parameter ranges for avocado seed starch.

The gelatinization ranges summarized in Table 2 indicate relatively high thermal requirements for avocado seed starch, with onset, peak, and conclusion temperatures ranging from 56–74, 70–74, and 74–76 °C, respectively, and gelatinization enthalpy ranging from 11.4–13.43 J/g. Differences among reported values are likely associated with cultivar, starch composition, crystallinity, granule organization, moisture conditions, and processing history. The comparatively high gelatinization temperatures relative to common starches such as cassava, potato, and maize indicate stronger structural organization and intermolecular interactions, which may contribute to resistance during thermal processing. Industrially, this behavior can be advantageous in applications requiring paste and structural stability during heating, including extrusion, retorting, sauces, films, and concentrated gel systems, although the greater energy requirement for gelatinization should be considered during process design.

Higher Tp and ΔH values reflect stronger interactions and dense crystalline packing, which are associated with the amylose-rich composition of avocado seed starch (De Dios-Avila et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022). These characteristics contribute to resistance during thermal processing but may also increase the energy requirements for gelatinization, with implications for processing performance and energy use in extrusion and retorting (De Dios-Avila et al., 2022; Santos et al., 2016). These characteristics provide better resistance to thermal processing and mechanical stress.

3.4 Physicochemical and functional properties

The physicochemical characteristics of avocado seed starch behave uniquely in terms of variation among their structural attributes with varying temperature. Below 75 °C–80 °C, the ability to absorb water, swelling capacity, and solubility stay low, but above this point, destruction of crystalline zones and amylose removal cause these characteristics to sharply increase (Santos et al., 2016). RVA and Brabender analysis for pasting curves generally showed that the avocado starch features: (i) high peak viscosity; (ii) very low breakdown values (indicating strong resistance to heat and shear); (iii) Moderate to low setback values (suggesting reduced retrogradation); and (iv) formation of strong gel networks with high final viscosity (De Dios-Avila et al., 2022; Santos et al., 2016).

One of the important characteristics of avocado seed starch lies in the high presence of resistant starch, which may exceed 60% in some types, such as Hass, that reaches up to 70%–78% (Wang et al., 2022). High levels of RS (Figure 1) indicate poor digestibility, low glycaemic index, enhanced satiety and prebiotic effect of the avocado starch (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b; Wang et al., 2022).

Some reported values are difficult to reconcile rather than simply variable: resistant starch is reported as exceeding 60% in some studies but reaching 70%–78% specifically for Hass starch in others (Wang et al., 2022), and apparent amylose rises sharply from flour (17.46%–19.73%) to isolated starch (42.25%–48.02%, Table 1) by a margin larger than purification alone would suggest. These discrepancies likely reflect differences in assay protocol (e.g., resistant-starch method, moisture basis) as much as genuine cultivar differences, and this methodological inconsistency, rather than composition alone, limits direct cross-study comparison Table 3.

Table 3. Comparative physicochemical properties of avocado seed starch and selected plant starches.

4 Isolation and extraction of avocado seed starch

Isolation of starch from the seeds of Persea americana Mill. (avocado), is important to optimize starch extraction, preserve the structural integrity of starch granules, and obtain reproducibility in its physicochemical properties. The method of starch extraction plays a key role in affecting starch yield, purity, structure, crystallinity, thermodynamics, digestibility, and potential applications. Traditional wet chemical methods are the most common methodologies used; however, the need for greener extraction techniques has fueled this field, keeping in view more significant cum sustainable approaches (Mieles-Gómez et al., 2025).

4.1 Conventional methods

Avocado seed starch is generally isolated using wet milling followed by filtration, sedimentation or centrifugation, and repeated washing, with modifications of conventional starch-extraction procedures used for cereals and root crops (Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016; De Dios-Avila et al., 2022). The process generally begins with depulping, washing, peeling, slicing, and drying of the seeds, typically at moderate temperatures, followed by milling to obtain a fine flour. The flour is subsequently dispersed in water or an aqueous extraction medium and homogenized to facilitate the release of starch granules from the cellular matrix.

Because avocado seeds contain appreciable amounts of phenolic compounds and endogenous polyphenol oxidase, enzymatic browning can occur during preparation and extraction. Consequently, sulfite-containing media, including sodium metabisulfite, sodium bisulfite, or Tris–NaCl–NaHSO₃ systems, have been used to limit browning and oxidative reactions during starch isolation (Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016). Following homogenization, the slurry is filtered through a fine mesh or cloth to remove fibrous material. The starch-rich fraction is then recovered by sedimentation or centrifugation, repeatedly washed to remove proteins, lipids, soluble compounds, and residual fibre, and subsequently dried and sieved to obtain the isolated starch fraction (De Dios-Avila et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022).

Reported starch recovery varies considerably among studies, with values ranging from approximately 6.9%–49.5% on a dry-matter basis. Such variation reflects differences in cultivar, fruit maturity, seed composition, particle size, extraction medium, solid-to-liquid ratio, separation procedure, and processing conditions (Santos et al., 2016; Caballero-Sanchez et al., 2023). Therefore, reported extraction yields should be compared cautiously because the values are not necessarily obtained under equivalent experimental conditions.

Reported starch recovery varies considerably among studies, with values ranging from approximately 6.9%–49.5% on a dry-matter basis. Such variation reflects differences in cultivar, fruit maturity, seed composition, particle size, extraction medium, solid-to-liquid ratio, separation procedure, and processing conditions (Santos et al., 2016; Caballero-Sanchez et al., 2023). Therefore, reported extraction yields should be compared cautiously because the values are not necessarily obtained under equivalent experimental conditions.

4.1.1 Limitations of conventional wet extraction

Despite its simplicity and ability to preserve the native granular structure, conventional wet milling and sedimentation has several limitations that constrain its industrial applicability. First, the process is relatively water intensive, because repeated dispersion, sedimentation, decantation, and washing steps are required to achieve adequate starch purity. This generates substantial volumes of starch-containing wastewater that may contain soluble phenolics, proteins, sulfites, and other organic constituents, thereby increasing wastewater-treatment requirements.

Second, the process is time consuming. Sedimentation may require repeated settling and washing cycles before a sufficiently purified starch fraction is obtained. The dependence on gravity-driven separation also makes processing efficiency sensitive to granule size, slurry concentration, viscosity, and differences in sedimentation behavior. At larger processing scales, these characteristics may complicate process control and increase equipment and operational requirements.

Third, starch recovery and purity can vary considerably. Fine starch granules may remain suspended in the supernatant or become associated with fibre and other cellular components, resulting in starch losses during filtration and decantation. Incomplete separation may also lead to residual protein, fibre, lipid, or phenolic material in the recovered starch. Conversely, intensive washing improves purity but increases water consumption and processing time.

Fourth, avocado seeds present an additional challenge because of their high phenolic content and susceptibility to enzymatic browning. Oxidative reactions during seed cutting, milling, and aqueous processing can cause discoloration and may affect the physicochemical characteristics of the recovered starch. The use of sulfiting agents can mitigate this problem, but it introduces additional processing inputs and may conflict with efforts to develop reagent-minimized or clean-label extraction systems (Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016).

Finally, conventional wet extraction provides limited opportunities for selective control of starch structure and functionality. Although relatively mild processing can preserve native granule morphology, the process is primarily designed for separation rather than controlled modification of particle size, crystallinity, surface characteristics, or digestibility. Consequently, conventional extraction may not provide the process intensification or functionality tailoring required for high-value applications.

From an industrial and circular-bioeconomy perspective, these limitations are particularly relevant because avocado seeds are generated as a dispersed agro-industrial residue and may require transportation, storage, and stabilization before starch recovery. Thus, a technically viable extraction process must achieve not only high starch recovery but also reduced water and energy consumption, shorter processing times, reproducible purity, and preservation or purposeful tailoring of starch functionality. These considerations provide the rationale for investigating emerging extraction technologies, including microwave-assisted, ultrasound-assisted, high-pressure, and other intensified or green extraction approaches.

Despite its simplicity and ability to preserve the native granular structure, conventional wet-milling and sedimentation has several important limitations. The process generally requires substantial quantities of water for slurry preparation and repeated washing, while prolonged sedimentation, centrifugation, and drying increase processing time and energy requirements. The presence of phenolic compounds and endogenous oxidative enzymes in avocado seed can also cause pronounced browning during milling and extraction, necessitating the use of sulfite-containing or other antioxidant extraction media. In addition, starch recovery can vary considerably depending on cultivar, particle-size reduction, extraction medium, solid-to-liquid ratio, and separation conditions. Repeated washing and separation steps may further increase wastewater generation and operational costs. These limitations become particularly relevant when processing avocado seeds at an industrial scale, where water consumption, process time, wastewater treatment, and recovery efficiency directly influence economic and environmental feasibility. Consequently, alternative extraction technologies, including microwave- and ultrasound-assisted processes, have been investigated to intensify mass transfer, reduce processing time and solvent requirements, and potentially improve starch recovery and functionality.

4.2 Emerging extraction technologies

In an attempt to overcome the limitations of conventional wet extraction, including high water consumption, prolonged processing time, and variable starch recovery, emerging extraction technologies have been investigated. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) uses microwave energy to generate rapid volumetric heating through the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with polar molecules in the extraction medium. This can enhance heat and mass transfer and facilitate disruption of the cellular matrix, thereby promoting starch release while potentially reducing extraction time and water requirements.

For avocado seed starch, the reported hydrothermal microwave-assisted process used 161 °C for 56 min, achieving a starch yield of 49.52%, compared with 39.04% obtained using conventional hot-water extraction under the corresponding experimental conditions (Skenderidis et al., 2021; Araújo et al., 2020). Thus, the improvement in recovery was associated with the application of microwave-assisted hydrothermal treatment. However, the operational conditions should be considered carefully because microwave processing can simultaneously alter the native starch structure.

In the reported microwave treatment, the extracted starch showed an amylose content comparable to that obtained by conventional extraction but exhibited structural and functional changes, including a reduction in particle size to <2 μm, increased solubility and water-binding capacity, and evidence of partial gelatinization (Macena et al., 2020; Martins et al., 2022). These changes indicate that microwave treatment should not be considered solely as an extraction-intensification step; rather, the thermal history can influence the subsequent functionality of the recovered starch.

From a processing perspective, the principal operational variables for MAE include microwave temperature, treatment time, microwave power/intensity, solid-to-liquid ratio, extraction medium, and heating profile. These parameters require optimization because excessive thermal input may promote gelatinization and disrupt the native granular architecture, whereas insufficient treatment may limit starch release. Consequently, microwave-extracted starch may be advantageous for applications requiring rapid hydration and dispersion, such as instant and ready-to-eat formulations, whereas starch recovered under conditions that better preserve native granule integrity may be preferable for applications requiring strong gel formation, film formation, and paste stability.

Despite its potential, MAE also presents scale-up challenges. Non-uniform microwave heating, temperature gradients, equipment cost, and the need for precise control of treatment intensity may complicate industrial implementation. Therefore, optimization should consider not only starch yield but also granule integrity, gelatinization behavior, pasting properties, resistant starch content, energy consumption, and water use (Figure 2).

5 Modification aspects of avocado seed starch

Native avocado seed starch exhibits a semi-crystalline structure, relatively high amylose content, and a substantial resistant-starch fraction, providing a suitable structural basis for functional modification (De Dios-Avila et al., 2022; Macena et al., 2020). Physical, chemical, enzymatic, and combined modifications can induce changes at molecular, granular, and crystalline levels, including disruption of hydrogen bonding, altered amylose–amylopectin interactions, chain mobility, crystallinity, and granule integrity. These structural alterations subsequently influence gelatinization, swelling, pasting, retrogradation, digestibility, gel strength, and film-forming properties. However, direct structural evidence for avocado seed starch remains limited for some modification approaches; therefore, experimentally demonstrated changes are distinguished from mechanisms inferred from broader starch literature.

5.1 Physical modification

Unlike traditional starch sources like corn starch, cassava starch, and potato starch, research concerning physical modifications of avocado seed starch is scarce. Current research focuses mainly on the natural characteristics of thermal and structural behavior of avocado seed starch instead of physically altering them experimentally (Martins et al., 2022).

However, based on the current knowledge regarding natural characteristics of avocado seed starch, it may be said that avocado seed starch is a viable option for hydrothermal and thermomechanical processes. It has been found that avocado seed starch possesses high crystallinity (about 56%) depending on the cultivar and process parameters and is mostly B-type or mixed A/B-type (Macena et al., 2020). High crystallinity, higher gelatinization and pasting temperatures are indicative of high intermolecular bonding and heat resistance.

In the same manner, elevated amylose level (~39%–40%) gives rise to limited granule swelling, tendency towards retrogradation, and gel formation, thus being beneficial to serve as starting materials for physicochemical techniques of:In other botanically derived starches, physical modification has been shown to improve thermal resistance, decrease breakdown viscosity, and increase the resistant starch production, thus impacting digestion by virtue of molecular reorganization among amorphous and crystalline regions (Hoover et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2009). In spite of this exciting structural profile, however, there is very limited information available on physical modification of avocado seed starch. Thus, important research gaps exist in terms of:Thus, physical modification of avocado seed starch is still a significant yet untapped area of research.

• Heat moisture treatment (HMT),
• Annealing,
• Extrusion,
• Autoclaving-cooling,
• Microwaving, and
• High pressure treatment.

• Structural modifications arising from hydrothermal treatment;
• Transitions in crystallinity upon physical modification;
• Rheological modifications resulting from thermomechanical modification;
• Digestibility modifications;
• Scalability to an industrial scale.

5.2 Chemical modifications

Chemical modifications have been explored more than other modifications among all types of modifications being studied in avocado seed starch. Chemical modification involves changing the hydroxyl groups of the starch molecule through substitution, oxidation, cross-linking, or grafting reactions.

5.2.1 Cross-linking

Cross-linking with sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) has been found to be effective in enhancing the properties of avocado seed starch through improved paste stability and gelling characteristics. According to Costa et al. (2026), cross-linking with 6% STPP for 1 h resulted in phosphate-containing starches characterized by decreased amylose and amylopectin mobility but increased swelling power, gel strength, viscosity stability, and past clarity. Crucially, formulations of cream soup made using cross-linked avocado starch were noted to be superior in terms of viscosity stability and sensory quality than those made using native avocado starch and other commercial starches. Similar results have also been obtained for phosphate cross-linked starches from maize, cassava, potato, and yam, whereby cross-linking helped to strengthen the interactions between molecules within the starch particles, thus increasing their resistance to thermal treatment, acidity, and shearing action (Paramasivam et al., 2023). Cross-linked starches normally display lower viscosity breakdown, lower syneresis, improved freeze–thaw stability, and better gel characteristics, which render them ideal for use in soups, sauces, canned foods, and retorted foods (Punia Bangar et al., 2024). Moreover, phosphate cross-linking was found to decrease swelling and leaching of amylose without impairing the water binding ability of the starch (Desam et al., 2018).

5.2.2 Acetylation

The potential use of acetylation as a method to increase freeze-thaw stability and interfacial activity has also been demonstrated. Silva et al. (2017) revealed that when acetylation is performed on starch extracted from avocado, with a DS of 0.07, the native A crystalline form changed to a C-type structure. The swelling power and solubility of acetylated starch at 55 °C–65 °C increased, and they had less syneresis, gel strength loss, and oil retaining properties.

5.2.3 Organic acid modification

Similarly, thermal properties along with morphological characteristics have been found to change when modification takes place with organic acids such as lactic acid. According to Bet et al. (2016), lactic acid treatment was found to bring about changes in crystallinity along with a reduction in thermal stability and changes in morphology from oval and rounded shapes to other forms.

5.2.4 Oxidation

The oxidation process through sodium hypochlorite results in the formation of carbonyl and carboxyl groups within starch molecules, causing depolymerization and a decrease in the crystallinity of the substance (Yánez-Romero et al., 2025). It has been found that oxidized avocado starch possesses lower gelatinization enthalpy and film-forming ability due to optimal moisture control and water-vapor permeability together with enhanced solubility in the presence of sorbitol and microcrystalline cellulose.

5.2.5 Grafting and derivative synthesis

More recent studies have focused on more sophisticated methods of chemical derivatization. According to the research carried out by Hassan et al. (2024) microwave-assisted extraction combined with acrylamide and carboxymethyl derivatizations resulted in the preparation of antioxidants with avocado starch having very little hemolytic toxicity, as well as antibacterial properties towards Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.

In a similar manner, Godoy Zúniga et al. (2024) showed that combining poly (lactic acid) (PLA) with tert-butyl acetoacetate-grafted avocado starch yielded considerable elongation at break with minimized oxygen and water vapor permeability. Moreover, enhanced ultraviolet blocking capacity of such compounds made avocado starch a suitable material for active packaging of foods.

5.3 Enzymatic modifications

Unlike chemical modification, systematic enzymatic modification of avocado seed starch remains relatively underdeveloped. Classical enzymatic treatments using α-amylase, glucoamylase, pullulanase, or isoamylase have not yet been comprehensively characterized for this starch source.

Despite this, fermentation-modification techniques have shown to be highly promising from a functional perspective. According to a recent study by Arifiyanto et al. (2023) fermentative processing through Streptomyces sp. AB8 followed by autoclaving-cooling processes considerably enhanced the resistant starch composition, encouraging the proliferation of Lactobacillus species.

Apart from applications in food products, enzymatic hydrolysis has also gained importance in producing bioethanol. As shown by Caballero-Sanchez et al. (2023), the use of dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment combined with fermentation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae was successful in converting avocado seed starch, accounting for about 60% of seed dry matter, into bioethanol at a similar efficiency as other starch sources.

This suggests that modifications through enzymatic and fermentation procedures can lead to customized digestibility, fermentation, and metabolic characteristics of avocado starch.

5.4 Dual and combined modifications

Even though systems that explicitly employ the concept of dual modification for avocado seed starch are rare, some papers have highlighted integrated methods involving both modification and composite formation.

For instance, oxidized avocado starch mixed with sorbitol and microcrystalline cellulose was utilized to enhance film moisture barrier performance, as well as solubility and water vapor permeability, thus resulting in a system of dual chemical-composite modification (Yánez-Romero et al., 2025).

Similarly, Muñoz-Gimena et al. (2024) mentioned that avocado starch nanocrystals added to starch-glycerol films resulted in doubling of their elastic modulus and reduction in water vapor permeability of about 30%, while retaining their antioxidant and compostability.

Godoy Zúniga et al. (2024) similarly showed a synergistically enhanced property profile through the use of avocado starch chemically grafted to PLA biocomposites.

All the above results demonstrate that avocado seed starch has significant potential in the field of multi-stage modifications based on nanotechnology, polymer mixing, and biomaterial synthesis. However, detailed research into synergistic processes and interaction mechanisms is limited. Hence, future investigations may focus on controlled dual modification optimization, structure-performance relations, safety assessment, and industrial applicability.

6 Application scope of avocado seed starch

These characteristics support established and emerging applications of avocado seed starch, with food uses having stronger experimental support, while pharmaceutical, textile, packaging, and other bio-based applications remain potential areas requiring further validation (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b; Wang et al., 2022).

6.1 Food applications

Of all the current avenues of application, use of avocado seed starch in the food industry is considered to be the most urgent and commercially viable. This is due to inherent thickening, gelling, stabilization, and fat-replacement properties governed by avocado seed starch.

According to rheological studies, it was found that avocado seed starch pastes have quite high peak viscosity, lower breakdown viscosity, and strong gel strength, thus displaying high stability against heat and mechanical stresses while in the processing hours (Salazar-irrazabal et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2022). These properties are of great importance for the manufacture of various foods such as soups, sauces, gravies, curry bases, retorted foods, and ready-made meals under harsh thermal conditions.

Additionally, lack of clarity in the properties of avocado starch gels could serve well in cream-containing products and non-transparent savory products to offer favorable sensory properties. Other similar applications have also been found for other high amylose starches used in complex matrices (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b; Macena et al., 2020).

Notably, a particularly significant nutritional advantage of avocado starch is the high proportion of resistant starch, which usually exceeds 60%, and even ranges between 70% and 78% in some avocado types (Wang et al., 2022). Resistant starch is known for many positive physiological impacts, such as improved postprandial blood glucose levels, enhanced insulin sensitivity, increased satiety, and altered gut microbiome through prebiotic properties (Guo et al., 2022). Thus, this type of starch might be a good candidate for preparation of functionally active low glycaemic index products.

Avocado starch addition to various bakery products, extruded snacks, meal replacements, and instant mixes seems promising, despite possible negative influence on sensory terms, even contribute to raising dietary fiber and RS content in them (Siol and Sadowska, 2023). These structural characteristics also support retrogradation behavior and film-forming performance, which may benefit selected food formulations.

Furthermore, increasing interest in clean-label ingredients and agro-industrial waste valorization has intensified research wherein avocado starch could be a sustainable alternative to chemically modified commercial starches.

6.2 Pharmaceutical applications

Even with the evolution in pharmaceutical formulations, starch continues to be among the most widely used excipients due to its ability to function as both filler, binder, disintegrant, and matrix-former in solids. The hydration properties, swelling capacity, and semi-crystalline structure of avocado seed starch indicate its potential suitability for pharmaceutical applications (Enadeghe et al., 2024).

The avocado starch granules show a quick capacity to hydrate, swell, and withstand sufficient mechanical strength when compressed, supporting the potential development of tablet formulations. Initial studies reveal that tablets made with avocado starch can possess adequate hardness, friability, and disintegration times after going through proper milling, granulation, and hydration (Johnbull et al., 2024). Furthermore, chemically and physically modified avocado starch may have potential as hydrophilic polymeric matrices for sustained or controlled drug-release systems; however, direct experimental validation of such drug-delivery systems using avocado seed starch remains limited.

The increasing demand for biodegradable, non-toxic, and renewable excipients, especially in areas where considerable quantities of avocado waste products are generated, supports further investigation of avocado seed starch as a potential pharmaceutical material (Wardiyah et al., 2021).

6.3 Textile and related applications

The textile industry traditionally employs starch-based materials for warp sizing, yarn strengthening, surface finishing, and coating applications due to their adhesive and film-forming properties (Kovačević et al., 2019). Owing to its favourable gel-forming characteristics and physicochemical properties. Avocado seed starch exhibits physicochemical characteristics comparable to conventional textile starches derived from maize, cassava, and potato sources (Aguilar and Tapia-Blácido, 2023).

Although direct textile applications involving avocado starch remain limited, studies involving other high-amylose starches provide indirect evidence suggesting potential suitability for cotton and blended-yarn sizing, improving tensile strength, abrasion resistance, weaving efficiency, and yarn cohesion (Kovačević et al., 2020). These properties could potentially advantageous in environmentally sustainable textile-processing systems seeking to reduce reliance on petroleum-derived synthetic sizing agents.

In addition to textile sizing, avocado starch may also contribute to paper–textile surface treatments by improving surface smoothness, printability, and cohesion properties (Zarski et al., 2024). Its biodegradability and renewable origin align closely with increasing industrial interest in sustainable textile additives and circular manufacturing strategies (Dewi et al., 2024).

6.4 Other miscellaneous applications

Beyond conventional food and pharmaceutical applications, avocado seed starch demonstrates potential in several emerging non-food and advanced biomaterial applications.

6.4.1 Biodegradable films and coatings

Avocado starch can be incorporated into biodegradable films either as a standalone matrix or blended with other biopolymers such as chitosan, poly (lactic acid) (PLA), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). These systems may provide desirable mechanical strength, oxygen-barrier properties, moisture regulation, and compostability suitable for sustainable food-packaging applications (Asikkutlu and Yildirim-Yalcin, 2025).

6.4.2 Adhesives and binders

The adhesive and film-forming properties of starch also permit potential utilization in wood composites, cardboard, and paperboard adhesives. Starch-based adhesives are increasingly attractive as sustainable alternatives to synthetic petrochemical binders due to their biodegradability and lower toxicity profiles (Ghasemirad et al., 2025).

6.4.3 Paper coating applications

In paper manufacturing, starch-based coatings are commonly used to improve smoothness, ink retention, printability, and surface cohesion. Avocado seed starch may provide similar functionality while contributing to sustainable paper-processing systems (Li et al., 2019).

6.4.4 Cosmetic and biomedical applications

Evidence for antioxidant, antimicrobial, ultraviolet-protective, wound-healing, and skin-conditioning properties of avocado seed-derived components provides a basis for exploring potential cosmetic and biomedical applications; however, these properties should not be interpreted as evidence of established biomedical applications of purified avocado seed starch (Charles et al., 2022). Potential applications include powders, creams, lotions, wound dressings, and active bio-based cosmetic systems.

Collectively, these diverse applications highlight the multifunctionality, biodegradability, low toxicity, and renewable origin of avocado seed starch. Such characteristics strongly align with current industrial and regulatory trends emphasizing sustainable biomaterials, waste valorization, and circular bioeconomy approaches (Sandoval-Contreras et al., 2023).

7 Nanoparticles and nano-synthesis approaches

The development of biodegradable nanomaterials and sustainable polymer systems has led to increased research attention towards starch nanoparticles derived from novel plant materials. Over the past few years, there has been growing recognition of starch nanoparticles (SNPs) as ideal renewable nanomaterials due to their properties including biodegradability, biocompatibility, low toxicity, large specific surface area, and presence of hydroxyl groups for surface modification (Merino et al., 2021; Hassan et al., 2022). Starch nanoparticles from various botanical sources have been investigated as renewable alternatives to petroleum-based nanofillers in food packaging, pharmaceutical, and biomedical systems.

Among various unconventional sources of starch, avocado (Persea americana Mill.) seed starch is becoming increasingly popular because of its semi-crystalline structure, film-forming capacity, and suitability for nanoparticle fabrication. Such inherent properties suggest that avocado seed starch could be a candidate for nanoparticle fabrication, although application-specific performance requires further experimental validation (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b; Muñoz-Gimena et al., 2024).

7.1 Production of avocado starch nanoparticles

Starch nanoparticles can generally be fabricated using top-down or bottom-up approaches; avocado-specific studies should be distinguished from these broader starch nanoparticle methods. The top-down method involves reducing the sizes of native starch granules by physical or chemical degradation, while the bottom-up approach facilitates the molecular assembly of starch molecules to create nanoparticle structures (Hassan et al., 2022).

Among the various methods available, acid hydrolysis is the most researched process for the production of starch nanocrystals. Hydrolysis selectively degrades the amorphous structure of starch granules, leaving behind the well-ordered crystalline parts, which are mainly amylopectin double helices. As a result, the produced nanocrystals have high crystallinity, smaller sizes, high surface areas, and better colloidal properties.

Mechanical methods like ultrasonication and high-pressure homogenization fracture the starch granules due to shear stress, cavitation, and collision, resulting in the formation of nanoparticles (Hassan et al., 2022). The technique of ball milling assists in physical fracturing and partial amorphization of the granular structure by mechanical impacts. Importantly, evidence from starch nanoparticles or nanocrystals produced from other botanical sources provides mechanistic context but does not constitute direct evidence for avocado seed starch

The latest studies on the production of nanocrystals of starch from avocado revealed that optimization of the process is required in order to achieve particle size reduction along with maintaining the desired functional properties of the granule, including crystallinity, film-forming ability, thermal stability, and biodegradability (Muñoz-Gimena et al., 2024).

From the structural point of view, the transformation of starch granules to nanoparticles leads to alterations in the following features of the granule structure: surface morphology, crystallinity, molecular organization, hydration, rheological properties, and digestibility.

These modifications may influence the potential applicability of avocado-derived SNPs in packaging, pharmaceutical, and biomedical systems.

7.2 Nanocomposites and bioplastics

One of the most promising applications of avocado-derived SNPs involves their incorporation into biodegradable polymer matrices for the development of nanocomposite materials and bioplastics. SNPs can function as reinforcing nanofillers within polymer systems such as: polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), poly (lactic acid) (PLA), chitosan, gelatin, and starch–glycerol matrices.

The nanoscale dimensions and high surface activity of SNPs enhance interfacial adhesion between filler and polymer matrix while generating tortuous diffusion pathways that reduce moisture and gas permeability (Troncoso and Torres, 2020; Wang and Zhang, 2021; Muñoz-Gimena et al., 2024).

Studies using starch nanocrystals from different botanical sources have reported improvements in tensile strength, elastic modulus, flexibility, oxygen-barrier properties, water-vapor resistance, thermal stability, and structural integrity.

Muñoz-Gimena et al. (2024) reported that incorporation of approximately 1% of avocado starch nanocrystals into starch–glycerol films nearly doubled elastic modulus while decreasing water-vapor permeability by approximately 30% without compromising antioxidant functionality or compostability.

The use of SNPs derived from avocado-processing waste is particularly attractive from a circular bioeconomy perspective because it enables simultaneous agro-industrial residue valorization and production of high-value biodegradable materials. Such systems may offer cost-effective alternatives to petroleum-based nanofillers for active food packaging and environmentally sustainable bioplastic applications.

Furthermore, nanostructured avocado starch composites may have potential for incorporation of antimicrobial compounds, antioxidants, or bioactive molecules in active and intelligent packaging systems, although application-specific validation remains necessary.

7.3 Biomedical and drug delivery prospects

Due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, low cytotoxicity, and enzymatic degradability, starch nanoparticles have attracted substantial interest for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. Although direct biomedical investigations involving avocado-derived SNPs remain limited, evidence from starch nanoparticles derived from other botanical sources suggests potential applications in drug delivery, imaging systems, wound dressings, tissue engineering, and hydrogel scaffolds (Yu et al., 2021).

Despite these promising prospects, several critical challenges remain. At present, direct evidence regarding the in vivo toxicology, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, immunogenicity, biodegradation pathways, and long-term safety of avocado-derived starch nanoparticles remains limited. Consequently, systematic ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) studies, nanotoxicological assessment, and regulatory evaluation are essential before biomedical commercialisation can be considered (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b).

Avocado-derived SNPs possess abundant hydroxyl groups that facilitate chemical functionalization and conjugation with targeting ligands, antimicrobial molecules, proteins, peptides, and therapeutic compounds. Such surface modification may enable development of smart nanocarriers capable of controlled or sustained drug release through combined diffusion, swelling, enzymatic degradation, and matrix erosion mechanisms.

Furthermore, incorporation of avocado SNPs into hydrogels, electrospun nanofibres, and three-dimensional scaffolds may improve water retention, mechanical strength, cellular adhesion, and localized delivery of bioactive molecules. These characteristics suggest potential for regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, and scaffold-based applications, but their suitability for avocado-derived SNPs requires direct experimental validation.

Despite these promising prospects, important translational challenges remain. Currently, there is limited information regarding in vivo toxicology, toxicokinetics, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, immunogenicity, and long-term biodegradation behavior of avocado-derived SNPs. Therefore, systematic nanotoxicological evaluation and ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) studies are essential before a clinical or commercial biomedical application can be realistically considered (Bangar et al., 2022a; Bangar et al., 2022b). Future research should also investigate: nanoparticle stability under physiological conditions, scalability of nanoparticle production, regulatory compliance, and interactions between avocado SNPs and biological systems.

Collectively, avocado seed starch nanoparticles represent a promising platform for sustainable nanomaterials, with potential applications in packaging, food technology, and biomedicine that require further application-specific validation.

The applications summarized in Table 4 demonstrate that the functional performance of avocado seed starch nanomaterials depends strongly on the fabrication strategy and the intended application. Acid hydrolysis, ultrasonication, ball milling, and composite processing generate materials with different structural characteristics and consequently different performance outcomes, including improved mechanical strength, reduced water-vapour permeability, biocompatibility, and UV-barrier activity. These differences arise from variations in particle formation, molecular organization, processing conditions, and interactions between the starch nanoparticles and the surrounding matrix. These findings indicate potential extensions of avocado seed starch into biodegradable packaging, drug-delivery systems, and bioplastic production; however, the level of experimental validation differs among these applications. Compared with conventional petroleum-derived nanofillers, starch-based nanoparticles offer the additional advantage of being derived from a renewable agro-industrial residue; however, their industrial translation remains dependent on reproducible particle-size control, scalable production, and systematic safety and performance validation.

Table 4. Recent nanotechnology-based applications and evidence relevant to avocado seed starch (2021–2025).

8 Future prospects

The major research gaps identified in the literature include limited standardization of extraction and characterization across cultivars, insufficient systematic investigation of physical and enzymatic modification strategies, limited avocado-specific validation of emerging applications, and insufficient pilot-scale, safety, regulatory, techno-economic, and life-cycle evidence. Future research should therefore focus on scaling laboratory successes through energy- and water-efficient industrial extraction methodologies across diverse cultivars. Particular attention should be given to physical and enzymatic modification strategies, which remain comparatively underexplored and require systematic evaluation of their effects on starch structure, functionality, digestibility, and processing performance. In vivo validation of health benefits and rigorous toxicological assessments are necessary to address regulatory requirements for food and pharmaceutical applications. Furthermore, the safety, biodegradation, and performance of starch-based nanomaterials require validation under realistic conditions before wider application. Ultimately, integration into a circular bioeconomy will require interdisciplinary research supported by techno-economic and life-cycle assessments (LCA).

LCA should compare conventional and emerging extraction routes by considering water and energy consumption, chemical inputs, drying requirements, waste generation, and downstream processing. Such assessment is particularly important for determining whether starch recovery from avocado seed waste provides a genuine environmental advantage over conventional starch production. Future studies should therefore establish standardized system boundaries and functional units and evaluate environmental impacts alongside starch yield, purity, and functional performance.

Commercialization should progress through standardized feedstock and extraction, pilot-scale validation, application-specific product development, safety and regulatory assessment, and techno-economic and life-cycle evaluation, with priority initially given to applications supported by stronger avocado-specific evidence.Industrial scalability will depend on maintaining consistent starch yield and purity across variable avocado seed feedstocks while controlling water, energy, chemical, and drying requirements. Scale-up should also consider process integration, equipment compatibility, waste-stream management, process control, and recovery efficiency. Pilot-scale trials are therefore needed to determine whether laboratory extraction conditions can be translated into reproducible and economically viable industrial processing.

From a technology-readiness perspective, avocado seed starch applications currently span early laboratory validation to emerging pilot-scale potential. Extraction, food formulations, and starch-based films represent the comparatively more advanced areas, whereas pharmaceutical, textile, nanotechnology, and biomedical applications remain at earlier stages because of limited avocado-specific validation, safety assessment, scale-up studies, and regulatory evidence. Progress toward higher technology readiness will require reproducible pilot-scale processing, application-specific performance validation, safety and regulatory assessment, and techno-economic and life-cycle evaluation. Overall, most avocado seed starch technologies can currently be considered within the early laboratory-to-validation stages of the TRL framework rather than at commercial readiness.

Patent activity specifically related to avocado seed starch remains limited, indicating an emerging area for value-added utilization. Market opportunities appear strongest in food ingredients, biodegradable packaging, and bio-based materials. However, feedstock variability, process standardization, cost competitiveness, regulatory requirements, and limited industrial validation remain key barriers to commercialization. Consumer acceptance should also be considered for food and food-contact applications, particularly because avocado seed starch is derived from an agro-industrial residue. Consumer perceptions of safety, functionality, sustainability, and waste-derived ingredients may influence market adoption. Techno-economic analysis should further evaluate capital and operating costs, feedstock logistics, energy and water requirements, starch yield, and product value at commercial scale.

8.1 SWOT analysis of avocado seed starch

Based on the evidence reviewed above, a SWOT analysis was developed to summarize the major strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with avocado seed starch and its potential industrial translation (Table 5).

Table 5. SWOT analysis of avocado seed starch for sustainable and industrial applications.

The SWOT analysis indicates that avocado seed starch combines favourable functional properties with the sustainability advantage of valorizing an agro-industrial residue. However, cultivar variability, limited process standardization, and insufficient validation of several emerging applications remain important constraints. Green extraction, functional foods, biodegradable materials, and other value-added applications provide significant opportunities, while competition from established starches, scale-up challenges, regulatory requirements, and limited techno-economic and life-cycle evidence may hinder commercialization (Tesfaye et al., 2020).

9 Conclusion

Avocado seed starch demonstrates clear advances toward industrial relevance, including elevated apparent amylose and resistant-starch content, favourable thermal and functional properties, feasible extraction via both conventional wet milling and green-extraction methods, and chemical, enzymatic, and composite modifications that have already enabled demonstrated food and biodegradable-film applications, with early evidence pointing toward pharmaceutical, nanomaterial, and packaging uses. Key gaps remain, however, including the absence of standardized extraction and characterization protocols across cultivars, limited exploration of physical and enzymatic modification strategies relative to chemical approaches, insufficient avocado-specific safety, in vivo, and toxicological data for emerging pharmaceutical, textile, and nanotechnology applications, and a lack of techno-economic and life-cycle evidence needed to assess genuine industrial viability. Addressing these gaps should be prioritized through standardizing extraction and characterization protocols across cultivars, systematically evaluating physical and enzymatic modifications, generating in vivo and toxicological data to support regulatory approval, and conducting pilot-scale, techno-economic, and life-cycle assessments; if achieved, avocado seed starch is well positioned for near-term industrial impact in food ingredients and biodegradable packaging, with longer-term potential in pharmaceutical and nanomaterial applications, provided cost-competitive and standardized processing can overcome competition from established starch sources such as maize, cassava, potato, and wheat.

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Footnotes

Edited by: Miguel Ángel Aguilar González, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute Saltillo Unit, Mexico

Reviewed by: Salman Ahmed, University of Karachi, Pakistan

Jennifer P. Pinto, Indian Institute of Packaging, India